CLASS – 11

PHYSICS

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 Wave Motion Page 1 of 29

Wave motion
Wave motion is a kind of disturbance which travels through a medium due to repeated
vibrations of the particles of the medium about their mean positions, the disturbance
being handed over from one particle to the next.
In a wave, both information and energy propagate (in the form of signals) from one point to
another but there is no motion of matter as a whole through a medium.

If we drop a pebble into a pond of still water, a circular pattern of alternate crests and troughs
spreads out from the point where the pebble strikes the water surface. The kinetic energy of
the pebble makes the particles oscillate which come in contact with it. These particles, in
turn, transfer energy to the particles of next layer which also begin to oscillate. Energy is
further transferred to the particles of next layer which also begin to oscillate and so on. In this
way energy is transferred from one point to another. Further, if we throw a piece of paper or a
cork on the water surface, it is found to oscillate up and down about the mean position and
does not move forward with the wave.
This shows that it is the disturbance or the wave which travels forward and not the particles
of the medium.

Characteristics of wave motion [Imp.]

Some of the important characteristics of wave motion are as follows:
(i) In a wave motion, the disturbance travels through the medium due to repeated periodic
oscillations of the particles of the medium about their mean positions.
(ii) The energy is transferred from one place to another without any actual transfer of the
particles of the medium.
(iii) Each particle receives disturbance a little later than its preceding particle i.e., there is a
regular phase difference between one particle and the next.
(iv) The velocity with which a wave travels is different from the velocity of the particles
with which they vibrate about their mean positions.
(v) The wave velocity remains constant in a given medium while the particle velocity
changes continuously during its, vibration about the mean position. It is maximum at
the mean position and zero at the extreme position.
(vi) For the propagation of a mechanical wave, the medium must possess the properties of
inertia, elasticity and minimum friction amongst its particles.

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 Wave Motion Page 2 of 29
Types of wave motion
Transverse waves
These are the waves in which the individual particles of the medium oscillate
perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation.
As shown in Figure. (a), consider a horizontal string with its one end fixed to a rigid support
and other end held in the hand. If we give its free end a smart upward jerk, an upward kink or
pulse is created there which travels along the string towards the fixed end. Each part of the
string successively undergoes a disturbance about its mean position.
As shown in Figure (b), if we continuously give up and down jerks to the free end of the
string, a number of sinusoidal waves begin to travel along the string.

Figure: (a) A single pulse, (b) A sinusoidal wave sent along a stretched string.
Each part of the string vibrates up and down while the wave travels along the string. So the
waves in the string are transverse in nature.
The points (C, C, ..... ) of maximum displacement in the upward direction are called crests.
The points (T, T, ..... ) of maximum displacement in the downward direction are called
troughs. One crest and one trough together form one wave.

Longitudinal waves
These are the waves in which the individual particles of the medium oscillate along the
direction of wave propagation.
As shown in Figure consider a long hollow cylinder AB closed at one end and having a
movable piston at the other end. If we suddenly move the piston rapidly towards right, a
small layer of air just near the piston-head is compressed and after being compressed, this
layer moves towards right and compresses the next layer and soon the compression reaches
the other end. Now if the piston is suddenly moves towards left, the layer adjacent to it is
rarefied resulting in the fall of pressure. The air from the next layer moves in to restore
pressure. Consequently the next layer is rarefied. In this way a pulse of rarefaction moves
towards right.

If we continuously push and pull the piston in a simple harmonic manner, a sinusoidal sound
wave travels along the cylinder in the form of alternate compressions and rarefactions,
marked C, R, C, R, etc. As the oscillations of an element of air are parallel to direction of
wave propagation, the wave is a longitudinal wave. Hence sound waves produced in air are
longitudinal waves.

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 Wave Motion Page 3 of 29
Wavelength
It is the distance covered by a wave during the time in which a particle of the medium
completes one vibration to and fro about its mean position. Or, it is the distance
between two nearest particles of the medium which are vibrating in the same phase. It is
denoted by A.

In a transverse wave, the distance between two successive crests or troughs is equal to the
wavelength A, as shown in Fig. In a longitudinal wave, the distance between the centres of
two nearest compressions or rarefactions is equal to wavelength A.
Relation between wave velocity, frequency and wavelength
We know that when a particle of the medium completes one oscillation about its mean
position in periodic time T, the wave travels a distance equal to its wavelength A. Therefore,
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
Wave velocity = 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝜆
Or 𝑣=𝑇
Or 𝑣=v𝜆 [∵ v = 1/T]
i.e., Wave velocity = Frequency × Wavelength
SPEED OF TRANSVERSE WAVES
Speed of a transverse wave on a stretched string
The wave velocity through a medium depends on its inertial and elastic properties. So the
speed of transverse wave through a stretched string is determined by two factors:
(i) Tension T in the string is a measure of elasticity in the string. Without tension no
disturbance can propagate in the string.
(ii) Mass per unit length or linear mass density m of the string so that the string can store
kinetic energy.
Hence, the speed of transverse waves on a stretched string is given by

𝑇
𝑣=�
𝑚
Clearly, the speed of a transverse wave along a stretched string depends only on the
tension T and linear mass density m of the string. It does not depend on the frequency
of the wave. The frequency of a wave depends on the source generating that wave.

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 Wave Motion Page 4 of 29
SPEED OF LONGITUDINAL WAVE
(a) Speed of a longitudinal wave in a liquid or gas
Speed of a longitudinal wave through a fluid is determined by two factors:
(i) The volume elasticity or bulk modulus K of the fluid.
(ii) The density of the fluid which determines its inertia.
Hence the speed of a longitudinal wave in any fluid (liquid or gas) is given by
𝜅
𝑣=�
𝜌
Clearly, the speed of a longitudinal wave through a fluid depends only on its bulk
modulus K and density p.
(b) Speed of a longitudinal wave in a solid rod
Speed of a longitudinal wave through a solid rod of Young's modulus Y and density p is given
by
𝛾
𝑣 = �𝜌 .

Factors affecting the speed of sound in a gas

The factors such as density of a gas, its pressure, temperature, presence of moisture, etc.,
affect the speed of sound in a gaseous medium.
(i) Effect of pressure
The speed of sound in a gas is given by the Laplace formula,
𝛾𝑃
𝑣 = �𝜌.

At constant temperature,
PV = constant
𝑃𝑚 𝑚 𝑚 𝑚
Or 𝜌
= constant [∵ 𝜌
= 𝑉
or V = 𝜌
]
𝑃
i.e., when pressure changes, density also changes in the same ratio so that the factor 𝜌
remains unchanged. Hence pressure has no effect on the speed of sound in a gas.
(ii) Effect of density
Suppose two gases have the same pressure P and same value of y (both are either
monoatomic, diatomic or triatomic). If 𝜌1 and 𝜌2 are the densities of the two gases, then the
speeds of sound m them will be
𝛾𝑃 𝛾𝑃
𝑣1 = � 𝜌 and 𝑣2 = � 𝜌
1 2

𝑣1 𝜌
∴ = �𝜌2
𝑣2 1

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 Wave Motion Page 5 of 29
Hence at constant pressure, the speed of sound in a gas is inversely proportional to the
square root of its density. For example, the density of oxygen is 16 times the density of
hydrogen.
𝑣𝐻 𝜌 16𝜌𝐻
∴ = �𝜌 𝑂 = � =4
𝑣𝑂 𝐻 𝜌𝐻

Or 𝑣𝐻 = 4𝑉𝑂

i.e., the speed of sound in hydrogen is four times the speed of sound in oxygen.

(iii) Effect of humidity

The speed of sound in air is given by

𝑣 = �𝛾𝑃𝜌 i.e., 𝑣 ∝
1
�𝜌

As the density of water vapour (0.8 kgm-3 at STP) is less than that of dry air (1.293 kgm-3 at
STP), so the presence of moisture in air decreases the density of air.
Since, the speed of sound is inversely proportional to the square root of density, so sound
travels faster in moist air than in dry air.
(iv) Effect of temperature
For one mole of a gas, PV = RT. If M is the molecular mass of the gas and 𝜌 its density, then
𝑀 𝑀
ρ = 𝑉. or V = 𝜌

∴ 𝑃𝑀
𝜌
= RT or
𝑃
𝜌
=
𝑅𝑇
𝑀

∴ 𝑣 = �𝛾 𝑀𝑅𝑇
Clearly, 𝑣 ∝ √𝑇
Hence, the speed of sound in a gas is directly proportional to the square root of its
absolute temperature.
Note:- The velocity of sound in air increases by 61 cm s-1 for every 1oC rise of temperature.
This is known as temperature coefficient for sound in air.
(v) Effect of wind
As the sound is carried by air, so its velocity is affected by the wind velocity. Suppose the
wind travels with velocity w at angle θ with direction of propagation of sound, as shown in
Figure.

Clearly, the component of wind velocity in the direction of sound is w cos θ.

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 Wave Motion Page 6 of 29
:. Resultant velocity of sound = v + w cos θ
When the wind blows in the direction of sound (θ = 0°), resultant velocity = v + w.
When the wind blows in the opposite direction of sound (θ = 180°), resultant velocity = v - w.
(vi) Effect of frequency
The speed of sound in air is independent of its frequency. Sound waves of different
frequencies travel with the same speed in air, though their wavelengths in air are different. If
the speed of sound were dependent on the frequency, we could not have enjoyed orchestra.

Newton's formula for the speed of sound in a gas 3 marks

Newton gave the first theoretical expression for the speed of sound in a gas. He assumed that
sound waves travel through a gas under isothermal conditions. He argued that the small
amount of heat produced in a compression is rapidly conducted to the surrounding
rarefactions where slight cooling is produced. Thus the temperature of gas remains constant.
If Kiso is the isothermal volume elasticity (bulk modulus of the gas at constant temperature),
then the speed of sound in the gas will be
�𝑘𝑖𝑠𝑜
𝑣=
𝜌
For an isothermal change,
PV = constant (Boyle’s law)
Differentiating both sides, we get
P dV + VdP = 0
Or PdV = - V dP
𝑉𝑑𝑃 𝑑𝑃
Or P=- 𝑑𝑉
=− 𝑑𝑉/𝑉
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
= 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 = kiso
𝑃
Hence the Newton's formula for the speed of sound in a gas is 𝑣 = �𝜌 .

At STP, P = 0.76 m of Hg = 0.76 × 13.6 × 103 × 9.8

= 1.013 × 105 Nm-2
ρ = Density of air = 1.293 kg m-3
∴ Speed of sound in air at STP,
1.013 × 105
𝑣=� 1.293
⋍ 280ms-1.

This value is about 15% less than the experimental value (331 ms-1) of the speed of sound in
air at STP. Hence Newton's formula is not acceptable.

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 Wave Motion Page 7 of 29
Laplace's correction
In 1816, the French scientist Laplace pointed out that sound travels through a gas under
adiabatic conditions not under isothermal conditions (as suggested by Newton). This is
because of the following reasons:
(i) As sound travels through a gas, temperature rises in the regions of compressions and falls in
the regions of rarefactions.
(ii) A gas is a poor conductor of heat.
(iii) The compressions and rarefactions are formed so rapidly that the heat generated in the
regions of compressions does not get time to pass into the regions of rarefactions so as to
equalise the temperature.
So when sound travels through a gas, the temperature does not remain constant. The pressure
volume variations ate adiabatic. If Kadia is the adiabatic bulk modulus of the gas, then the
formula for the speed of sound in the gas would be

𝐾𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎
𝑣=� 𝜌

For an adiabatic change, P𝑉 𝛾 = constant

Differentiating both sides, we get

P(γVγ-1) dV + Vγ dP = 0

Or γ PdV + VdP = 0
𝑑𝑃
γ P = - 𝑑𝑉/𝑉 = Kadia

where γ = 𝐶𝑝 / 𝐶𝑣 , is the ratio of two specific heats.

Hence the Laplace formula for the speed of sound in a gas is

γ𝑃
𝑣=�
𝜌

This modification of Newton's formula is known as Laplace correction.

For air y = 7 I 5, so speed of sound in air at STP will be
𝑃 7
𝑣 = √𝛾 �𝜌 = �5 × 280 = 331.3 ms-1

This value is in close agreement with the experimental value. Hence the Laplace correction is
justified.

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 Wave Motion Page 8 of 29
Progressive wave
A wave that travels from one point of the medium to another is called a progressive
wave. A progressive wave may be transverse or longitudinal.
Plane progressive harmonic wave
If during the propagation of a wave through a medium, the particles of the medium
vibrate simple harmonically about their mean positions, then the wave is said to be
plane progressive harmonic wave. In a harmonic progressive wave of given frequency, all
particles have same amplitude but the phase of oscillation changes from one particle to or
the next.
Displacement relation for a progressive harmonic wave
Suppose a simple harmonic wave starts from the origin O and travels along the positive
direction of X-axis with speed v. Let the time be measured from the instant when the particle
at the origin O is passing through the mean position. Taking the initial phase of the particle to
be zero, the displacement of the particle at the origin O (x = 0) at any instant t is given by
y (0, t) = A sin ωt . .. (1)
where T is the periodic time and A the amplitude of the wave.

The displacement of the particle at P at any time t

𝑦 (𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥) . . . (1)
This equation represents a harmonic wave travelling along the positive direction of the X-
axis. It can also be written in the following form:
2𝜋
y (𝓍, 𝑡) = A sin 𝜆
(𝑣𝑡 − 𝓍) …(2)
If the initial phase of the particle at t = 0 is 𝜙𝑜 , then the equation of wave motion will be

A harmonic wave travelling along negative direction of X-axis can be written as

𝑦(𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡 + 𝑘𝑥 + 𝜙𝑜 )
Phase change with position
The phase difference ∆𝜙, at any instant of time t, between two particles separated by distance
∆x is given by
2𝜋
∆𝜙 = Δ𝑥
𝜆

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 Wave Motion Page 9 of 29
PARTICLE VELOCITY
The particle velocity V is different from the wave velocity v. It is the velocity with which
the particles of the medium vibrate about their mean positions.
The displacement relation for a harmonic wave travelling along positive X-direction is
𝑦 (𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥) . . . (1)
Differentiating (1) w.r.t. time t, and taking x constant, we get the particle velocity
𝑑𝑦
V= 𝑑𝑡
= 𝜔𝐴 cos(𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥) ...(2)

Or V = 𝜔A sin [(𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥) + 𝜋/2] …(3)

It may be noted that

(i) While the wave velocity (v = ωA.) remains constant, the particle velocity changes simple
harmonically with time.
𝜋
(ii) The particle velocity is ahead of displacement in phase by 2 radian.
(iii) If we differentiate equation (1) w.r.t. position x, we get
𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑥
= − 𝑘 𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥) ...(4)

From equations (2) and (4), we get

𝑉 𝜔𝐴 cos (𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥)
𝑑𝑦/𝑑𝑥
= − 𝑘𝐴 cos (𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥)

𝜔 2𝜋𝑣 𝑑𝑦
= − 𝑘
= − 2 𝜋/𝜆 = −𝑣 𝑜𝑟 𝑉 = −𝑣 𝑑𝑥 .

:. Particle velocity at a point = – Wave velocity × slope of displacement curve at that

point.
REFLECTION OF A WAVE FROM A RIGID BOUNDARY
As shown in Fig. considers a wave pulse travelling along a string (rarer medium) attached to
a rigid support, such as a wall (denser medium). As the pulse reaches the wall, it exerts an
upward force on the wall. By Newton's third law, the wall exerts an equal downward force on
the string. This produces a reflected pulse in the downward direction, which travels in the
reverse direction. Thus a crest is reflected as a trough.
Hence when a travelling wave is reflected from a rigid boundary, it is reflected back
with a phase reversal or phase difference of 𝛑 radians.

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 Wave Motion Page 10 of 29
REFRACTION OF A WAVE
Consider a combination of a thinner string A and a thicker string B kept under same tension.
T
As v = �m , so a wave pulse travels faster on a thin string than that on a thick string i.e., the
thinner string A acts as rarer medium while the thicker string B acts as denser medium.
When a wave pulse travels from thinner string to the thicker string, it is partly reflected and
partly refracted at the interface. The reflected pulse travels faster while the refracted pulse
travels slower Also, the reflected pulse suffers a phase change of 180° while the refracted
pulse does not suffer any phase change. [Figure (a)]

When a pulse of crest travels from the thicker to the thinner string, both the transmitted and
reflected pulses travel as crest i.e., they do not suffer any phase change. [Figure (b)]

Hence a wave suffers no phase change during its refraction from one medium to another.
PRINCIPLE OF SUPERPOSITION OF WAVES
When one wave reaches a particle of the medium, the particle suffers one displacement.
When two waves simultaneously cross this particle, it suffers two displacements, one due to
each wave. The resultant displacement of the particle is equal to the algebraic sum of the
individual displacements given to it by the two waves. This is the principle of superposition
of waves.
The principle of superposition of waves states that when a number of waves travel through a
medium simultaneously, the resultant displacement of any particle of the medium at any
given time is equal to the algebraic sum of the displacements due to the individual waves.

The superposition of two waves may lead to following three different effects:
(i) When two waves of the same frequency moving with the same speed in the same direction in
a medium superpose on each other, they give rise to effect called interference of waves.
(ii) When two waves of same frequency moving with the same speed in the opposite directions in
a, medium superpose on each other, they produce stationary waves.
(iii) When two waves of slightly different frequencies moving with the same speed in the same
direction in a medium superpose on each other, they produce beats.

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 Wave Motion Page 11 of 29
Stationary waves
When two identical waves of same amplitude and frequency travelling in opposite
directions with the same speed along the same path superpose each other, the resultant
wave does not travel in the either direction and is called stationary or standing wave.
The resultant wave keeps on repeating itself in the same fixed position. Some particles of the
medium remain permanently at rest i.e, they have zero displacement. Their positions are
called nodes. Some other particles ·always suffer maximum displacement.
Their positions are called antinodes. The positions of nodes and antinodes do not change
with time. That is why, such waves are called stationary or standing waves, to distinguish
them from progressive or travelling waves which travel through the medium with a definite
speed v. In such waves, there is no transfer of energy along the medium in either direction.

Necessary condition for the formation of stationary waves

A stationary wave cannot be formed from two independent waves travelling in a medium in
opposite directions. In actual practice a stationary wave is produced when a progressive wave
and its reflected wave are superposed. Hence a stationary wave can be produced only in a
finite medium which has its boundaries, for example, a string of finite length or a rod, or a
column of liquid or gas. The wave reflected from the boundary is of the same kind as the
incident wave. The incident and reflected waves superpose' each other continuously, giving
rise to stationary waves.

Types of stationary waves:

(i) Transverse stationary waves –
When two identical, transverse waves travelling in opposite directions overlap, a transverse
stationary wave is formed.
For example, transverse stationary waves are formed in a sonometer.
(ii) Longitudinal stationary waves –
When two identical longitudinal waves travelling in opposite directions overlap, a
longitudinal stationary wave is formed.
For example, longitudinal stationary waves are formed in a resonance apparatus, organ pipes.

Analytical treatment of stationary waves

Consider or two sinusoidal waves of equal amplitude and frequency travelling along a long
string in opposite directions. The wave travelling along positive X-direction can be
represented as

𝑦1 = 𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥)

The wave travelling along negative X -direction can be represented as

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 Wave Motion Page 12 of 29

𝑦2 = 𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝜔𝑡 + 𝑘𝑥)

According to the principle of superposition, the resultant wave is given by

𝑦 = 𝑦1 + 𝑦2

= 𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥) + 𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥)

= 2 𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑘𝑥
[∵ sin (𝐴 + 𝐵) + sin(𝐴 − 𝐵) = 2 sin 𝐴 cos 𝐵]

Or y = (2 A cos k𝑥) sin 𝜔𝑡

2𝜋
𝑦 = �2𝐴 cos 𝜆
𝑥 � sin 𝜔𝑡

This equation represents a stationary wave. It cannot represent a progressive wave because
the argument of any of its trigonometric functions does not contain the combination
(𝜔𝑡 ± 𝑘𝑥). The stationary wave has the same angular frequency 𝜔 but has amplitude

𝐴′ = 2 𝐴 cos 𝑘𝑥

Obviously in case of a stationary wave, the amplitude of oscillation is not same for all the
particles. It varies harmonically with the location x of the particle.

Characteristics of stationary waves

(i) In a stationary wave, the disturbance does not advance forward. The conditions of crests and
troughs merely appear and disappear in fixed positions to be followed by opposite conditions
after every half the time period.
(ii) All particles of the medium, except those at nodes, execute simple harmonic motions with the
same time period about their mean positions.
(iii) During the formation of a stationary wave, the medium is broken into loops or segments
between equally spaced points called nodes which remain permanently at rest and midway
between them are points called antinodes where the displacement amplitude is maximum.
𝜆
(iv) The distance between two successive nodes or antinodes is 2.

(v) The amplitudes of the particles are different at different points. The amplitude varies
gradually from zero at the nodes to the maximum at the anti nodes.
(vi) The maximum velocity is different at different points. Its value is zero at the nodes and
progressively increases towards the antinode. All the particles attain their maximum
velocities simultaneously when they pass through their mean positions.

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 Wave Motion Page 13 of 29
(vii) All the particles in a particular segment between two nodes vibrate in the same phase but the
particles in two neighbouring segments vibrate in opposite phases, as shown in Fig.

(viii) Twice in each cycle, the energy becomes alternately wholly potential and wholly kinetic. It is
wholly kinetic when the particles are at their positions of maximum displacements and
wholly kinetic when the particles pass through their mean positions.
(ix) There is no transference of energy across any section of the medium because no energy can
flow past a nodal point which remains permanently at rest.
(x) A stationary wave has the same wavelength and time period as the two component waves.

Comparison Between Stationary And Progressive Waves

Progressive waves Stationary waves
(i) The disturbance travels forward with a (iii) The disturbance remains confined to
definite velocity. the region where it is produced.
(ii) Each particle of the medium executes (iv) Except nodes, all particles of the
SHM about its mean position with the medium execute SHM with varying
same amplitude. amplitude.

Stationary waves in a string fixed at both the ends

Consider a uniform string of length L stretched by a tension T along the x-axis, with its ends
rigidly fixed at the end x = 0 and x = L Suppose a transverse wave produced in the string
travels along the string along positive x-direction and gets reflected at the fixed end x = L.
The two waves can be represented as
𝑦1 = 𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( 𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥), 𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝑦2 = − 𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡 + 𝑘𝑥)
The negative sign before A is due to phase reversal
of the reflected wave at the fixed end. By the
principle of superposition, the resultant wave is
given by
y = y1 + y2 = - A [sin (𝜔𝑡 + 𝑘𝑥) – sin (𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥)]
= −2 𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑥
[sin ( A + B) – sin ( A – B) = 2 cos A sin B]
𝑦 = −2𝐴 sin 𝑘𝑥 cos 𝜔𝑡 … . . (1)
If stationary waves are formed, then the ends x = 0 and x = L must be nodes because they are
kept fixed.

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 Wave Motion Page 14 of 29
So, we have the boundary conditions:
𝑦 = 𝑂 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 𝑂 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑡
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 = 0 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 𝐿 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑡
The first boundary condition (y = 0, x = 0) is satisfied automatically by equation (1). The
second boundary condition (y =0, x = L) will be satisfied if
𝑦 = −2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝐿 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑡 = 0
This will be true for all values of t only if sin 𝑘𝐿 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑘𝐿 = 𝑛𝜋, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑛 = 1,2,3, . ..
2𝜋𝐿
= 𝑛𝜋
𝜆
For each value of n, there is a corresponding value of 𝜆 so we can write
2𝜋𝐿 2𝐿
= 𝑛𝜋 𝑜𝑟 𝜆𝑛 =
𝜆𝑛 𝑛
The speed of transverse wave on a string of linear mass density m is given by

T
𝑣 = �m

So the frequency of vibration of the string is

𝑣 𝑛 T
vn = 𝜆 = 2 𝐿 �m
𝑛

1 T
For n = l, v1= 2 𝐿 �m = v (say)

This is the lowest frequency with which the string can vibrate and is called fundamental
frequency or first harmonic.

2 T
For n = 2, v2 = 2 𝐿 �m = 2v

(First overtone or second harmonic)

3 T
For n = 3, v3 = 2 𝐿 �m = 3v

(Second overtone or third harmonic)

4 T
For n = 4, v4 = 2 𝐿 �m = 4v

(Third overtone or fourth harmonic)

Thus the various frequencies are in the ratio 1 : 2 : 3 : .. : and hence form a ·harmonic series.
These frequencies are called harmonics with the fundamental itself as the first harmonic. The
higher harmonic are called overtones. Thus second harmonic is first overtone; third harmonic
is second overtone and so on. These are shown in Figure.

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Nodes: These are the position of zero amplitude. In nth mode of vibration, there are (n + 1)
nodes; which are located from one end at distances
𝐿 2𝐿
𝑥 = 0, 𝑛 , 𝑛
,….,L

Antinodes: These are positions of maximum amplitude. In the nth mode of vibration, there
are n antinodes, which are located at distances
𝐿 3𝐿 5𝐿 (2 𝑛−1)𝐿
𝑥 = 2 𝑛 , 2 𝑛 , 2 𝑛 ,……, 2𝑛

Stationary waves in an open organ pipe

Consider a cylindrical pipe of length L lying along the x-axis, with its open ends at x = 0 and
x = L The sound wave travelling along the pipe may be represented as
𝑦1 = 𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥)
The wave reflected from right open end may be represented as
𝑦2 = 𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝜔𝑡 + 𝑘𝑥)
There is no phase reversal on reflection from the open end because it is a free or loose
boundary. So the sign of A in the reflected wave is same as that in the incident wave.
By the principle of superposition, the resultant stationary wave is given by
𝑌 = 𝑦1 + 𝑦2 = 𝐴 [𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥) + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝜔𝑡 + 𝑘𝑥)]
= 2 𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑘𝑥 = (2 𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑘𝑥)𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡

For all values of t, the resultant displacement is

maximum (+ve or – ve) or antinodes are formed at the
open ends i.e., at x =0 and x = L. This condition is
satisfied if
cos kL = ± 1 or KL = n𝜋,
where n = 1,2,3,…….
2𝜋 2 𝐿
Or 𝜆
𝐿 = n𝜋 or 𝜆n = 𝜆
The frequency of vibration is given by
𝑣 𝑛𝑣 𝑛 𝛾𝑃
vn = 𝜆 = 2𝐿
= 2𝐿 � 𝜌
𝑛

1 𝛾𝑃
For n = 1, v1 = 2 𝐿 � 𝜌 = v (say)

This is the smallest frequency of the stationary waves produced in the open pipe. It is called
fundamental frequency or first harmonic.
2𝑣
For n = 2, 𝜈2 = = 2𝜈 (First overtone or second harmonic)
2𝐿
3𝑣
For n =3, 𝜈3 = = 3𝜈 (Second overtone or third harmonic)
2𝐿
and so on. The various modes of vibration of an open pipe are shown in Fig.

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 Wave Motion Page 16 of 29
Stationary waves in a closed organ pipe
Consider a cylindrical pipe of length L lying along the x-axis, with its closed end at x = 0 and
open end at x = L. The sound wave sent along the pipe may be represented as
𝑦1 = 𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝜔𝑡 + 𝑘𝑥)
The wave reflected from the closed end may be represented as
𝑦2 = −𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥)
The negative sign before A is due to reversal of phase at the closed end. By the principle of
superposition, the resultant stationary wave is given by

𝑦 = 𝑦1 + 𝑦2 = 𝐴 [𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝜔𝑡 + 𝑘𝑥) − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥)]

= 2 𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑥 = (2 𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑥) 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡

Clearly, 𝑦 = 0 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 0 i.e., a node is formed at the closed. The resultant displacement at

x = L will be maximum (+ ve or − ve) because the open end js a free or loose boundary.
This condition is satisfied if

sin kL = ± 1
𝜋
Or kL = (2n – 1) 2 Where n = 1,2,3,……
2𝜋 𝜋 2𝐿
Or L = (2n – 1) 2 or 𝜆𝑛 =
𝜆 2 𝑛−1
The corresponding frequency of
vibration is given by
𝑣 (2 𝑛−1) 𝑣 (2 𝑛−1) 𝛾𝑃
𝑣𝑛 = 𝜆 = 4𝐿
= �𝜌
𝑛 4𝐿

For n = 1,
𝑣 1 𝛾𝑃
𝑣1 = 4 𝐿 = 4 𝐿 � 𝜌 = v (say)

This is the smallest frequency of the stationary waves produced in the closed pipe. It is called
fundamental frequency or first harmonic.
3𝑣
For n = 2, 𝜈2 = = 2𝜈 (First overtone or second harmonic)
4𝐿
5𝑣
For n =3, 𝜈3 = = 3𝜈 (Second overtone or third harmonic)
4𝐿
and so on.
The various modes of vibration of an open pipe are shown in Figure.

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 Wave Motion Page 17 of 29

Beats
When two sound waves of slightly different frequencies travelling along the same, path in the
same direction in a medium superpose upon each other, the intensity of the resultant sound at
any point in the medium rises and falls (technically known as waxing and waning of sound)
alternately with time. These periodic variations in the intensity of sound caused by the
superposition of two sound waves of slightly different frequencies are called beats. One rise
and one fall of intensity constitute one beat. The number of beats produced per second is
called beat frequency.
𝐵𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 = 𝐷𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑠
𝑣𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑡 = 𝑣1 − 𝑣2
Essential condition for the formation of beats
For beats to be audible, the difference in the frequency of the two sound waves should not
exceed 10. If the difference is more than 10, we shall hear more than 10 beats per second. But
due to persistence of hearing, our ear is not able to distinguish between two sounds as
1
separate if the time interval between them is less than (10)th of a second. Hence beats heard
will not be distinct if the number of beats produced per second is more than 10.
𝐀𝐧𝐚𝐥𝐲𝐭𝐢𝐜𝐚𝐥 𝐭𝐫𝐞𝐚𝐭𝐦𝐞𝐧𝐭 𝐨𝐟 𝐛𝐞𝐚𝐭𝐬
Let us consider two harmonic waves of same
amplitude but slightly different frequencies n1 and n2
(ω1 = 2πn1 and ω2 = 2πn2) moving with the same
velocity in the same direction.
Let the wave functions of the two waves be
represented by
𝑦1 = a sin ( 𝜔1 t – k𝑥)
𝑦2 = a sin ( 𝜔2 t – k𝑥)
Let the observation point be located at x = 0. Then, the
above equations reduce to:
𝑦1 = a sin 𝜔1 t = a sin 2 𝜋𝑛1 𝑡
𝑦2 = a sin 𝜔2 t = a sin 2 𝜋𝑛2 𝑡
By the principle of superposition, the resultant displacement of the particle is given by

y = 𝑦1 + 𝑦2 = a sin 2𝜋𝑛1 𝑡 + a sin 2 𝜋 𝑛2 𝑡

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𝐶+𝐷 𝐶−𝐷
By the formula sin C + sin D = 2 sin 2
cos 2
, we have
y = 2 a sin [π (n1 + n2) t] cos [π (n1 – n2) t] or
y = 2 a cos [π (n1 – n2) t] sin [π (n1 + n2) t]
If 2 a cos [π (n1 – n2) t] be put equal to A, then
y = A sin [π (n1 + n2) t]
It is clear from this equation that under the effect of both the waves the particle vibrates in
simple harmonic motion and the amplitude of its vibration is A.
The value of A is 2a cos [π (n1 – n2) t], that is, it depends upon t. this means that the
amplitude is not constant, but varies with time periodically. Since the maximum value of cos
π (n1 – n2) is ±1 and the minimum value is zero, the maximum value of the amplitude will be
± 2a and the minimum value will be zero.
For maximum amplitude, we have
cos [π (n1 – n2) t] = ± 1
[π (n1 – n2) t] = k π where k = 0, 1, 2, 3, …..
𝑘
t=
𝑛1 + 𝑛2
substituting k = 0, 1, 2, 3, ….. we get
1 2 3
t = 0, , , … … … ….
𝑛1 − 𝑛2 𝑛1 − 𝑛2 𝑛1 − 𝑛2
Hence, at these instants the amplitude will be maximum and so the intensity of sound will
also be maximum.
The time interval between two consecutive maximum intensities is 1/(𝑛1 − 𝑛2 ) second.
Hence, in 1 second the intensity will be maximum (𝑛1 − 𝑛2 ) times.
For minimum amplitude, we have
cos [π (n1 – n2) t] = 0
𝑘𝜋
[π (n1 – n2) t] = where k = 1, 3, 5 …..
2
𝑘
t=
2(𝑛1 − 𝑛2 )
substituting k = 1, 3, 5….. we get
1 3 5
t= , , … … … ….
2(𝑛1 − 𝑛2 ) 2(𝑛1 − 𝑛2 ) 2(𝑛1 − 𝑛2 )
Hence, at these instants the amplitude will be minimum and so the intensity of sound will
also be minimum. It is clear from this that minimum intensities occur in between the
maximum intensities.
The time interval between two consecutive minimum intensities is 1/ (𝑛1 − 𝑛2 ) second.
Hence in 1 second the intensity will be minimum (𝑛1 − 𝑛2 ) times.
Thus it is clear that in 1 second the intensity of sound will be (𝑛1 − 𝑛2 ) times maximum and
(𝑛1 − 𝑛2 ) times minimum, that is, (𝑛1 − 𝑛2 ) beats will be heard in 1 second.
so, number of beats per second (beat frequency) = (𝑛1 − 𝑛2 ) = difference of the frequencies
of sound sources.
1
νbeat = = n1 − n2
𝑡𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑡

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 Wave Motion Page 19 of 29
Practical applications of beats
(i) Determination of an unknown frequency
Suppose ν1 is the known frequency of tuning fork A and ν2 is the unknown frequency of
tuning fork B. When the two tuning forks are sounded together, suppose they produce b beats
per second. Then
ν2 = ν1 + 𝑏 𝑜𝑟 ν1 − 𝑏
The exact frequency may be determined by any of the following two methods :
(a) Loading method
Attach a little wax to the prong of the tuning fork B. Again, find the number of beats
produced per second. If the frequency of B is greater than that of A i. e., (ν1 + b), then the
attaching of a little wax lowers its frequency and reduces the difference in frequencies of A
and B. This would decrease the beat frequency.
Hence, if the beat frequency decreases on loading the prong of the tuning fork of the
unknown frequency, then the unknown frequency is greater than the known frequency.
That is,
ν2 = ν1 + 𝑏
On the other hand, if the frequency of B is less than that of A i.e., (ν1 - b), then the attaching
of a little wax further lowers its frequency and increases the difference in frequencies of A
and B. This would increase the beat frequency.
Hence; if the beat frequency increases on loading the prong of the tuning fork of the
unknown frequency, then the unknown frequency is less than the known frequency.
That is, ν2 = ν1 − 𝑏
(b) Filing method
If a prong of the tuning fork B is filed, its frequency increases. Again, note the number of
beats produced per second. If on filing the prong of B, the beat frequency decreases, then
ν2 = ν1 – 𝑏
If on filing the prong of B, the beat frequency increases, then
ν2 = ν1 – 𝑏
(ii) For tuning musical instruments
Musicians use the beat phenomenon in tuning their musical instruments.
If an instrument is sounded against a standard frequency and tuned until the beats disappear,
then the instrument is in tune with the standard frequency.

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 Wave Motion Page 20 of 29

Solved Examples
Q.1. A stretched wire emits a fundamental note of 256 Hz. Keeping the stretching force
constant and reducing the length of wire by 10 cm the frequency becomes 320 Hz.
Calculate the original length of the wire.
1 T
Ans. Frequency of fundamental note, v = 2 L �m

1 T
In first case : 256 = �
2L m

1 T
In second case : 320 = (L
�
2 − 10) m
320 2L L 5
On dividing, we get 256
= 2 (L − 10)
or L − 10
=4

or L = 𝟓𝟎 𝐜𝐦.
Q.2. When we start filling an empty bucket with water, the pitch (frequency) of the sound
produced goes on increasing. Explain how.
Ans: When we start filling an empty bucket with water by placing it below a running water
tap, the pitch (frequency) of the sound produced gradually rises. In present case, the
sound is produced due to vibration of air column present in the bucket above the water
surface. As the water gradually fills the bucket, the length of air column in the bucket
gradually decreases. As frequency of vibration in an air column is inversely proportional
to length of air column, hence, frequency of sound note produced gradually rises. As a
result, the pitch (i.e., the shrillness) of sound increases.
Q.3. Determine the possible harmonics in the longitudinal vibration of a rod clamped in the
middle.
Ans. Consider a rod of length L clamped in the middle.
As shown in Figure (a), it has one node in the middle and two antinodes at its free ends in the
fundamental mode.
λ1
∴ L= 2. or λ1 = 2 L
4
v v
Fundamental frequency or first harmonic, v1 = λ1
= 2L
= v (say)

In the second mode, there is an additional node and antinode on the two sides of the clamp, as
shown in figure (b).
λ2 2L
∴ L= 6. or λ2 =
4 3
v 3v
And v2 = λ2
= 2L
= 3v

This is called third harmonic or first overtone.

5v
Similarly, for third mode, v3 = 2L
= 5v
This is called fifth harmonic or second overtone.
Hence v1 ∶ v2 ∶ v3 ∶ … = 1 ∶ 3 ∶ 5 ∶, …

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 Wave Motion Page 21 of 29
Q.4. The length of a wire between the two ends of a sonometer is 105 cm. Where should the
two bridges be placed so that the fundamental frequencies of the three segments are in
the ratio of 1 : 3 : 15?
Ans. Total length of the wire,
L = 105 cm
v1 ∶ v2 ∶ v3 = 1 ∶ 3 ∶ 15
Let L1 , L2 and L3 be the lengths of the three parts.
1
As v ∝ L
1 1 1
∴ L1 ∶ L2 ∶ L3 = 1 ∶ 3 ∶ 15 = 15 ∶ 5 ∶ 1
Sum of the rations = 15 + 5 + 1 = 21
15
∴ L1 = 21 × 105 = 75 cm ;
5
L2 = 21 × 105 = 25 cm ;
1
L3 = 21
× 105 = 5 cm
Hence the bridges should be placed at 75 cm and (75 + 25 =) 100 cm from one end.
Q.5. A pipe 30.0 cm long is open at both ends. Which harmonic mode of the pipe is
resonantly excited by a 1.1 kHz source? Will resonance with the same source be
observed if one end of the pipe is closed? Take the speed of sound in air as 330 𝐦𝐬 −𝟏 .
Ans. Length of the pipe,
L = 30 cm = 0.30 cm
Speed of sound, v = 330 ms −1
v 330
Fundamental frequency of the open pipe, v1 = 2L
= 2 × 0.30 = 550 Hz
Second harmonic, v2 = 2v1 = 2 × 550 = 1100 Hz
Third harmonic, v3 = 3v1 = 3 × 550 = 1650 Hz
Fourth harmonic, v4 = 4v1 = 4 × 550 = 2200 Hz, and so on.
Clearly, a source of frequency 1.1 kHz (or 1100 Hz) will resonantly excite the second
harmonic of the open pipe.
If one end of the pipe is closed, its fundamental frequency becomes
v 330
v′1 = 4L
= 4×0.30 = 275 Hz
As only odd harmonics are present in a closed pipe, so
Third harmonic, v′3 = 3v′1 = 3 × 275 = 825 Hz
Fifth harmonic, v′5 = 5v′1 = 5 × 275 = 1375 Hz, and so on.
As no frequency of the closed pipe matches with the source frequency of 1.1 kHz, so no
resonance will be observed with the source, the moment on end of the pipe is closed.

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 Wave Motion Page 22 of 29
Q.6. An open pipe is suddenly closed at one end with the result that the frequency of the
third harmonic of the closed pipe is found to be higher by 100 Hz than the fundamental
frequency of the open pipe. What is the fundamental frequency of the open pipe?
v
Ans. Fundamental frequency of open pipe, 𝑣0 = 2L
3v
Frequency of third harmonic of closed pipe, 𝑣𝑐 = 4L
𝑣𝑐 3 3
∴ =2 or 𝑣𝑐 = 2 𝑣0
𝑣0

Given 𝑣𝑐 = 𝑣0 + 100
3
∴ 2
𝑣0 = 𝑣0 + 100 or 𝑣0 = 𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝐇𝐳.
Q.7. The first overtone of an open organ pipe beats with the first overtone of a closed organ
pipe with a beat frequency of 2.2 Hz. The fundamental frequency of the closed organ
pipe is 110 Hz. Find the lengths of the pipes. Velocity of sound in air = 330 𝐦𝐬 −𝟏 .
Ans. Let lengths of the open and closed organ pipes be L0 and Lc respectively.
v
Fundamental frequency of closed pipe, 𝑣𝑐 = 4 Lc
v
∴ Lc = 4vc

But v = 300 ms −1 , 𝑣𝑐 = 110 Hz

330
∴ Lc = 4 ×110
= 0.75 m = 𝟕𝟓 𝐜𝐦.
v v
Frequency of first overtone of open organ pipe, 𝑣0 = 2 × 2 L0
= L0
v
Frequency of first overtone of closed pipe, 𝑣𝑐 = 3 × 4 Lc
= 3 × 110 = 330 Hz.

But 𝑣0 − 𝑣0 = 2.2 Hz
v v
∴ L0
− 330 = 2.2 or L0
= 332.2
v 330
Or L0 = 332.2
= 332.2
= 0.99 m = 𝟗𝟗 𝐜𝐦.
Q.8. Two similar sonometer wires of the same material produce 2 beats per second. The
length of one is 50 cm and that of the other is 50.1 cm Calculate the frequencies of the
two wires.
1 T k
Ans. Frequency, 𝑣 = 2 L �m = l
,

1 T
where k = 2 �m = a constant
k k
Now 𝑣1 = L1
and 𝑣2 = L2
1 1
∴ 𝑣1 − 𝑣2 = k �L − L �
1 2

But L1 = 50 cm, L2 = 50.1 cm, 𝑣1 − 𝑣2 = 2 s −1

1 1
∴ 2 = k �50 − 50.1� or k = 50100

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 Wave Motion Page 23 of 29
k 50100
Hence 𝑣1 = L1
= 50
= 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟐 𝐇𝐳
k 50100
And 𝑣2 = L2
= 50.1
= 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝐇𝐳.

Q.9. Calculate the speed of sound in a gas in which two sound waves of wavelengths 1.00 m
and 1.01 m produce 24 beats in 6 seconds.
Ans. Let v be the sound in the gas. Then
v v v v
𝑣1 = λ1
= 1.00 and 𝑣2 = λ = 1.01
2
24
Beat frequency, 𝑣1 − 𝑣2 = 6
= 4 s −1
1 1 v×0.001
∴ v �1.00 − 1.01
�=4 or 1.01
=4
4×1.01
Or v= 0.01
= 𝟒𝟎𝟒 𝐦𝐬−𝟏 .
Q.10. Figure shows two vibrating modes of an air column. Find the ration of frequencies of
the two modes.
Ans. Let L be the length of the air column.
For mode (a),
3λ
L= 4
or λ = 4L/3
v 3v
∴ Frequency, v1 = λ
= 4L
For mode (b),
5λ
L= 4
or λ = 4L/5
v 5v
∴ Frequency, 𝑣2 = λ = 4 L
Hence 𝑣1 : 𝑣2 = 3 ∶ 5.

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Assignment – 1
1. Why sound is heard more intense in carbon-dioxide as compared to air?
2. The frequency of a tuning fork is 256. Tuning forks, of which of the following frequencies
will resonate it?
3. The natural frequency of a musical instrument is 256 hertz. When in oscillation, a periodic
force of 300 hertz frequency is applied on it. What will be the effect on the amplitude of
oscillations?
4. What is the difference between forced vibrations and resonant vibrations?
5. The window pans jingle during thunder, why?
6. The transverse waves cannot be produced in gases. Given reason.
7. Write the formula for the speed of transverse waves in a stretched string, explaining the
symbols used.
8. Write down the formula for the speed (v) of sound in a medium in terms of the modulus of
elasticity (E) and the density (d) of the medium.
9. Write the formula for the speed of longitudinal waves in a metallic rod in terms of the density
and Young's modulus of the metal.
10. Sound is produced simultaneously at one end of two strings of the same length, one of rubber
and the other of steel. In which string will the sound reach the other end earlier and why?
11. Write Newton's formula for the speed of longitudinal waves in a gaseous medium.
12. Write the Laplace's formula for the speed of sound in a gas.
13. In which substances among gas, liquid and solid, the velocity of sound is maximum and
minimum?
14. A man produces sound by striking the railway track. Another man listens two sounds by
putting his ear on the railway track at a distance of 1.0 km from the first man. Give reason.
Which sound is heard first and why?
15. The velocity of sound is 330 m/s in air at constant temperature and pressure. Explain giving
reason how velocity of sound changes on halving the pressure and keeping temperature
constant.
16. At normal temperature and pressure, the speed of sound in air is 332 m/s. What will be the
speed of sound on doubling the pressure?
17. Draw a graph between the pressure P of a gas and the speed v of sound travelling through the
gas.
18. What is the effect of temperature on the speed of sound in air?
19. What is the increase in the velocity of sound in air when the temperature of air rises by 1 ℃?
20. Explain the effect of humidity on the velocity of sound in air.
21. The speed of sound does not depend upon its frequency. Can you verify this statement from
some experience of your daily life?

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 Wave Motion Page 25 of 29
Assignment – 2
1. Which type of hearing aids are required by persons on the surface of moon and why?
2. Flash and thunder in the sky are produced simultaneously, but thunder is heard after few
seconds the flash is seen, why?
3. Why did Laplace introduce a correction in Newton's formula for velocity of sound?
4. Show that in air the velocity of sound waves increases by 0.61 m/s for each ℃ rise in
temperature of the air.
5. Draw a graph between the absolute temperature (T) of a gas and the square of the speed of
sound (v2) in the gas.
6. The speed of sound in moist air is greater than in dry air, why? Will the speed of sound in
moist hydrogen be greater than in dry hydrogen?
7. The same temperature and pressure, the densities of two diatomic gasaes are d1 and d2.
Determine the ratio of the speeds of sound in these gases.
8. What will be the speed of sound in hydrogen as compared to that in oxygen at constant
temperature?
9. In summer, the sound of a siren is heard louder in the night than in the day to a person on
earth Why?
10. Write the equation of a plane progressive wave and explain the symbols used.
ω
11. In the wave equation, y = a sin (ω t – k x), what are ω and k? What is represented by 𝑘
?

12. A plane progressive wave has an amplitude A metre, velocity u metre/second and frequency
'n' hertz. Write down the equation of the wave.
13. In the equation of a progressive wave y = a sin (ω t – k x), y and a are displacement and
amplitude respectively. ω is angular frequency, t is time, k is propagation constant and x is
the distance on X-axis. What is the phase and the velocity of the wave at time t?
14. Two waves meet at a point in opposite phases. What may be the possible phase difference
between them?
15. Write (i) λ/4 in forms of phase difference and time difference and (ii) π/3 in forms of time
difference and wavelength. [Ans. (i) π/2, T/4; (ii) T/6, λ/6]
16. In a plane progressive wave, the maximum particle velocity is twice the wave velocity. Find
the ratio of the wavelength and the amplitude of the wave.
17. Write the relation between phase difference (∆φ) and path difference (∆x) between two
points.
𝑡 𝑥
18. Express the equation y = a sin 2π �𝑇 − 𝜆� in two other forms.
𝑥
19. The equation of a transverse wave is y = y0 sin 2π �𝑛𝑡 − 𝜆�. The maximum particle velocity
is four times the wave velocity. Find out the wavelength of the wave.

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 Wave Motion Page 26 of 29
Assignment - 3
1. The functions of x and t given below represent the displacement (transverse or longitudinal)
of an elastic wave. State which of these represent a travelling wave, a stationary wave or none
at all:

(i) y = 2 cos (3 x) sin (10 t)

(ii) y = 2 √𝑥 − 𝑣 𝑡

(iii) y = 3 sin (5 x – 0.5 t) + 4 cos (5 x – 0.5 t)

(iv) y = cos x sin t + cos 2 x sin 2 t

(v) y = 3 sin (3x – 5 t)

(vi) y = 4 cos (4x + 7t)

(vii) y = 3 sin (3 x – 5 t) + 3 sin (3 x + 5 t).

Ans: (i) The equation has harmonic functions of x and t separately. Hence it represents
'stationary' wave.

(ii) It is not a harmonic function. Hence it 'cannot' represent any type of wave.

(iii) It represents a harmonic 'travelling' wave.

(iv) The equation is a sum of two functions, each representing a stationary wave. Hence it
represents 'superposition of two stationary waves'.

(v) It represents a 'travelling' wave along +X direction.

(vi) It represents a 'travelling' wave along- X direction.

(vii) It represents a superposition of two oppositely travelling waves which produce a

'stationary’ wave.

2. Write the distances between (i) a node and the nearest antinode, and (ii) two successive
antinodes in a stationary wave, in terms of the wavelength. [Ans: (i) λ/4 (ii) λ/2]

3. What is the phase difference between a node and its nearest antinode in a stationary wave?
[Ans: π/2 radian]

4. What is the phase difference between the particles of medium on the two sides of a node?
What for the particles between two nodes? [Ans: π, zero]

5. Sound waves of frequency 660 Hz fall normally on a perfectly reflecting wall. Determine the
short distance from the wall at which the air particles have maximum amplitude of vibration.
The speed of sound in air is 330 m/s. [Ans: 0.125 m]

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 Wave Motion Page 27 of 29
6. Two progressive sound waves each of frequency 165 Hz and travelling in opposite directions
air produce stationary waves. The speed of sound in air is 330 m/s. What is the distance
between (i) two nodes, (ii) two antinodes, and (iii) one node and its nearest antinode?
[Ans: (i) 1.0 m, (ii) 1.0 m, (iii) 0.5 m]

7. A transverse harmonic wave on a string is described by

y (x, t) = 3.0 sin (36 t + 0. 018 x + π/4),
where x, y are in cm and t in sec. The positive direction of x-axis is from left to right.
(i) Is this a travelling or a stationary wave? If it is travelling, what are the speed and
direction of its propagation?
(ii) What are its amplitude and frequency?
(iii) What is the initial phase at the origin?
(iv) What is the least distance between two successive crests in the wave?

8. For the travelling harmonic wave, y = 2·0 cos2π [10t − 0·0080x + 0·35],
where x and y are in cm. and t in s. What is the phase difference between oscillatory motion
at two points separated by a distance of (i) 4 m (ii) 0·5 m (iii) λ/2?

9. The transverse displacement of a string clamped at its two ends is given by

y (x, t) = 0·06 sin(2π/3)x cos (120 π )t
where x and y are in m and t in s. The length of the string is 1.5 m and its mass is 3 × 10−2 kg.
Determine the tension in the string.

10. A simple pendulum with a solid metal bob has a period T. What will be the period of the
same pendulum if it is made to oscillate in a non-viscous liquid of density one-eighth of the
metal of the bob?

11. A wave travelling along a string is described by:

y(x, t) = 0.005 sin(80.0 x − 3.0 t) in which the numerical constants are in S.I. units.

Calculate (i) the amplitude, (ii) the wavelength, (iii) the period and frequency of the wave and
(iv) the displacement y of the wave at a distance x = 30.0 cm and time t = 20 s?
[Ans: (i) 0.005 m, (ii) 7.85 Cm, (iii) 2.09 s, 0.48 Hz, (iv) 5 mm]

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 Wave Motion Page 28 of 29
Assignment - 4
1. A light wave is reflected from a mirror and the incident and the reflected waves superpose to
form stationary wave, but the nodes and antinodes are not seen. Why?
2. Write the equation of a stationary wave. Explain the meaning of symbols used.
3. The fundamental frequency of pipe closed at one end is 200 hertz. What will be the
fundamental frequency of another similar pipe of the same length, open at both ends?
[Ans: 400 hertz]
4. The fundamental frequency of an open organ pipe is 512 Hz. What will be the fundamental
frequency if its one end is closed? [Ans: 256 hertz]
5. The frequency of a closed-end organ pipe is 50 Hz. What will be its resonating frequencies if
the other end of the pipe is opened? [Ans: 100 Hz, 200 Hz, 300 Hz, .....]
6. The frequency of the fundamental note produced by a pipe closed at one end is 150 per
second. What will be the frequency of the fundamental note from another pipe of the same
type but of half its length? [Ans: 300 per second]
7. The frequency of the fundamental note of a closed organ pipe and that of an. open organ pipe
are the same. What is the ratio between their lengths? [Ans: 1 : 2]
8. The frequency of the first 15 overtone of a closed organ pipe is the same as that of the first
overtone of an open pipe. What is the ratio between their lengths? [Ans: 3 : 4]
9. If the second overtone of a closed organ pipe is equal to the third overtone of an open organ
pipe, then find the ratio of the lengths of the two organ pipes. [Ans: 5 : 8]
10. The fundamental frequency of a sound-source is 200 hertz and the source produces all the
harmonics. State, with reasons, with which of the following frequencies this source will
resonate: 150, 200, 300, 600. [Ans: 200 hertz, 600 hertz]
11. An organ pipe closed at one end resonates with a tuning fork of frequency 128 hertz. With
what other frequencies can it resonate? If its other end be also opened, then?
[Ans: 128 × (3, 5, 7 ...... ); 256 × (1, 2, 3, 4 ...... )]
12. An organ pipe emits a fundamental note of frequency 128 hertz. When blown forcefully, its
first overtone of 384 hertz is emitted. Is the pipe closed or open? [Ans: Closed]
13. How will the frequency of a note emitted by an organ pipe be affected by rise in temperature?
14. Explain the following statements:
(i) Two open organ pipes of same length produce sounds of different frequencies if their
diameters are different.
(ii) The closed and open organ pipes of name length and diameter produce sounds of
different qualities.
(iii) Why is the note of open organ pipe is more sweet than that of closed organ pipe?
15. How will the fundamental frequency of a closed organ pipe be affected if instead of air it is
filled with a gas heavier than air? [Ans: It will decrease]
16. An open organ pipe has fundamental frequency of 300 Hz. The first overtone of this organ
pipe is the same as the first overtone of a closed organ pipe. What is the length of closed
organ pipe? Given that speed of sound in air = 332 m/s. [Ans: 41.5 cm]

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 Wave Motion Page 29 of 29
Assignment – 5
1. Tuning fork A produces 4 beats per second with a turning fork B of frequency 288 Hz. The
tuning fork A is now loaded with a little wax and the beat frequency is found to increase to 6
beats per second. What was the original frequency of fork A? [Ans: 284 Hz]
2. Two tuning forks have frequencies of 232 Hz and 250 Hz. A source of sound produces
9 beats per second with each of these tuning forks. Find the frequency of the source.
[Ans: 241 Hz]
3. If a source X of unknown frequency produces 8 beats with a source of frequency 250 Hz and
12 beats with another source of frequency 270 Hz, calculate the frequency of source X.
[Imp] [Ans: 258 Hz]
4. On a prong of one of the two tuning forks of equal frequencies, some wax is affixed. When
both tuning forks are sounded together, 5 beats are heard. If the frequency of one tuning fork
is 100 hertz, then find the frequency of the second tuning fork which is waxed.
[Imp] [Ans: 95 hertz]
5. A tuning fork produces 4 beats per second with another tuning fork of frequency 256 Hz.
When first tuning fork is waxed, then the number of beats per second increases to 6.
Determine the original frequency of first tuning fork. [Imp] [Ans: 252 Hz]
6. Two tuning forks A and B are in unison. The frequency of B is 256. When the prongs of A
are scraped by a file and sounded with B, then 4 beats per second are heard. What is the
frequency of A after scraping? [Ans: 260]
7. Two tuning forks produce 5 beats per second. The frequency of one is 256 Hz. When some
wax is put on the prongs of the other one, the beats disappear. Find the frequency of the
second fork. [Imp] [Ans: 261 Hz]
8. 16 tuning forks are placed in series in such a way that each tuning fork produces two
beats/second with the tuning fork placed before it. If the frequency of the last tuning fork is
three times that of the first tuning fork then find out the frequency of the first tuning fork.
[Ans: 15 Hz]
9. A tuning fork of unknown frequency gives 6 beats per second with a tuning fork of frequency
256. It gives same number of beats/sec when loaded with wax. Find the unknown frequency.
[Imp]
10. In an experiment, it was found that a tuning fork and a sonometer wire gave 4 beats/second,
both when the length of wire was 100 cm and 105 cm. Calculate the frequency of the fork.
11. A note produces 4 beats per second with a tuning fork of frequency 512 and 6 beats per
second with a tuning fork of frequency 514. Find the frequency of the note.
12. A set of 24 tuning forks is arranged in series of increasing frequencies. If each fork gives 4
beats with the preceding one and the last fork is octave of the first, calculate the frequency of
the first and the last fork. [Imp]

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