GIS BASED LANDSLIDE SUSCEPTIBILITY ASSESSMENT AND FACTOR EFFECT ANALYSIS IN 2022

WOLDIA TOWN AND ITS SURROUNDING

Faculty of Natural and Computational Science

Department of Geology

A SENIOR PROJECT PROPOSAL ON GIS BASED LANDSLIDE SUSCEPTIBILITY

ASSESSMENT AND FACTOR EFFECT ANALYSIS IN WOLDIA TOWN AND ITS
SURROUNDING.

SUBMITTED TO GEOLOGY DEPARTMENT IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT FOR THE

REQUIREMENT OF BACHELOR DEGREE IN GEOLOGY.

Advisor: Mrs. Sindu D. (Msc.),

Prepared by group four

STUDENTS NAME ID NO,

1. BEREKET GIRMA WDU113097

2. G/KIDAN GETACHEW WDU113297

3. LEMLEM BOKRA WDU113457

4. SISAY AYALEW WDU113710

5. YIHALEM GETIE WDU113828

6. YISHAK DIDO WDU113829

June, 2022

Woldia, Ethiopia.

i
GIS BASED LANDSLIDE SUSCEPTIBILITY ASSESSMENT AND FACTOR EFFECT ANALYSIS IN 2022
WOLDIA TOWN AND ITS SURROUNDING

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

Before all, we would like to thank Almighty God who made it possible to start and finish
proposal paper work very efficiently and successfully.

Next we do not have adequate words to express our feeling of gratitude especially to our advisor
Miss. Sindu D. (MSc.) for her unreserved advice, hers professional guidance and kind provision
of all required materials. She always encourages and supports to complete our proposal work
peacefully and successfully.

We also greatly acknowledge to Mr. Belay A. (MSc.), head of geology department in Woldia
University, Mr. Melaku. (MSc.), Mr. Asaye G. (MSc.) and further to the other staff member of
geology department for their support and encouragement which gave us to have very good
strength to carry out our proposal work.

Finally our appreciation and thanks is also goes to our collogue (classmates) for their brotherly
and sisterly support to safely accomplish our work.

ii
GIS BASED LANDSLIDE SUSCEPTIBILITY ASSESSMENT AND FACTOR EFFECT ANALYSIS IN 2022
WOLDIA TOWN AND ITS SURROUNDING

Table of Contents
ACKNOWLEDGMENT .............................................................................................................. ii
List of figure .................................................................................................................................. v
List of Table ................................................................................................................................... v
ACRONYMS ................................................................................................................................ vi
1. INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................. 1
1.1. Background of the study ............................................................................................................... 1
1.2. Literature review ........................................................................................................................... 2
1.3. Geology of the study area ............................................................................................................. 3
1.4. Statement of the problem .............................................................................................................. 4
2. OBJECTIVE OF THE RESEARCH WORK ........................................................................ 5
2.1. General objective ............................................................................................................................... 5
2.2. Specific objective ............................................................................................................................... 5
2.3. Research questions ............................................................................................................................. 5
3. DESCRIPTION OF THE STUDY AREA .............................................................................. 6
3.1. Location and accessibility .................................................................................................................. 6
3.2. Physiography of the study area .......................................................................................................... 7
3.3. Climate of the study area ................................................................................................................... 7
3.4. Drainage system of the study area ..................................................................................................... 8
4. MATERIALS AND METHODOLOGIES ........................................................................... 10
4.1. Materials .......................................................................................................................................... 10
4.1. 1. Tools ........................................................................................................................................ 10
4.1.2. Software .................................................................................................................................... 10
4.2. Methodology / approach of the study .............................................................................................. 10
4.2.1. Pre field work activity ............................................................................................................... 11
4.2.2. During fieldwork investigations................................................................................................ 11
4.2.3. Post field investigations ............................................................................................................ 11
5. EXPECTED OUTCOME....................................................................................................... 13
6. SIGNIFICANCE/APPLICATION OF THE STUDY ......................................................... 13
7. WORKSHUDLE OF THE RESEARCH ACTIVITY ......................................................... 14
8. BUDGET BREAKDOWN...................................................................................................... 15

iii
GIS BASED LANDSLIDE SUSCEPTIBILITY ASSESSMENT AND FACTOR EFFECT ANALYSIS IN 2022
WOLDIA TOWN AND ITS SURROUNDING

8.1. Personal cost .................................................................................................................................... 15

8.2. Materials cost ................................................................................................................................... 15
8.3. Budget summary .............................................................................................................................. 16
REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................ 17

iv
GIS BASED LANDSLIDE SUSCEPTIBILITY ASSESSMENT AND FACTOR EFFECT ANALYSIS IN 2022
WOLDIA TOWN AND ITS SURROUNDING

List of figure

Figure 1 location map of the study area .......................................................................................... 6

Figure 2 drainage system of the study area ..................................................................................... 9
Figure 3 general methodology of the research work .................................................................... 12

List of Table

Table 1 rainfall data from sirinka station (2005) ............................................................................ 7

Table 2 minimum and maximum tempreature of study area from sirinka station (2005) .............. 8
Table 3 work schedule for research work ..................................................................................... 14
Table 4 budget for personal consumption. .................................................................................... 15
Table 5 budget for equipments ..................................................................................................... 15
Table 6 budget summary............................................................................................................... 16

v
GIS BASED LANDSLIDE SUSCEPTIBILITY ASSESSMENT AND FACTOR EFFECT ANALYSIS IN 2022
WOLDIA TOWN AND ITS SURROUNDING

ACRONYMS

0
C …Degree Celsius

DEM …….Digital Elevation Model

E…………..Easting

GIS …Geographical Information System

GPS …Global positioning system

Km …Kilometer

M ……..meter

Ma …million years ago

Mm………millimeter

N………….Northing

WP-WLI…..Working Party for World Landslide Inventories

USGS ……….United States of Geological Survey

vi
GIS BASED LANDSLIDE SUSCEPTIBILITY ASSESSMENT AND FACTOR EFFECT ANALYSIS IN 2022
WOLDIA TOWN AND ITS SURROUNDING

1. INTRODUCTION
1.1. Background of the study

According to Highland and Bobrowsky, (2008)landslide defined as down slope movement of

soil, rock, and organic materials through rock topples, rock falls, earth or debris flows that
involve shear displacement along one or several slip surfaces, which are either visible or may be
reasonably inferred under effects of gravity. The intrinsic parameters which govern the stability
condition of the slope are; geological factors (lithology or soil type, structural discontinuity
characteristics, shear strength of the material, groundwater condition and its effect), geometry of
slope (slope inclination, aspect, elevation and curvature) and land use and land cover
(Raghuvanshi et al., 2011; Wang and Niu, 2009; Ayalewet al., 2004).

Landslides belong to the most destructive phenomena of nature that cause damage to both
property and life every year throughout the world. For example, a report from the year 2001 in
the United States, landslides caused approximately 3.5 billion dollars in damage, and kill
between 25 and 50 people annually (USGS, 2004). Therefore, the study of landslides has drawn
global attention essentially to increasing awareness of its socio-economic impacts and also
increasing pressure of urbanization on the mountain situation (Aleotti and Chowdhury, 1999;
Kanungo et al., 2006).

It is also common occurrences and recurring hazards in Ethiopia. Absolute mortality risk by
landslide is highest in countries such as Ethiopia (http: //www.preventionweb.net.1`). The
highlands and mountainous area of Ethiopia; like Blue Nile Gorge, Tarmaber, Kombolcha –
Dessie road, Wondogenet area and many other parts of Ethiopia are repeatedly facing problems
associated with landslides. These landslides have caused human fatalities as well as significant
economic losses. From 1993 to 1998 alone, about 300 lives have been lost, more than 200 houses
demolished, over 100 km long road damaged and in excess of 500 ha of land devastated
(LulsegedAyalew, 1999).

1
GIS BASED LANDSLIDE SUSCEPTIBILITY ASSESSMENT AND FACTOR EFFECT ANALYSIS IN 2022
WOLDIA TOWN AND ITS SURROUNDING

The aim of landslide study is to evaluate the nature of hazard and the damages to the
human life, land, roads, buildings and other properties (Anbalagan and Singh, 1996, Arnous,
2011). Determining landslide prone areas is important to ensure the safety of human life and
avoid negative impacts on the regional and national economy. Landslide hazard map provide
valuable information for government agencies, planners, decision makers, and local landowners
to make emergency plans to reduce the negative effects on infrastructure, superstructure, and
human life (Ercanoglu and Gokceoglu 2003, Anbalagan and Singh, 1996).

1.2. Literature review

Landslide has been defined as a term which comprises almost all varieties of mass movements
on slopes, including rock falls, topples, and debris flows, that involve little or no true sliding
(Varnes, 1984). It is also defined by WP-WLI (Working Party for World Landslide Inventories),
(1993) as a movement of a mass of rock, earth, or debris down a slope. Slope failures (i.e.,
landslides) occur when the forces generated by the weight of the soil in a slope exceed the shear
resistance (strength) of the soil. The force that is responsible for the occurrence of landslide is
gravitational force.

According to Ayalew (1999).The widespread distribution of landslides in Ethiopia is mainly

related to the occurrence of several predisposing factors such as rugged morphology, high relief
energy, and the nature of the out-cropping rocks. The triggering factors are essentially connected
with the rainfall regime and, to a minor extent, with seismicity. The role played by human impact
within the context of the country’s socio-economic development is being of increasing
importance in causing slope instability. The northern Omo River basin, the lower Wabe-Shebele
River valley, the Wendo Genet slope, the Blue Nile Gorge, the town of Dessie, the Wudmen
area in Weldiya, the Gilgel Gibe River, the UbaDema village in Sawla, and parts of Tigray.
Slope instability problems are reported in different areas of Wollo, northern Ethiopia: Ayalew
(1993, 1999) reported on the landslide problem in Wudemen area, while Ibrahim (2011) studied
the slope instability issues in Mersa and Wurgessa areas.

2
GIS BASED LANDSLIDE SUSCEPTIBILITY ASSESSMENT AND FACTOR EFFECT ANALYSIS IN 2022
WOLDIA TOWN AND ITS SURROUNDING

Slope instability problems are reported in different areas of Wollo, northern Ethiopia: Ayalew
(1993, 1999) reported on the landslide problem in Wudemen area, while Ibrahim (2011) studied
the slope instability issues in Mersa and Wurgessa areas. Both research papers describe about the
landslide occurrence in those most environments due to different triggering factors like
hydrologic factors, lithologic factors, and manmade activities. On the paper also describes about
there were the happening of human life and materials lost in the year 2002 586 people were
displaced from their house and 4.5 hector farmland and 18 domestic animals were lost by the
cause of high rainfall (Ibrahim 2011).

The relationship of the discontinuities with the According to Varnes (1984) and Anbalagan
(1992) named these factors as inherent causative factors. Geology that is lithology and structures,
slope morphometry, relative relief, ground water condition, and land use land cover are the major
inherent causative factors which are responsible for the causes of landslide (Anbalagan, 1992).
Besides, for the landslide to be triggered it needs external stimuli which are called Triggering
factors such as; intense rain fall, ground acceleration due to seismic activities and manmade
activities.

1.3. Geology of the study area

According to (Hofmann et al, 1997) recent classification for continental flood basalt of North
western part of Ethiopia was followed as Lower formation, upper formation and the shield
volcano. Both the lower and upper formation of the continental flood basalt was emplaced 30 Ma
ago with short period less than 1Ma.

3
GIS BASED LANDSLIDE SUSCEPTIBILITY ASSESSMENT AND FACTOR EFFECT ANALYSIS IN 2022
WOLDIA TOWN AND ITS SURROUNDING

1.4. Statement of the problem

From the past experience landslide hazard have resulted in to damaging infrastructure as well as
human life all over the world (Dai et al., 2002). The present study area is located in north
Ethiopian highland which is rugged mountainous terrain. The landslide activity in this area cause
considerable economic losses to the local community, infrastructures, agricultural land and
environment. Due to this; identification of landslide prone areas and factor effect analysis is so
important to give appropriate recommendations for safer land use planning and to minimize
emanation impact Thereby, this study will focus on generating landslide susceptibility map for
this area to reform the current spatial plan and to give insight for local government about
appropriate remedial measures for the existing landslides.

4
GIS BASED LANDSLIDE SUSCEPTIBILITY ASSESSMENT AND FACTOR EFFECT ANALYSIS IN 2022
WOLDIA TOWN AND ITS SURROUNDING

2. OBJECTIVE OF THE RESEARCH WORK

2.1. General objective

The main objective of the present study is to produce landslide susceptibility map of Woldia and
its surrounding; North Wollo zone, Ethiopia, GIS based multicriteria approach.

2.2. Specific objective

A. To Identify and describe landslide in the area.

B. To assess the causative and triggering factors responsible for landslides in the area.

C. To know the possible failure mechanism of landslides in the area.

D. To produce landslide inventory map of the area.

E. To suggest suitable remedial measures.

2.3. Research questions

1. Which part of the study area is highly affected by landslide?

2. What causative factor and in what conditions plays a major role for landslide
happening?

3. By what mechanism was the landslide happen?

5
GIS BASED LANDSLIDE SUSCEPTIBILITY ASSESSMENT AND FACTOR EFFECT ANALYSIS IN 2022
WOLDIA TOWN AND ITS SURROUNDING

3. DESCRIPTION OF THE STUDY AREA

3.1. Location and accessibility

The study area is located in Northern Ethiopia, Amhara regional state, north Wollo zonal
administration some of 521 Km from Addis Ababa the capital city of Ethiopia. Geographically it
is located at552460-576000m N and 106000- 1315000m E. And the total area coverage of the
study area is 43.6km2.

The area is accessed by main Asphalt road that runs from Addis Ababa to Woldiya toward the
north and by another asphalt road that extend from BahiarDar at to the site about 360 km North
and by all weathered roads that extend from the site to its surrounding villages.

Figure 1 Location map of the study area

6
GIS BASED LANDSLIDE SUSCEPTIBILITY ASSESSMENT AND FACTOR EFFECT ANALYSIS IN 2022
WOLDIA TOWN AND ITS SURROUNDING

3.2. Physiography of the study area

The topography of the study area is mostly hilly and also most of the areas are surrounded by
undulated mountains due to volcanic and tectonic activities with elevation ranging from 1836-
2314m above mean see level.

3.3. Climate of the study area

According to Alemayehu (2006), the climate of Ethiopia is categorized in to five major zones by
using altitude and temperature named as Kur (<10 and >3300), Dega (10-15 and 2300-3300),
Woinadega (15-20 and 1500-2300), Kolla (20-25 and 500-1500) and Berha (>25 and <500).
From this classification the current study area is located within “(Weyna-Dega) zone. The mean
maximum and mean minimum rain fall of the study area are 238mm and 24mm in the months
august and June respectively and the annual average rainfall is 82.33mm. The annual mean
maximum and mean minimum temperatures are 30.00C in June and8.500C in December
respectively.

Months Jan Feb Mar Apr May June July Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Rainfall(mm) 39 40 91 102 82 24 209 238 75 36 33 25

Table 1 rainfall data from Sirinka station (2005)

rain fall distribution in

2005
250
200
150
100
rain fall(mm)
50
0
Jan Mar May July Sep Nov

Graph 1 annual rainfall graph

7
GIS BASED LANDSLIDE SUSCEPTIBILITY ASSESSMENT AND FACTOR EFFECT ANALYSIS IN 2022
WOLDIA TOWN AND ITS SURROUNDING

MONTHS Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun July Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Max T 22 26.3 26.7 27.3 27.6 30.3 28.5 27.6 27.2 25.5 24.7 24
Min T 12 12.2 14.5 14.2 15.5 16.1 16.2 15.6 14.9 11.8 10.8 8.5

Table 2 minimum and maximum temperature of study area from Sirinka station (2005)

50

40

30
Min T
20 Max T

10

0
jan mar may julu sep nov

Graph 2 The minimum and maximum temperature of the study area graph, (sirinka station, 2005)

3.4. Drainage system of the study area

There is a dendrite drainage pattern that formed by stream channels which governed by
topography of the area. Small tributaries originated from ridges and hills. There are the main
Rivers Jarso/Aba kolashi and Alawuha which feeds the largest main river TikurwuhaRiver.

8
GIS BASED LANDSLIDE SUSCEPTIBILITY ASSESSMENT AND FACTOR EFFECT ANALYSIS IN 2022
WOLDIA TOWN AND ITS SURROUNDING

Alawuha River

Figure 2 drainage system of the study area

9
GIS BASED LANDSLIDE SUSCEPTIBILITY ASSESSMENT AND FACTOR EFFECT ANALYSIS IN 2022
WOLDIA TOWN AND ITS SURROUNDING

4. MATERIALS AND METHODOLOGIES

4.1. Materials

4.1. 1. Tools

1. Topographic map at scale of (1: 50,000)

2. GPS

3. Geological hammer

4. Marker

6. Camera

7. Note book.

8. Pen

9. Pencil

10. Compass

4.1.2. Software

1. GIS Arc Map 10

2. Global mapper computer application: to produce elevation map.

4.2. Methodology / approach of the study

The method GIS based multi-criteria analysis will be applied for factor effect analysis and to
produce landslide susceptibility map of the area. The considered causative factors, possibly
responsible for past landslides will be reclassify and give weight for each causative factor class.
They can be quantified by counting grid cells and a hazard index value will be compute which

10
GIS BASED LANDSLIDE SUSCEPTIBILITY ASSESSMENT AND FACTOR EFFECT ANALYSIS IN 2022
WOLDIA TOWN AND ITS SURROUNDING

may ultimately lead to assess the landslide hazard by overlaying the inventory map on each
causative factor map classes.

Finally, multi-criteria analysis/ weight sum analysis will be done to produce landslide
susceptibility map of the area. To achieve the objective of the study will be conducted through
three stages. These are pre-field work, field work and post field work.

4.2.1. Pre field work activity

1. Collection of different literature papers.

2. Thematic base map preparation.

3. Causative factor map preparation.

4. Collect rainfall and hydro-geological data’s from secondary source.

4.2.2. During fieldwork investigations

1. The location, mode of failure and volume of sliding area will be recorded.

2. Record any structure and Measure the alignment.

3. And surface indication of ground water condition will be documented.

4. Pre- existing slope material and land use land cover map will be verified during field
work.

4.2.3. Post field investigations

A. The causative factors, possibly responsible for past landslides, will be quantified by
counting grid cells, and appropriate weight will assign to each of the causative factor
classes.

B. As per these weight values, weighted sum analysis will be done to produce landslide
susceptible map of the area.

11
GIS BASED LANDSLIDE SUSCEPTIBILITY ASSESSMENT AND FACTOR EFFECT ANALYSIS IN 2022
WOLDIA TOWN AND ITS SURROUNDING

C. Landslide susceptibility map will be validating with actual past landslide.

Figure 3 general methodology of the research work

12
GIS BASED LANDSLIDE SUSCEPTIBILITY ASSESSMENT AND FACTOR EFFECT ANALYSIS IN 2022
WOLDIA TOWN AND ITS SURROUNDING

5. EXPECTED OUTCOME

The outcome of the study will be landslide susceptibility map at the scale of 1:50,000.

6. SIGNIFICANCE/APPLICATION OF THE STUDY

This study provides for government to do appropriate mitigation measure to minimize the impact
in the study area and for planners with a practical and cost-effective way to do safer strategic
planning for future developmental activities. To aware the society about which areas are more
susceptible for landslide and its consequences, and for recommend them in which environment is
appropriate for settlements will be better. It also used as a reference or a secondary data for the
next research works.

13
GIS BASED LANDSLIDE SUSCEPTIBILITY ASSESSMENT AND FACTOR EFFECT ANALYSIS IN 2022
WOLDIA TOWN AND ITS SURROUNDING

7. WORKSHUDLE OF THE RESEARCH ACTIVITY

N Activities May June July Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

o.
1 Literature review
2 Secondary data
collection
3 Base map preparation
4 First draft proposal
5 Proposal defense
6 Field work
7 Data analysis and
compilations
8 Preparation of
research
9 First draft for
comment
10 Final research paper
work
11 Research defense

Table 3 work schedule for research work

14
GIS BASED LANDSLIDE SUSCEPTIBILITY ASSESSMENT AND FACTOR EFFECT ANALYSIS IN 2022
WOLDIA TOWN AND ITS SURROUNDING

8. BUDGET BREAKDOWN

8.1. Personal cost

No Type of activity Unit Quantity/Amount Unit cost Total cost

(Birr) (Birr)
1 Per diem for Advisors Birr 2 researcher*10days 250 5000.00
2 Per diem for ours Birr 6 for 10 days 100 6000.00
3 Per diem for driver Birr 1 for 10 days 200 2000.00

Sub-total 13000.00

Table 4 Budget for personal consumption.

8.2. Materials cost

No. Item Amount required Unit cost Total cost

1 Topographic map at scale 2 160 320
1:50000
2 Binder 1 30 30
3 Draft normal print 52 pages; 1 copy 2*52 pages 104
4 Final color print 12pages; 2 copy 5*24 120
5 photocopies 60 pages; 2 copy 1*120 120
6 Lamination cost 8 30 240
7 Notebook 6 50 300
8 A4 paper 1 pack 420 420
9 Fixer and lead 2 set 60 120
10 Pen 1 pack 60*12 720
11 Digital camera Rent/day 300*10 3000
12 Tilt meter 3 500 1500
13 inclinometer 3 350 1050
Total cost 8044.00

Table 5 Budget breakdown for equipment’s

15
GIS BASED LANDSLIDE SUSCEPTIBILITY ASSESSMENT AND FACTOR EFFECT ANALYSIS IN 2022
WOLDIA TOWN AND ITS SURROUNDING

8.3. Budget summary

No. Budget item description Total cost (birr)

1 Equipment cost 8044.00
2 Personal cost 21,000.00
Total 21,044.00

Table 6 budget summary

16
GIS BASED LANDSLIDE SUSCEPTIBILITY ASSESSMENT AND FACTOR EFFECT ANALYSIS IN 2022
WOLDIA TOWN AND ITS SURROUNDING

REFERENCES

Alemayehu, A., 2006. Local spatiotemporal variability and trends in rainfall and temperature in
the central highlands of Ethiopia.

Aleotti, P &Chowdhury, R. 1999. Landslide hazard assessment: summary review and new
perspectives. Bulletin of Engineering Geology and the Environment, 58: 21-44.

Anbalagen, R., 1992.Landslide Hazard Evaluation and zonation mapping in mountains terrain.

Ayalew, L., 1999. The effect of seasonal rainfall on landslide is in the highlands of Ethiopia.

Bobrowsky, PT., 2008. Guide to understanding landslide. US geological survey, p 129.

Dai, F.C., Lee, C.F &Ngai, Y .Y. 2002. Landslide risk assessment and management: an
overview. Engineering Geology, 64: 65-87.

Hofmann, C., Courtillot, V., Feraud, G., Rochette, P., Yirgu, G., Ketefo, E. &Pik, R. (1997).
Timing of the Ethiopian flood basalt event and implications for plume birth and global change.
Nature 389: 838–841.

Ibrahim, J. 2011. Landslide Assessment and Hazard Zonation in Mersa and Wurgessa, North
Wollo, Ethiopia.MSc. Thesis. Addis Ababa University, Ethiopia.

Lulseged, A. (1999). The effect of seasonal rainfall on landslides in the highlands of Ethiopia.
Bull. Eng. Geol. Environ. 58: 9–19.

Monthly maximum and minimum temperature of Sirinka station, 2005.

Monthly rainfall data Sirinka station, 2005.

Raghuvanshi T.K., 2011 Slope stability susceptibility evaluation parameter (SSEP) rating
scheme – An approach for landslide hazard zonation. (Unpublished, research paper), Department
of Earth sciences, Addis Ababa University.

Singh, B. 1996 .hazard and risk assessment mapping of mountainous terrains case study from
Kumauni Himalaya, India.Eng Geol.43:237-246.

17
GIS BASED LANDSLIDE SUSCEPTIBILITY ASSESSMENT AND FACTOR EFFECT ANALYSIS IN 2022
WOLDIA TOWN AND ITS SURROUNDING

USGS (United States of Geological Survey), 2004. (http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2004/3072/fs2004-

3072.html).

Varnes, D. J. and the International Association of Engineering Geology Commission on

Landslide and Other Mass Movements on Slopes (1984). Landslide hazard zonation: a review of
principles and practice (ISBN 92-3-101895-7) United Nations Educational, Scientific and
Cultural Organization (UNESCO), 7 place deFontenoy, 75700 Paris, France, 60 pp.

Wang, X., Niu, R., 2009. Spatial forecast of landslides in three gorges based on spatial data
mining. Sensors 9, 2035–2061.

18