EMT -I Most Important Short Questions

1. What are the limitations of coulomb’s law ?

Coulomb's law has several limitations:

1. Coulomb’s law does not apply to time-varying fields or moving charges.

2. It assumes point charges and does not account for the distribution of charge.

3. It is limited to classical effects. It does not consider quantum effects.

4. It is only valid in electrostatic situations, where charges are at rest, and does not account for dynamic interactions between moving charges.

2. Define electrostatic work also give its expression.

Electrostatic work (W):

“The energy required to move a charge from one point to another against an electric field.”

Expression:

W = ∫E.dl

Where:

W = electrostatic work

E = electric field

dl = infinitesimal displacement vector

3. What are Poisson equation and Laplace equation also give their physical significance.

Poisson Equation:

The Poisson equation relates the charge density to the electric potential in a region of space. It is given by:

∇²V = -ρ/ε₀

Where V is the electric potential, ρ is the charge density, and ε₀ is the vacuum permittivity.

Physical significance:

The Poisson equation describes how charge distribution effects the electric potential in a region. It helps in understanding the relationship between charge
density and electric potential.

Laplace Equation:

The Laplace equation describes the distribution of electric potential in a region having no charges (ρ = 0). It is given by:

∇²V = 0

Physical significance:

The Laplace equation represents regions of space where there are no charges present. It helps in determining the distribution of electric potential in such
regions.

In both equations, ∇² represents the Laplacian operator, which measures how quickly an electric potential changes with respect to position.

4.Differentiate between line charge and line image.

Line Charge:
  A line charge is a distribution of electric charge along a straight line.
 It has a linear density. It is often represented as λ (lambda) meaning the charge per unit length.
 The electric field due to a line charge follows Coulomb’s law.

Line Image:

 A line image is an imaginary line that represents the path of an electric field line produced by the charges.
 It helps visualize how electric field lines propagate in space around charged objects.
 Line images are useful in understanding the behavior of electric fields.

In summary, a line charge is a real distribution of charge along a straight line, while a line image is an imaginary representation of electric field lines due to
that charge distribution.

5.Differentiate between uniform and non uniform polarization give examples.

1. Uniform Polarization:

 In uniform polarization, the dipole moment per unit volume (P) is constant throughout the material.
 The electric field within the material is uniform and directed in the same direction as the external electric field.
 Example: A uniformly polarized dielectric slab with a constant dipole moment per unit volume.

2. Non-uniform Polarization:

 In non-uniform polarization, the dipole moment per unit volume (P) varies through out the material.
 The electric field within the material is not uniform and can have different directions .
 Example: A non-uniformly polarized dielectric sphere with a varying dipole moment per unit volume.

6.What is the reason for the high stability of polarized ferroelectric materials?

There following reasons for the high stability of polarized ferroelectric materials:
1. Spontaneous electric polarization due to aligned electric dipole moments.
2. Strong electrostatic interactions between aligned dipoles.
3. Hysteresis behavior for retaining polarization after the removal of external field .

7.Define current density also give its expression.

Current density (J):

“The amount of electric current flowing per unit area of a given cross-section.”

Expression:

J=I/A

Where:

J = current density (A/m²)

I = electric current (A)

A = cross-sectional area (m²)

Alternatively, in terms of charge density and velocity:

J = ρv

Where:
Ρ = charge density (C/m³)

V = drift velocity (m/s)

8.What is the relation between electric susceptibility and dielectric constant?

Electric susceptibility (χ) and dielectric constant (ε) are related by:

Χ=ε–1

Or

ε=χ+1

This shows that the dielectric constant is equal to 1 plus the electric susceptibility, which represents the material’s response to an external electric field.

9.Define molecular field also give it’s expression.

Molecular field (Em) is the average electric field experienced by a molecule in a dielectric material, due to the polarization of surrounding molecules.

Expression:

Em = E + (P/3ε₀)

Where:

Em = molecular field

E = external electric field

P = polarization of the material

ε₀ = electric constant (permittivity of free space)

10.Differentiate between polar and non polar molecules give examples.

Polar molecules:

 Have a permanent electric dipole moment

 Have unequal sharing of electrons, resulting in a slightly positive charge on one end and a slightly negative charge on the other
 Examples: Water (H₂O), ammonia (NH₃), sulfur dioxide (SO₂)

Nonpolar molecules:

 Have no permanent electric dipole moment

 Have equal sharing of electrons, results in symmetrical shape.
 Examples: Oxygen (O₂), nitrogen (N₂), methane (CH₄)

Note: Polar molecules are capable of forming hydrogen bonds, while nonpolar molecules are not.

11.Differentiate between Ohmic and non Ohmic conditions.

Ohmic conditions:

 Follow Ohm’s Law (V=IR)

 Resistance is constant
 Current varies linearly with voltage
 Examples: metals, conductors

Non-Ohmic conditions:

 Do not follow Ohm’s Law

 Resistance varies with voltage or current
 Current does not vary linearly with voltage
 Examples: semiconductors, diodes, transistors, gases, vacuum tubes.

12. Explain briefly the condition under which Coulomb’s law is valid?
Coulomb’s law is valid under the following conditions:

 Point charges: The charges must be considered as point charges.

 Stationary charges: The charges must be at rest relative to each other.
 Spherically symmetric charge distribution: The charges must have a spherically symmetric distribution like point charges or charged spheres.
 No overlapping charges: The charges must be distinct and not overlap.

13. What is linear, isotropic and a homogeneous dielectric?

Linear, isotropic, and homogeneous dielectrics are materials that exhibit the following properties:

Linear:

 The material responds directly proportional to the applied electric field.

 The polarization of the material is directly proportional to the electric field.
 The material follows Ohm’s law (D = εE, where D is the electric displacement, ε is the permittivity, and E is the electric field).

Isotropic:

 The material has the same properties in all directions.

 The material behaves independent of the electric field.

Homogeneous:

 The material has the same properties in all directions.

 The material is uniform in composition and structure.

Examples of linear, isotropic, and homogeneous dielectrics include:

 Air
 Water
 Most gases
 Some crystals (like quartz)
 Certain ceramics

14. Briefly explain the difference between electrostatic potential energy and energy density of an electrostatic field. Also write their expressions.

Electrostatic Potential Energy (U):

 The total energy stored in a charged object or system

 Depends on the charge and separation distance
 Expression: U = kq1q2/r (for two point charges) or U = (1/2)CV^2 (for a capacitor)

Energy Density of an Electrostatic Field (u):

 The energy stored per unit volume in the electric field

 Depends on the electric field strength and permittivity of the material
 Expression: u = (1/2)ε₀E^2 (in free space) or u = (1/2)εE^2 (in a dielectric material)

Where:

 k is Coulomb’s constant
 q1 and q2 are the charges
 r is the separation distance
 C is the capacitance
 V is the voltage
 ε₀ is the permittivity of free space
 ε is the permittivity of the material
 E is the electric field strength

14.What is the basis of method of electrostatic images? Give it significance.

The basis of the method of electrostatic images is as follows:

Uniqueness Theorem: A static electric field in a volume V is uniquely determined if the electric potential on all boundaries and the charge density throughout
the region are specified.
Method of Images: The method of images is a problem-solving tool in electrostatics. It involves replacing the complex physical situation with a simpler mirror
setup.

Significance: The method of images is significant because it helps to simplify complex problems in electrostatics. It is used to calculate the electric field
produced by a point charge near a conducting plate.

15.Under what conditions an ordinary dielectric material shows ferroelectric behavior ?

1. Temperature: The material should be at a specific temperature range where it exhibits ferroelectric behavior.

2. Polarization: should have a spontaneous polarization under an electric field.

3. Hysteresis: The material should show hysteresis loops in the polarization-electric field curve.

16.What is the drift velocity of charge carrier ? Give its relation with current density .

Drift velocity (vd):

“The average velocity of charge carriers (e.g. electrons) in a conductor under the influence of an electric field.”

Relation with current density (J):

J = n × e × vd

Where:

n = charge carrier density

e = elementary charge

This shows that current density is directly proportional to drift velocity.

17.What is joule heating effect in conducting media ?Give its expression.

Joule heating is the process by which the passage of an electric current through a conductor produces heat .

The expression for the heat evolved per second or the electric power loss is given by :

P = I²R

Where:

P is the power in watts (joules per second)

I is the current in amperes

R is the resistance in ohms

18.State ohm’s law in terms of current density and conductivity .

Ohm’s law states that the current density (J) in a conducting medium is directly proportional to the electric field E applied across it and is given by:

J=σ*E

Where:

J = Current density (in amperes per square meter)

σ = Conductivity of the medium (in Siemens per meter)

E = Electric field (in newton’s per coulomb)

The relation can also be written as:

I=σ*V

Where:

I = Current flowing through the conductor (in amperes)

V = Voltage applied across the conductor (in volts)

σ = Conductivity of the medium (in Siemens per meter)

19 .What is meant by polarization, displacement current and electric susceptibility of a dielectric also give their expressions ?

Polarization:

Polarization of a dielectric is the process by which electric charges within a dielectric become aligned in response to an applied electric field. This
alignment creates a separation of charges and generate electric dipole moments within the material.

Polarization (P) = χe * E

where E is the applied electric field.

Displacement Current:

Displacement current is the flow of electric charge that occurs when an electric field changes over time within a material. This current does not involve the
movement of actual charges but is related to the change in electric displacement.

Displacement Current (Id) = -d(D)/dt

where D is the electric displacement and t is time.

Electric Susceptibility of a Dielectric:

Electric susceptibility (χe) is a measure of how easily a dielectric material can be polarized by an external electric field. It quantifies how much the material’s
polarization will change when placed in an electric field relative to its original polarization state.

A higher susceptibility indicates that the material can be more easily polarized, while lower susceptibility suggests it is less susceptible to external fields.

Electric Susceptibility (χe) = P / (ε₀ * E)

where ε₀ is the vacuum permittivity and E is the applied electric field.

20.Define polarization of dielectric and also give its types?

Polarization of a dielectric: Polarization of a dielectric is the process by which electric charges within a dielectric become aligned in response to an applied
electric field. This alignment creates a separation of charges and generate electric dipole moments within the material.

Polarization (P) = χe * E

Where E is applied electric field.

Types of polarization in dielectrics:

a) Electronic polarization: This occurs when the valence electrons of atoms or molecules are displaced relative to the nucleus and creates temporary
dipoles.

b) Ionic polarization: This occurs when ions within the dielectric are displaced and create permanent dipoles.

c) Orientational polarization: Also known as dipole moment polarization, this type occurs when permanent dipoles (such as those found in polar
molecules) align themselves when electric field is applied.

d) Space charge polarization: This type occurs due to the accumulation of free charges (electrons or holes) at the boundaries between different
regions within the dielectric.

21. Write types of polarization charge density also write their formula?

Surface polarization charge density:

This occurs when a dielectric material is polarized, and the dipoles align themselves near the surface of the material.

Formula:

σ = P · an
where

 σ is the surface polarization charge density,

 P is the polarization vector
 an is the unit normal vector to the surface.

Volume polarization charge density:

This occurs when the polarization within a dielectric material is not uniform.

Formula:

ρ = -∇ · P

where

 ρ is the volume polarization charge density

 P is the polarization vector
 ∇ is the divergence operator.

22.Write the general properties of a conductor?

1. High electrical conductivity

2. Low resistivity

3. Good thermal conductivity

4. Ductility and malleability

5. High density of free electrons

23.What are the applications of Laplacian equations?

The Laplacian equation, which describes the distribution of a potential field, has a wide range of applications in various fields:

1. Electrostatics

2. Fluid dynamics

3. Heat transfer

4. Quantum mechanics

5. Geophysics

6. Astronomy

24.Write down the characteristics of electric field lines ?

1. Electric field lines always originate from positive charges and terminate on negative charges.

2. They never cross each other, indicating that the electric field at a given point is unique.

3. The density of field lines at any point indicates the strength of the electric field at that point.

4. The tangent to field line at any point gives the direction of the electric field intensity at that point.

25.Write a note on linear charge distribution, surface charge distribution and volume charge distribution .

1. Linear charge distribution:

A linear charge distribution is a distribution of electric charge along a straight line.

When the charge density is constant across the line this distribution is uniform .
 When the charge density varies at different points on the line this distribution is non uniform.

Linear charge density:

The amount of charge per unit area is called surface charge density.

It is usually denoted by the symbol λ(lamda) and has units of coulombs per meter (C/m).

The charge density can be positive or negative, depending on the type of charge present.

2. Continuous surface charge distribution:

In a continuous surface charge distribution, the electric charge is spread out over a surface rather than concentrated at specific points.

When the charge density is constant across the surface this distribution is uniform .

When the charge density varies at different points on the surface this distribution is non uniform.

Surface charge density:

The amount of charge per unit area is called surface charge density.

It is usually denoted by the symbol σ (sigma) and has units of coulombs per square meter (C/m²).

The charge density can be positive or Negative, depending on the type of charge present.

3. Volume charge distribution:

In a volume charge distribution, the electric charge is distributed throughout a three dimensional region rather than distributed on a surface or at
specific points.

When the charge density is constant throughout the volume this distribution is uniform.

When the charge density varies at different points within the volume this distribution is non uniform.

Volume charge density:

The amount of charge per unit volume is called volume charge density.

It is usually denoted by the symbol ρ (rho) and has units of coulombs per cubic meter (C/m³).

The charge density can be positive or negative depending on the type of charge present.

Solid angle:

The amount of three-dimensional space or region subtended or covered by object when viewed from a specific point is called solid angle.

Solid angle Ω can be defined as the surface area A divided by the square of the distance r from the observation point to the center of the object.

Ω = A / r²

The unit of measurement for solid angle is the steradian (sr).

Steradian (sr) is defined as the solid angle subtended by a unit sphere at its center.

Gradient of a scalar:

The maximum rate of increase of a scalar function with respect to space in a particular direction is called gradient of that scalar function.

It measures how the scalar quantity varies in different directions in space.

Mathematically:

The gradient of a scalar field φ is denoted by the symbol ∇φ, where ∇ represents the gradient operator (also known as the del operator).

The curl of a vector:

A mathematical operator that represents the rotation or circulation of a vector field at a given point is called curl of that vector.

It measures the tendency of a vector field to circulate around a point .

Mathematically:
 The curl of a vector field F is denoted by the symbol ∇ × F, where ∇ represents the gradient operator (also called the del operator). The curl is
calculated by taking the cross product of the gradient operator with the vector field.

Divergence of a vector:

A mathematical operation that represents the spreading out or converging behavior of a vector field at a given point is called divergence of that
vector.

It measures how much the vector field is diverging or converging from that point.

Mathematically:

The divergence of a vector field F is denoted by the symbol ∇ · F, where ∇ represents the gradient operator (also called the del operator). The
divergence is calculated by taking the dot product of the gradient operator with the vector field.

Point charge:

A point charge is a hypothetical charge that is assumed to be concentrated at a single point in space.

26.State first uniqueness theorem also write it’s expression.

The First Uniqueness Theorem states:

“A static electric field in a volume V is uniquely determined if the electric potential on all boundaries and the charge density throughout the region are
specified.”

Mathematically, this can be expressed as:

∇²V = -ρ/ε₀

Where:

 V is the electric potential

 ρ is the charge density
 ε₀ is the electric constant (permittivity of free space)
 ∇² is the Laplacian operator

This theorem ensures that a unique solution exists for the electric potential and field in a given region, provided the boundary conditions and charge
distribution are known.

27.What are zonal harmonics? Give their physical importance.

Zonal harmonics are solutions of Laplace’s equation in spherical coordinates, representing the potential of a spherical shell or a point charge. They are used
to describe the electric potential or gravitational potential of a spherical body.

Physical importance:

 Describe the electric field of a spherical charge distribution

 Used in electrostatics to calculate the potential and field from its boundary values
 Zonal harmonics are useful in understanding various physical phenomena in fields like physics, geophysics, and astronomy.

28.Define electric displacement field also give its expression.

Electric Displacement Field (D):

“The electric displacement field, also known as electric flux density, is a measure of the electric field inside a dielectric material, taking into account
the material’s polarization.”

Expression:

D = εE

Where:

D = electric displacement field

ε = permittivity of the material (including the material’s polarization)
E = electric field
29.Define polarizability. Also give its expression ?

Polarizability (α):

“The ability of an atom or molecule to form an electric dipole in response to an external electric field, resulting in a distortion of its electron cloud.”

Expression:

α=p/E

Where:

α = polarizability

P = induced electric dipole moment

E = external electric field

Note: Polarizability measures of how easily an atom or molecule can be polarized,

30.Define ferroelectric materials also give example ?

Ferroelectric materials are a special type of dielectric material that exhibit spontaneous electric polarization, meaning they have a permanent electric dipole
moment even in the absence of an external electric field. This polarization can be reversed by applying a strong enough electric field in the opposite direction.

Examples of ferroelectric materials include:

 Barium Titanate (BaTiO3)

 Lead Zirconate Titanate (PZT)
 Triglycine Sulphate
 Lithium Tantalate
 Rochelle salt
 Polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF)

31.What is the difference between the free charge and bound charge ?

Free charge:

 Free charges are those that can move freely within a material, like electrons in a conductor.
 They contribute to electrical conductivity.

Bound charge:

 Bound charges are those that are tightly bound to atoms or molecules, like protons in the nucleus or electrons in the inner shells of atoms.
 They cannot move freely and don’t contribute to current flow.

Best of luck

Written and composed by M Shahbaz $