1

Chapter I

THE PROBLEM AND ITS BACKGROUND

Introduction

Soil micro-arthropods include small invertebrate animals

with a exoskeleton and segmented body that are visible to the

human eye with some magnification for identification.

Among soil micro-arthropods, springtails (Collembola)

and mites (Acari) play a primary role in the recycling of

nutrients within terrestrial ecosystems.

In particular, they are consumers of microbes such as

bacteria and fungi. In fact, their feeding activity is better

described as ‘grazing’. Through this grazing they stimulate

microbial activity and contribute to the mineralization of

nitrogen and thereby to plant growth. As such play an

important role in soil fertility.

Their morphology reveals where exactly they live in

the soil profile. Epidaphic collembolan e.g. have a large

body size, long antennas, legs and furca (springtail)and are

very colourful. They live at the soil surface.

Deeper into the soil profile, especially in heavy

(clayey) textured soils, species are small, white and lack a

springtail. They are known as eudaphic species. In between,

 2

hemiedaphic species are distinguished. Such adaptation to

specific habitat conditions used in the trait research.

The curiosity of the researcher, aside from

recognizing its importance as mentioned above, the researcher

is interested to study micro arthropods as bio indicator of

soil health in rice fields with different farming practices

in Gamay, Northern Samar. Results may serve as basis in

maintaining soil health for sustainable rice farming in the

locality.

Objectives of the Study

Generally the study aims to determine the species

composition and abundance of microarthropods in rice fields

of Gamay, Northern Samar.

Specifically it aims to:

1. Identify production practices of rice farmers in the

study area.

2. Determine species composition and abundance of

microarthropods in soils.
 3

3. Compare species composition and abundance of

microarthropods in soils from different farming

practices.

Significance of the Study

Results of the study will be beneficial to farmers,

particularly rice farmers, on the importance of arthropods to

soil and the impacts of rice farming practices to its species

composition and abundance and to the general health of the

soil.

Results will also serve as information in coming up with

effective strategies in farming systems that will insure

conservation of micro arthropods and other soil organisms

functions in soil that will result to sustainable production.

The objectives and methods of the will serve as basis

for further holistic studies of soil health by improving the

limitations of the current study.

Scope and Limitations of this Study

This study will be conducted in the rice fields of Gamay,

Northern Samar during the second semester of school year 2022-

2023.
 4

The study will focus on identifying production practices

of rice farmers in the study area; determining species

composition and abundance of microarthropods in soils; and

comparing species composition and abundance of

microarthropods in soils from different farming practices.

Processing of samples will be done in the College of

Science Laboratory. The study maybe limited with the exact

materilas needed for soil collection and sample analysis and

may only resort to improvised materials while still insuring

the quality of the results.

Definition of Terms

The following terms are operationally defined and

explained to indicate how they are used in the study.

Abundance is an ecological concept referring to the

relative representation of a species in an ecosystem; it is

usually measured as the number of individuals found per

sample. In this study, it means the number of organisms of

species encountered during the actual conduct.

Soil Fauna in deserts is important as detritus

consumers and as regulators of decomposition and nutrient

cycling.
 5

Macro Fauna in warm deserts is dominated by

subterranean termites.

Earthworms are probably limited to areas with silty

soils where soil moisture remains relatively high either from

rainfall or from fog condensation.

Microhabitats include springtails, Collembola, book-

lice, Psocoptera, and a variety of insect larve

Biological soil crusts dominated by lichens, moss and

cyanobacteria provide a different habitat for microarthropods

than the typical litter covered soil under shrubs or

associated with glass tussocks.

Protozoans means”first animals”, but they are single

celled organisms.

Amensalism is the main mechanism by which endogeic

earthworms affect soil microarthropods.

Classification is a process of identifying, naming

and categorizing the species collected in this study,based on

their physical and biological characteristic.

Distribution may refer to either how many or what

proportion of the group. In this study, it means the

 6

composition and number of species found in different habitats

studied.

Habitat an environment that provides the things an

organism needs to live, grow, and reproduce.

Biodiversity is “the structural and functional

variability of the diverse life forms that inhabit the

biosphere, at increasing levels of organization and

complexity: at the genetic, population, species, community

and ecosystem levels” (see what is biodiversity? and

Biodiversity is not a luxury but a necessity). This definition

highlights the need to understand and measure soil

biodiversity in two aspects: the diversity of species and

families (taxa) and the diversity of functions.

Taxonomic richness corresponds number of taxa (a

taxon is a group corresponding to a level of classification

of living organisms, such as a species or family) identified

in the system under study. For an equal number of individuals,

the more taxa present (species for example), the greater the

diversity of a community. It is also usual to consider the

abundance (number of individuals) of each taxon.

Functional biodiversity describes “who does what in

the ecosystem” or who is what” and not just “who is present”

in a given community. Thus, to characterize functional

 7

diversity, it is necessary to assign or measure functions

(nitrification, degradation of organic compounds...) or roles

for each individual in a given community.

 8

Chapter II

REVIEW OF LITERATURE AND STUDIES

Related Literature

Soil microarthropods belongs to the mesofauna (body

width~100µm to ~2mm) and form an important component of

terrestrial soil food webs since they can attain densities of

hundreds of thousands individual m-2(Coleman et al., 2004).

From: Pedobiologia, 2010.

Microarthropods

Arthropods have segmented bodies, jointed legs, and a

cuticle that acts as an exoskeleton. Insects, mites, and

spiders are arthropods. The two most abundant groups of soil

microarthropods are the collembolas (Animalia; Arthropoda,

Insecta) and mites (Animalia, Chelicerta:Arachida). They are

found on or near the surface of the soil and in plant litter.

Populations range between 103 m-2 in agricultural soils and

106 m-2 in forest soils.

Collembolans, also known as springtails, are wingless

insects a few millimetres in length and 0.2-2 mm in width.

They get their in common name from the ability of springtails

that live aboveground to catapult considerable distances

 9

using their furcula, a tail-like forked organ. However, this

organ is reduced or not present in soil-dwelling

collembolans, an adaptation to subterranean life. They are

aerial organisms but are susceptible to dry as well as

saturated soil conditions. They are sufficiently small to fit

within interaggregate spaces in soil where water drains

freely. They are thought to be omnivorous, feeding on

bacteria, fungi, nematodes, algae, other collembolans, and

decaying plant material. Ecologically, springtails that

consume plant detritus are regarded as shredders that

fragment the litter and increase the susceptibility of the

litter to microbial colonization by increasing its surface-

to-volume ratio.

A soil collembolan (Onychiurus sp.)

Collembolans that live within the soil tend to be more

compact than those that live aboveground.

Source: by Laura Amador, based on Eisenbeis and Wichard

(1997).

Mites are the other important group of microarthropods

in the soil. They have oval bodies with four pairs of legs.

Oribatid mites feed on fungi, decomposing plant detritus,or

both. They tend to be the most abundant group of mites in

many soils. The mesostigmatid mites are primarily predators

 10

of small arthropods and nematodes. Prostigmatid mites include

some fungal feeders, but most species appear to be predators

of small arthropods and nematodes. They can be distinguished

from Orbatid and mesostigmatid mites by the presence of a

constriction between the anterior and posterior part of the

body that absent in the other two.

Examples (A) orbatid (Nothrus sp.) and (B)mesostigmatid

(Uropoda cassidea) soil mites.

Related Studies

Soil microarthropods belong to the mesofauna (body

width ∼100μm to ∼2mm) and form an important component of

terrestrial soil food webs since they can attain densities of

hundreds of thousands individuals m−2 (Coleman et al. 2004).

From: Pedobiologia, 2010

Long-term warming research in high-latitude ecosystems:

Responses from polar ecosystems and implications for future

climate

Natasja van Gestel, ... Diana H. Wall, in Ecosystem

Consequences of Soil Warming, 2019

 11

Interaction between warming and water manipulation

Several studies revealed that the effects of warming

can be canceled or enhanced by water availability. On the

Antarctic Peninsula, soil microarthropod abundance and moss

biomass responded positively to experimental warming only

when in combination with water addition (Day et al., 2009).

By contrast, experimental water addition in the Dry Valleys

either canceled the effects of warming on soil nematodes (Wall

et al. unpublished), or had no effect (Treonis et al., 2002).

In the latter study, however, soil respiration rate increased

when soil moisture was elevated under a constant relatively

high temperature (10°C). Field observations suggest that

concomitant increases in temperature and soil moisture can

have large effects on terrestrial Antarctic ecosystems. A

discrete warming event in the austral summer of 2001–02 in

the McMurdo Dry Valleys caused a pulse of meltwater, which

dramatically increased water availability in

characteristically dry soils. This resulted in considerable

declines of the dominant nematode species, S. lindsayae,

along with increases in another, much less abundant species

(Barrett et al., 2008b). Such effects persisted for years

thereafter, highlighting the importance of transient but

intense climate-driven events in polar ecosystems (Fountain

et al., 2016). In fact, the abrupt warming perturbation of

 12

December 2001 had ecosystem-scale consequences for the Dry

Valleys (Gooseff et al., 2017), and the following shift in

air temperature trend, from cooling to nondirectional, led to

an asynchrony of previously consistent biological trends

(Gooseff et al., 2017) and to shifts in abundance and

diversity of soil fauna (Andriuzzi et al., 2018). Similar

responses may occur also at lower latitudes as short-lived

but intense climate-driven perturbations become more

frequent. Determining the number of microarthropods in soil

involves driving or floating them out of a soil sample

(Moldenke, 1994). The Berlese funnel method involves placing

the soil sample on a wire mesh within a funnel and applying

an environmental stimulant (light, heat, or a chemical

irritant) that forces the organisms out of the soil. The mites

fall through the mesh and are collected in a bottle placed

below the funnel. Microarthropods can also be extracted by

shaking a soil sample in a dense salt solution. The organisms

of interest float to the surface while the soil particles

fall to the bottom of the container.

Heikki Setälä, in Dynamic Food Webs, 2005

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Species Diversity and Ecosystem Processes

Based on the obvious non-specialized feeding habits of most

soil organisms of the detrital food web it may be predicted

that the relationship between species diversity and ecosystem

functioning is weak. The few studies that exist of this topic

indeed refer to high functional similarity between species

across various trophic groups. Liiri et al. (2002a)

manipulated the species number (1 to 51 species) of soil

microarthropods (Acari and Collembola) in microcosms

containing seedlings of silver birch. The tree seedlings grew

significantly larger in systems with a couple of species of

microarthropods as compared to microarthropod free controls.

However, tree growth in systems with five or more species did

not differ from those containing the full set of

microarthropod community, indicating a high degree of

functional redundancy among these fauna.

Similarly, in their microcosm experiment Setälä and

McLean (2003) manipulated the taxonomic richness of soil

saprophytic fungi and followed decomposition activity

(measured as CO2 production) in the systems. They showed that

decomposition activity was only weakly related to the

diversity of soil fungi in the microcosms. As with the study

with microarthropods (Liiri et al., 2002a) the only

 14

significant differences in decomposing activity between the

diversity treatments took place at the species poor (1 to 5

species) end of the gradient (Setälä and MacLean, 2003) (see

Figure 1D). The limiting data available thus suggests that

the idea of complementary resource use (Tilman et al., 1997)

(i.e., that each species possesses certain traits that allow

them to utilize resources differently, holds poorly in

soils).

Christian Mulder, ... Ian J. Wright, in Advances in Ecological

Research, 2013

Antagonism and mutualism: Implications for agroforestry

In the absence of earthworms, such as in boreal

forests, the largest part of fresh organic matter consists of

soil microbes (Högberg and Högberg, 2002). Coniferous forests

of higher latitudes, where only few plant species dominate,

may have > 1000 species of ectomycorrhizal fungi (ECM). The

narrow range of plant hosts and the high diversity of ECM can

be assumed to enable a more efficient utilisation of resources

by the host plant (Perry et al., 1989). In contrast, < 25

species of AM fungi have been found in deciduous forests of

lower latitudes that contain more than 1000 plant species

(Allen et al., 1995; Janos, 1992). Since different species

 15

may be linked by the same mycorrhizal network, resources may

be transferred from one plant to another through hyphal

linkages. It seems plausible that shifting resources from one

plant to another may decrease competition between different

host plants (Read et al., 1985). This is important since the

release of enzymes by ECM increases the uptake capacity of

organically bound nutrients (Allen and Allen, 1990) and

directly links the host plant to the N sources in organic

soils (Cleveland and Liptzin, 2007; Hättenschwiler and

Vitousek, 2000; Michelsen et al., 1996; Vargas et al., 2010).

Although AM fungi are not able to mineralise N from organic

matter on their own, their extraradical hyphae are highly

efficient in the acquisition and translocation of inorganic

N to host plants (Govindarajulu et al., 2005; Hodge and

Fitter, 2010). In addition, AM fungi can be spread by soil

microarthropods, some of which are known to be specialised

dispersal agents (Klironomos and Moutoglis, 1999). On the

other hand, the network of AM fungi can become disrupted with

damage for the seedlings of tree hosts by invasive herbs and

forbs colonising the understory (Stinson et al., 2006), with

dramatic and unclear consequences for agroforestry.

 16

Mycorrhizal root N concentration and root

respiration vary across tree hosts (Trocha et al., 2010) and

vary even more with root depth (Lindahl et al., 2007), as

changes in soil N availability with soil depth have been

reported in boreal coniferous forests (Fig. 2.15). Divergent

soil C:N ratios in C-rich soils in boreal Europe are also

supported by previous studies addressing the mean annual

temperature, as forests in cooler climates leach more N than

forests in warmer climates (Dise et al., 2009). A soil C:N

ratio changing further with depth (Jobbágy and Jackson, 2000;

Lindahl et al., 2007) can explain the vertical differences in

δ15N values observed by Scheu and Falca (2000) and Uchida et

al. (2004) between epigeic earthworms (exploiting fresh

litter) and endogeic earthworms (exploiting decomposed

resources) and is likely to influence nutrient cycling. One

caveat regarding nutrients changing vertically is the co-

variance with other parameters that vary with depth, such as

moisture, temperature, pH and soil texture (Jobbágy and

Jackson, 2000), although such trends in nutrients are less

evident in agroecosystems due to tillage and ploughing.

Changing of litter and soil elemental qualities

throughout an upper soil profile from one boreal forest in

Swedish Jädraås at 60ᵒ49′ N 16ᵒ30′ E. From left to right, age

in years, increasing with depth (estimated from the 14C-

 17

average of three samples from each horizon), litter and soil

C:N ratios and natural 15N abundance.

Redrawn from Lindahl et al. (2007).

Simple but comprehensive models, like the carbon–

nutrient balance hypothesis, show the lack of evidence for an

optimal plant defence due to allocation to secondary

metabolites and decreased palatability (Hamilton et al.,

2001), but the complexity of multitrophic interactions

occurring in the green world, especially in the presence of

specialised networks or at extreme environments, may re-open

the discussion on the role of secondary metabolites in plant

tissues. Further, C:N changes with soil depth , vertically

stratified foliar δ13C changes in trees (e.g. Crowley et al.,

2012) and significant increase in δ13C values with soil depth

under grasslands (e.g. Briones and Bol, 2003) are all

consistent with the idea of several trait-mediated horizontal

levels of co-existing networks with independent eco-

stoichiometry and specific mutualism or antagonism. For

instance, direct and indirect interactions between fine plant

roots and organisms at different soil depth stimulate growth

of plants and invertebrate herbivores (Bonkowski, 2004;

Hausmann et al., 2003; Moles et al., 2011; Scheu and Setälä,

 18

2002), in a comparable way to plant–arthropod interactions

above-ground (e.g. larvae feeding on foliage but adults

pollinating flowers).

Collembolan Impacts on Soil Ecosystems

The direct effect of collembolans on ecosystem

processes such as energy flow appears to be quite small. Their

biomass is relatively tiny, their respiration rates are but

a fraction of total soil CO2 efflux, and their feeding rates

account for only a small amount of microbial activity. They

share these characteristics with other soil microarthropods

(Gjelstrup and Petersen, 1987). These conclusions have led

Andrén et al. (1999) to a sardonic statement, to wit: “Soil

animals exist. I like soil animals. They respire too little.

Ergo, they must CONTROL something!” Those authors caution us

to avoid an overly enthusiastic appraisal of the importance

of microarthropods in soil ecosystems. Nevertheless,

manipulation experiments have shown important impacts of

collembola on nitrogen mineralization, soil respiration,

leaching of dissolved organic carbon, and plant growth

(Filser, 2002). These system responses may be viewed as

indirect effects. Assessing the importance of Collembola in

soil ecosystems needs to be done in the context of the intact

 19

system and may be expected to vary with temperature, moisture,

season, and interactions with other soil biota.

Grazing upon fungal hyphae appears to be the major

contribution of Collembola in the decomposition process. Such

grazing on fungal hyphae may be selective, thus influencing

the fungal community Indirectly, such direct effects on the

fungal community may have indirect effects on nutrient

cycling (Moore et al., 1987). Selective grazing by the

collembolan Onychiurus latus changed the outcome of

competition between two basidiomycete decomposer fungi

(Newell, 1984a, bNewell, 1984aNewell, 1984b), allowing an

inferior competitor to prosper. Grazing upon fungi may

actually increase general fungal activity in soils and

stimulate fungal growth. The relationship between fungal and

collembolan population dynamics is not straightforward,

however, because some collembolan species may reproduce more

successfully on least favored foods (Walsh and Bolger, 1990).

Collembola have been demonstrated to have complex

interactions with several fungal species simultaneously.

Cotton was grown in a greenhouse with four fungal species,

the pathogen R. solani and three known biocontrol fungi

(including two sporulating Hyphomycetes), and the

rhizosphere-inhabiting collembolan Proisotoma minuta. The

 20

collembolan preferentially fed on the pathogenic fungus and

avoided the biocontrol fungi (Lartey et al., 1994).

An alternative to the functional approaches just

discussed is taken by André et al. (2002), who note that most

investigators use inadequate sampling designs or sample too

shallowly in the soil profile to get a complete sample of

microarthropods to provide the information used in the models

noted previously. In an extensive survey of the worldwide

literature on microarthropods, they claim that, on average,

at most 10% of the soil microarthropod populations have been

explored and 10% of the species described, due to the use of

inefficient extraction procedures. This is supported by

Walter and Proctor (2000), who suggest that perhaps only 5%

of the species of mites worldwide are described so far. André

et al. (2002) make the very valid point that ecologists need

to be aware of the numerous pitfalls and possible flaws

inherent in many extraction procedures; that is, none of them

are 100% efficient. In the section on field studies and

laboratory analyses, we explore some of these concerns more

extensively.

There is an understandable concern that some

quantifiable relationship be given to the relationship

 21

between ecosystem function and diversity. This is portrayed

in (Bengtsson, 1998), which contrasts two curves of ecosystem

function as a function of increasing numbers of species. Type

1, a continually ascending curve, represents the hypothesis

that all species are important for ecosystem function. Type

2, initially convex and then flat, represents the species

redundancy hypothesis. Bengtsson (1998) argues that it is

more informative to consider specific functions in

ecosystems, namely decomposition, nutrient mineralization, or

primary production, thus focusing on phenomena that are more

amenable to scientific inquiry. Bengtsson (1998) argues

strongly that diversity does not play a role in ecosystem

function. He goes so far as to assert that: “correlations

between diversity and ecosystem functions—which may very well

exist—will be mainly non-causal correlations only.” As we are

trying to show in this chapter, the truth may well lie in

some midpoint between these extremes. The fact that certain

functions may be linked to just a few genera or species, such

as autotrophic and heterotrophic nitrifiers, for example,

means that this might well be a “pressure point” for concern

about long-term ecosystem function. The “natural insurance

capital” concept of Folke et al. (1996), also discussed in

detail by Bolger (2001), suggests that it is essential to

retain as much species richness as possible to ensure that

 22

complete ecosystem services exist as human needs or

environmental changes occur.

As in all areas of ecology, there is a spatial

dimension to the biodiversity of soil organisms. It is

essential to know not only which species are present, but

also where the counted species occur in relation to one

another. Do species occur together at every microsite, or do

they occur mostly individually in separate sites? This has an

important bearing on competition and other interactions, with

functional consequences for the ecosystem. Ettema and Yeates

(2003) measured patterns of small (centimeter) and

intermediate (meter [m]) scales in nematode communities in a

forest compared to a pasture system on a similar soil type in

New Zealand. Using geostatistical techniques and mathematical

calculations of species turnover, they compared nematode

genera in forestland, then in pasture. The forestland was

assumed to have greater variation in vegetation and hence

belowground inputs, on small and intermediate scales, than in

the pasture. Thus they hypothesized that nematode genera are

more strongly aggregated (occurring in “hot spots”) in the

mixed forest than in the ryegrass/white clover pasture.

Applying an optimization method for sampling in

geostatistical studies called spatial simulated annealing

(SSA) developed by Van Groenigen and Stein (1998), Ettema and

 23

Yeates (2003) sampled along 40-m-long transects for the meter

scale, with distance classes of 3 m, reflecting the scale of

tree spacing. The centimeter scale transect was one-tenth of

the large scale, or 4 m. The total number of nematodes per

soil core volume was more than five times higher in the

pasture (2800 ± 1234) than in the forest (430 ± 252), but the

average number of genera in the forest (23.7 ± 3.3) was higher

in the forest than in the pasture (19.1 ± 2.5). Also, many

more nematode genera occurred in the forest (53) than in the

pasture (37). Dissimilarity analysis showed that generic

turnover was significantly greater in the forest than in the

pasture, both at the small and intermediate scales (Ettema

and Yeates, 2003). Because increasing distance in the forest

led to increasing dissimilarity between communities, and no

plateau was reached, it is possible that there is additional

species turnover on scales larger than those explicitly

sampled. The amount of work required for larger scale studies

would be much greater, and should be kept in mind when

considering work on spatial scales even with soil fauna of

relatively small size.

An alternative to the above functional approaches is

taken by André et al. (2002), who note that most investigators

use inadequate sampling designs or sample too shallowly in

the soil profile to get a complete sample of microarthropods

 24

to provide the information used in the models noted earlier.

In an extensive survey of the worldwide literature on

microarthropods, they claim that on average, at most 10% of

the soil microarthropod populations have been explored and

10% of the species described, due to the use of inefficient

extraction procedures. This is supported by Walter and

Proctor (2000) who suggest that perhaps only 5% of the species

of mites worldwide are described so far. André et al. (2002)

make the very valid point that ecologists need to be aware of

the numerous pitfalls and possible flaws inherent in many

extraction procedures, i.e., none of them is 100% efficient.

There is an understandable concern that some quantifiable

relationship be given to the relationship between ecosystem

function and diversity. This is portrayed in

(Bengtsson, 1998), which contrasts two curves of ecosystem

function as a function of increasing numbers of species. Type

1, a continually ascending curve, represents the hypothesis

that all species are important for ecosystem function. Type

2, initially convex and then flat, represents the species

redundancy hypothesis. Bengtsson (1998) argues that it is

more informative to consider specific functions in

ecosystems, namely decomposition, nutrient mineralization, or

primary production, thus focusing on phenomena that are more

 25

amenable to scientific inquiry. Bengtsson (1998) argues

strongly that diversity does not play a role in ecosystem

function. He goes so far as to assert that: “correlations

between diversity and ecosystem functions—which may very well

exist—will be mainly noncausal correlations only.” As we are

trying to show in this chapter, the truth may well lie in

some midpoint between these extremes. The fact that certain

functions may be linked to just a few genera or species, such

as autotrophic and heterotrophic nitrifiers, for example,

means that this might well be a “pressure point,” for concern

about long-term ecosystem function. The “natural insurance

capital” concept of Folke et al. (1996), also discussed in

detail by Bolger (2001), suggests that it is essential to

retain as much species richness as possible to ensure that

complete ecosystem services exist as human needs or

environmental changes occur.

It is essential to examine specific details of

biodiversity and ecosystem services, particularly in the

context of agroecosystems, where biological control has long

been of concern. The following example, noted in a review

article by Cavigelli et al. (2012) cites at least six steps

needed to demonstrate if organic management in these systems

supports biodiversity that is functionally significant with

regard to pest control. Thus organic farming often results in

 26

greater soil biodiversity (step 1); that biodiversity must

reflect an increase in the number of beneficial organisms

(step 2); which must cause higher mortality among pests (step

3); found in similar abundance in organic and conventional

systems (step 4); and reduce pest damage (step 5); leading to

yield increases compared to conventional methods, such as

pesticide application (step 6).

A study by Crowder et al. (2010) deserves close

scrutiny because it addresses at least five of the six steps.

Thus evenness of predators and soil pathogens, though the

latter was not statistically significant, of the potato

beetle, Leptinotarsa decemlineata, was greater on organic

than conventional potato farms (steps 1 and 2). L.

decemlineata abundance was similar in the two systems (step

3). Potato plant growth rate and L. decemlineata mortality

increased with increasing evenness of both predators and soil

pathogens (steps 4 and 6; plant size is related to yield in

potato). These impacts translated into an 18% decrease in

pest densities and 35% increase in plant size for plants grown

in similar environments (Crowder et al., 2010). Keeping in

mind the semiartificial environment, Cavigelli et al. (2012)

note that this study is an exemplary one in examining a key

ecosystem service, biocontrol.

 27

The soil fauna in deserts is important as detritus

consumers and as regulators of decomposition and nutrient

cycling. The soil macrofauna in warm deserts is dominated by

subterranean termites. However, not all warm deserts have

subterranean termites (Crawford et al., 1993). At the

southern margin of the Chilean arid zone, there is evidence

that earthworms dominate the soil macrofauna. Earthworms have

also been reported from the wetter margins of the Sahara.

Earthworms are probably limited to areas with silty soils

where soil moisture remains relatively high either from

rainfall or from fog condensation (Crawford et al., 1993). In

most arid regions, termites dominate the macrofauna. The

termite faunas of Africa and Australia are the most diverse

in the world and include a number of mound building and

subterranean species. High biomass of subterranean and

epigeic termites have been reported from Saudi Arabia and

high species richness has been reported from the arid regions

of Africa and the Arabian Peninsula (Johnson and Wood, 1980;

Badawi et al., 1984). Although the termite fauna of North

American deserts is depauperate, the dominant species are

generalists that consume most dead plant materials and animal

dung (Whitford, 1991).

Desert soil mesofauna is dominated by mites (Acari) of

the suborder Prostigmata with some mites in the suborder

 28

Cryptostigmata in microsites with sufficient litter layers.

In mesic environments and semiarid woodlands, cryptostigmatid

mites dominate the soil microarthropod assemblages (Kinnear,

1991). The prostigmatid mites in desert soils tend to be

generalists that feed on fungi or on nematodes or both

(Whitford, 1996). Other microarthropods that are abundant in

some microhabitats include springtails, Collembola, book-

lice, Psocoptera, and a variety of insect larvae (Wallwork,

1982). Most of these taxa feed directly on dead plant material

and/or fungi. There are many similarities in the

microarthropod faunas of the deserts of the world (Noble et

al., 1994). Many genera of soil mites are shared among North

American deserts, Australian deserts, South American deserts,

and deserts of southern Africa (Crawford et al., 1993; Noble

et al., 1994). The diversity and abundance of microarthropods

varies with soil type and vegetation. In shrub deserts,

microarthropods are abundant under shrub canopies where

litter accumulates (Santos et al., 1978). Soils under shrubs

in more mesic microhabitats support higher densities and

diversities of microarthropods (Wallwork et al., 1985;

Crawford et al., 1993).

Biological soil crusts dominated by lichens, moss, and

cyanobacteria provide a different habitat for microarthropods

than the typical litter covered soil under shrubs or

 29

associated with grass tussocks. In a comparison of

microarthropod communities associated with biological soil

crusts on the Colorado Plateau and the Chihuahuan Desert of

New Mexico, there were six families common to both locations

and most of these families were microphytophagous (fed on

cyanobacteria and algae) (Neher et al., 2009). Some of the

species in the six families were facultative predators on

nematodes and protozoans.

Desert soils also support diverse and abundant microfauna:

nematodes and protozoans. The desert nematode fauna is

dominated by bacteria-feeding nematodes. Fungiphagous

nematodes make up the second most abundant group of nematodes

with omnivore-predators accounting for a small fraction of

the nematode community (Freckman and Mankau, 1986; Freckman

et al., 1987). Nematode abundance and diversity is positively

correlated with the quantity and quality of litter layers

under shrubs and with the abundance of fine roots under

grasses. In desert soils nematodes may be in an inactive,

anhydrobiotic state when soils are dry. Nematodes require

water films on the surface of soil particles in order to

remain active (Whitford, 1989). This generalization was

called into question by the results of a long-term (4 years)

 30

experiment in a Chihuahuan Desert grassland in which

precipitation was either decreased (rain-out shelter designed

to reduce rainfall) or increased (water from rain-out shelter

diverted to irrigate a plot) (Vandegehuchte et al., 2015).

Most nematode trophic groups were unaffected by the amount of

precipitation even after 4 consecutive years of altered

precipitation. Plant-parasitic nematodes from low moisture

soils were the only group that exhibited a positive reaction

to increased water content and that only from the 3rd year

onward. Bacteria-feeders decreased with increasing moisture

and omnivores increased initially with increasing moisture

but that diminished over time. Thus these desert nematodes

were not limited by precipitation and were resilient in

consecutive years of low moisture (Vandegehuchte et al.,

2015). This is another example of where short-term

experiments are often misleading and another example of where

species and their adaptations are important and need to be

considered before generalizations are made.

Protozoans are the other abundant microfaunal

assemblage in desert soils. The most abundant protozoans in

desert soils are naked amoebae with small numbers of testate

amoebae, ciliates, and flagellates in the assemblage (Parker

et al., 1984). Protozoans also require soil films for their

activity. When soils dry, protozoans encyst and remain in an

 31

inactive state until the soil is rewetted (Whitford, 1989).

A report on the effects of the protozoan community in the

soils surrounding nests of three different ant species showed

that several variables affected abundance, and community

structure: temporal persistence of the ant colony, nest

construction, food handling behavior, topographic position,

and soil type (Zaragoza et al., 2007). There were qualitative

and quantitative differences in protozoan communities

associated with ant nests at all locations studied. Total

protozoan abundance was higher in P. rugosus nest soil at the

top of a catena and in Aphaenogaster cockerelli nest soils on

relatively flat grassland. Amoebae were the most abundant

protozoans at all locations. Nanoflagellates were associated

with P. rugosus and Myrmecocystus depilis nest soils but were

absent from reference soils. Ciliates, testate amoebae, and

nanoflagellates were present in A. cockerelli nest soils but

absent from reference soils (Zaragoza et al., 2007).

Biological soil crusts are habitat for a variety of

microarthropods and other microfauna. The microarthropod

communities of biological soil crusts (early and late

successional stage) in the Chihuahuan Desert and the Colorado

Plateau (North America) included mites, collembolans, and

tardigrades (Neher et al., 2009). Most groups of

microarthropods were more abundant in biological soil crusts

 32

on the Colorado Plateau than in this habitat in the Chihuahuan

Desert. Tardigrades were more abundant near the surface (0–

10 cm) than at depth (10–30 cm). There were a number of

families of microarthropods in common to these locations:

Aphelacaridae, Cosmochthoniidae, Micropsammidae,

Nanochestidae, Stigmaeidae, and Tydeidae at both depths and

crust stages. Most of the families were microphytophagous,

either strictly or as faculatative predators (Neher et al.,

2009).

Microbiotic soil crusts containing cyanobacteria,

lichens, and bryophytes supported a diverse protozoan fauna

that occupy water films: 51 species of ciliates, 26 species

of amoebae, 17 species of testacea, 4 metazoan taxa, and a

number of flagellate morphotypes were components of the water

film microfauna (Bamforth, 2004). Nematode abundance and

richness of genera were greater under microbiotic soil crusts

than in soils not associated with biological soil crusts.

Nematode abundance and richness of genera were highest under

moss crusts than under cyanobacteria-lichen crusts (Liu et

al., 2011). In an experiment where the nematode communities

on plots with microbiotic crusts were removed compared with

the nematodes in intact biological soil crusts, treatments

 33

with crusts removed had fewer nematodes and greater relative

ratio of bacteria-feeders to microphytophages (Darby et al.,

2010)

Nico Eisenhauer, in Pedobiologia, 2010

Nevertheless, overall negative impacts of endogeic

earthworms on soil microarthropods strongly depended on

earthworm densities and/or biomass as indicated by the

regressions performed in the present study. Although impacts

of physical disturbances (e.g., soil compaction) and food

competition in the presence of high earthworm densities are

difficult to separate due to the close interconnection

between habitat and resource in the soil matrix, results of

a recent laboratory experiment indicate that amensalism is

the main mechanism by which endogeic earthworms affect soil

microarthropods (Gutiérrez et al. 2008). The authors added

soil materials differing in the quantity of organic matter to

experimental microcosms containing constant earthworm

densities. Adding soil material rich in organic matter

abolished the detrimental impacts of earthworms on

microarthropods indicating that one-sided food competition is

a major factor shaping microarthropod communities.

Minna-Liisa RantalainenJari HaimiHannu FritzeTaina

PennanenHeikki Setälä, in Soil Biology and Biochemistry, 2008

 34

The expected positive effect of corridors on

maintaining populations of soil microarthropods originally

present in the fragments (see also Gilbert et al., 1998;

Gonzalez et al., 1998) was demonstrated only when mainland

dispersal was prevented, and even then, only for one sampling

time (Rantalainen et al., 2006). In the mesocosm study, the

presence of corridors promoted the growth of enchytraeid

populations (Rantalainen et al., 2004a). In other studies,

the corridor effect on the fauna was lacking or even negative,

as in the case of nematodes in one field study (Rantalainen

et al., 2005). In contrast, soil fungal biomass in the

originally populated fragments responded positively to the

presence of corridors (Rantalainen et al., 2005, 2006).

Species richness of soil organisms appeared to be

unresponsive to the presence of corridors.

 35

Chapter III
METHODOLOGY

Locale of the Study

This study of microarthropods was conducted in Gamay,

Northern Samar. It is a 4th class municipality in the province

of Northern Samar, Philippines, it is basically an

agricultural municipality with farming and fishing as its

dominance source of income of its people. The municipality

has land area of 115.10 sq. km. Or 44.44 mile, which

constitute 3.12% of Northern Samar’s total area. Gamay has 26

barangay.

Figure 1. Map of Northern Samar, showing the Location of

Gamay, Northern Samar the main sampling site.
 36

Research Design

The descriptive research design was used in the study

which focused on identifying and classifying all

microarthropods that are found in the study area;

particularly in the rice fields. The descriptive study aimed

to obtain information concerning the status of the soil health

by using microarthropods in their habitat.

Sampling Technique

Qualitative sampling was used in the identification of

rice farming practices. A researcher prepared questionnaire

was use (Appendix A). Grab Sampling was used to collect soil

samples from the field. Composite samples were used for the

actual sampling of micro arthropods in soil. Micro arthropods

were extracted from the soil in the laboratory.

Data Gathering Procedure

Identification of Production Practices of Rice Farmers

Rice farming practices were identified by interview with

the farmers. The researcher visited the identified fields for

the interview making sure that different practices are

 37

represented. Practices included all levels from land

preparation to harvest. Results of the interview define the

sampling areas for soil collection and were used in analysing

differences in soil micro arthropods species composition and

abundance. Representative fields considered included

irrigated and non-irrigated fields, the use of chemicals,

organic farming, the use of machines, etc.

Determinition of Species Composition and Abundance of

Microarthropods in Soils
Soil Sampling

Soil samples were collected from different fields considering

farming practices. In each field at least three (3) one (1)

litter volume of soil sample were collected from different

sub sampling sites in each field. Samples were placed in a

zip locked plastic bag and brought immediately to the

laboratory for analysis.

Micro Arthropods Sampling

A method adopted from Coleman, D.C., et. al.

2004 (Fundamentals of Soil Ecology) was used for micro

arthropods sampling and extraction. In principle Soil micro

arthropods flee a heating soil sample, falling into a

collection vessel, where they can be counted under a

microscope.
 38

Before sampling, laboratory apparatus were set up, since

soil samples should be process as soon as possible after

collection. The longer the delay, the more microarthropods

will die or not respond to the extraction and end up with

fewer counts.

Equipment:

Tullgren extractor setups, one for each soil sample (you

will get these from the biology department; they have 12)(Fig.

1)

o Ring stand

o Funnel

o Screen

o Light source

o Sample jars with 70% ethanol to catch the

microarthropods

 Dissecting microscope

 Petri plates and a dissecting needle for sorting and

counting organisms

 Ziplock bags, sharpie, and cooler for collecting samples

from the field

 Soil corer, at least 5 cm diameter, preferably one with

an internal sleeve
 39

 Field notebook for recording data

Procedure:

 In the lab, make sure your Tullgren funnels are clean,

dry, and ready to go except for the ethanol collector

jars.

 Collect soil samples using a 5-10 cm corer. If possible,

use a piston corer with an internal sample sleeve of

known volume. Get at least the top 5-10 cm of soil. If

sampling from grassland soils with a deep A horizon, you

may need to sample to 15 cm depth. However you collect

the samples, be consistent between sample sites and

record your sampling method in your field notebook.

 Each sample (bare soil or a sample sleeve containing

soil) should be placed immediately in a ziplock bag,

labeled with date, sample site, treatment (e.g. soil

type) and the initials of the investigator, and placed

into the cooler for transport back to the laboratory.

 In the lab, label a jar of ethanol solution with a

sharpie and put it underneth a Tullgren funnel, then

empty the contents of the corresponding bag onto the

screen. If you used a corer with inner sleeves, the

entire sleeve can be placed inverted (original soil

surface down) atop the screen. Repeat for each sample.

 40

 Turn on the lights and allow the extractions to continue

for one week. During this time, look in periodically to

make sure the light bulbs are working and the ethanol is

not evaporating.

 Sort and count microarthropods for each sample. A

preliminary level of detail is quanitifying

collembolans, mites, and all other microarthropods. This

can be done with a dissecting scope between 10x and 40x

magnification.

o Transfer the contents of a sample jar to a petri

dish for sorting and counting.

o Use the dissecting needle to transfer individual

microarthropods to other labeled containers with a

small amount of 70% ethanol in each. Don't stab

them with the needle, you can just "scoop" them up

and they should cling to the needle.

 The identification of microarthropods to the species

level requires a high-magnification microscope, probably

a phase contrast microscope, and additional procedures

to clear and mount each specimen.

 41

Figure 2. Tullgren funnel setup. (a) Sample cover; (b)

sample; (c) screen; (d) funnel; (e) collection vessel.

Figure 3. Tullgren Funnels in Use.

 42

Figure 4. Identifying Microarthropods

Comparison of Species Composition and Abundance of

Microarthropods in Soils from Different Farming Practices
Comparison of the composition and abundance of micro

arthropods were based on the results of objective number 2.

Recording was separated per soil samples coming from

different sampling sites (farming practices). Results are

presented in tables and graphs.

 43

Statistical Treatment of Data

The data gathered in the study were tallied, tabulated,

and analyzed statistically using frequency counts,

percentage, and averages.

Abundance was based on the number of individual of every

species present in the sampling sites.

Abundance = No. of Individuals of species

Relative Abundance = No. of individual of Species x 100

Total Number of individual
of all species
Frequency = Number of time of species occurrence
in soil samples
____________________________________
Total Number of Samples Analyzed
Relative Frequency = Frequency of Species x100
Frequency of all Species
 44

Chapter IV
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
A. Production Practices of Rice Farmers

The common practice and process of rice farming in

the study area includes seed selection, seed-bed and land
preparation, transplanting, weeding, fertilizing, pest
management, harvesting, and thresing. This do not include
post harvest activities like drying and marketing. Practices
only varry with the general farming practices. For example,
other farmers use chemical while others use organic
fertilizer. Others practice manual weeding and pest
management while others use chemicals (insectecides and
weedicides). Others use the traditional land preparation,
harvest and thresing while others use tractors and other
machines.
Five (5) production rice farming practices were
identified in the study area. These include rainfed fields
with no chemicals used, rainfed fields using chemical,
irrigated with no chemical, irrigated with chemicals used and
upland rice farming.
Process of Rice Production
Basically rice peodcution starts from propagation of
the rice seeds after right seed selection. A portion of the
rice field is prepared for seed propagation. Rice is
propagated directly from seed and put on wet soil seed bed.
On average, after 2 weeks the rice plant are ready for
transplanting. While waiting for seed to germinate, the land
area is prepared for transplanting. This typically involves
plowing (dig-up, mix and overturn) the soil. Horrowing is
then made after plowing to break the soil structure into
smaller mass and incorporate plant residue. This are done
iether with the use of Carabao or machines.
After land is prepared, transplanting comes next. When
seeds are ready (after 2 weeks) they are trasplanted to the
prepared land and allowed to grow. After, on average, 2 months
the flower of rice starts to grow. At 3 months, the grain
change into yellow gold. At four months the rice is ready for
harvesting. With the use of “asyab” or karit plants are cut
down. This is done to separate the grain from grass. After
 45

harvest, treasing comes next. Most of treasing use treaser

machines. Treasing is also done manually like “palpag”.
Treasered rice are then dried, which is done manually by
puting the rice grains under the sun which take about 2 to 3
days depending on the weather condition. After drying, rice
are then milled.
In betweed these stages, weeding, fertilizing and pest
control are made. These are made iether manually or with the
use of chemicals.
Basically rainfed fields with no chemicals are farmed
only once a year. All the basic processes are made except
that they do not use chemicals in weeding, fertilizing and
pest management. This is also true to irregated field with no
chemicals. While on the other hand, other irrigated and
rainfed fields use chemicals.
Upland farming is also practice in the study area.
This is growing rice in dry soil rather than flooded rice
paddies. This system depends on rain as the water source.
This ussually done in sloping land prone to erosion and in
soil ussually poor in physical and chemicak properties. Rice
varieties used are ussually drought resistant. Preparation of
land involves pulling out grasses and other vegetation. In
most cases vegetation is slushed and burned. In the study
area, after clearing the field is horrowed (“pakaras”,
“payatak”) with the use of Carabao. After land preparation,
dry seeds are directly planted on the field. In between
planting and harvesting regular weeding is done.

B. Abundance of Microarthropods in Soil

Table 1 present the abundance of microarthropods

collected and counted from diffrent soil samples collected
from rice fields with diffrent farming practices.
Data show that the highest average count of organisms
can be observed in upland rice fields. Uplandrice farming in
the study area do not use chemicals which reduces the
disturbance of soil organism. This is the area where soil
samples collected were the driest during the sampling time.
Dry soil is much prefered by microarthropods.
 46

The second highes count of microarthropods can be

observed in irrigated fields with no chemicals used in
farming.
Results implies that more soil organisms can be observed
in soils that are not flooded with water and the farming
practice do ot use chemicals.
The study intends to identify the species of
microarthropods to determine which are the most abundant and
from which soil samples. Results were limited due to the
unavailability of microscope that can crearly show organisms
to aid identification.

Table 1. Abundance of Microarthropods in Soil

Farming Practices Abundance of Microatropods
Sample 1 Sample 2 Sample 3 Average
Rainfed with no 0 0 0 0
chemeials
Rainfed with chemicals 7 0 0 2.33
Irrigated with no 3 8 1 4.0
chemicals
Irrigated with 4 0 2 2.0
chemicals
Upland Rice Farming 9 1 10 6.67

C. Soil Health in Terms of Nutrient Content, pH, Organic

Content and Moisture

Table 2 present the result of the soil analysis of nutrient

content, pH, organic content and moisture.
It can be observed that results for the availability of

nutrient in the soil samples are the same. Nitrogen content

in all soil sample registered at medium availability.

Phosphurus in all soil samples registered at Low

availability. Potasium content, on the other hand, are

sufficient in all soil samples collected. pH in the soil

samples tested do not varry greatly. Average pH ranges from

 47

5.3 to 5.5. Organic contents ranges from 6.0 to 7.2 percent,

with the highest observed in fields not using chemicals.

Moisture contents of soil samples ranges from 2.0 to 8.3

percent, with the driest registered from soil samples

collected from upland rice fields.

Table 2. Soil Health in Terms of Nutrient Content, pH, Organic

Content and Moisture

Phosphurus
Nitrogen

Moisture
Organic
Content
Potasium
pH

(%)

(%)
Farming Practices

Non-Irrigated without
Chemical
Sample 1 Meduim Low Sufficient 5.8 5 5
Sample 2 Meduim Low Sufficient 4.8 7.25 6
Sample 3 Meduim Low Sufficient 6.0 9.25 5
Average Medium Low Sufficient 5.5 7.2 5.3
Non-Irrigated with
Chemical
Sample 1 Meduim Low Sufficient 5.8 5.5 9
Sample 2 Meduim Low Sufficient 4.4 5 8
Sample 3 Meduim Low Sufficient 6.0 7.5 8
Average Medium Low Sufficient 5.4 6 8.3
Irrigated without
Chemical
Sample 1 Meduim Low Sufficient 5.8 6.5 8
Sample 2 Meduim Low Sufficient 4.4 5.5 3
Sample 3 Meduim Low Sufficient 6.0 8.75 2
Average Medium Low Sufficient 5.4 6.9 4.3
Irrigated with Chemical
Sample 1 Meduim Low Sufficient 5.4 5.25 2
Sample 2 Meduim Low Sufficient 4.4 6.75 3
Sample 3 Meduim Low Sufficient 6.0 6.25 3
Average Medium Low Sufficient 5.3 6.1 2.7
Upland
Sample 1 Meduim Low Sufficient 5.8 6.25 2
Sample 2 Meduim Low Sufficient 4.4 5.75 2
Sample 3 Meduim Low Sufficient 6.0 7 2
Average Medium Low Sufficient 5.4 6.3 2

.
 48

Chapter V

SUMMARY, CONCLUSION, AND RECOMMENDATION

Summary

This study was condected to identify rice farming

practices in the study area. Abundance of microarthropods

were determined from the soil samples collected from diffrent

sources. Physical and chemical propertice of the soil samples

were also determined.

Result show that there are Five (5) farming practices

in the study area. These include rainfed fields with no

chemicals used, rainfed fields using chemical, irrigated with

no chemical, irrigated with chemicals used and upland rice

farming. Rice production starts from propagation of the rice

seeds after right seed selection. A portion of the rice field

is prepared for seed propagation. While waiting for seed to

germinate, the land area is prepared for transplanting. This

typically involves plowing (dig-up, mix and overturn) the

soil. Horrowing is then made after plowing to break the soil

structure into smaller mass and incorporate plant residue.

These are done iether with the use of Carabao or machines.

After land is prepared, transplanting comes next.

After two weeks seeds germinated are transplanted When seeds

 49

are ready (after 2 weeks) they are trasplanted to a prepared

land and allowed to grow. At four months the rice is ready

for harvesting. After harvest, treasing comes next. In

betweed these stages, weeding, fertilizing and pest control

are made. These are made iether manually or with the use of

chemicals. Basically rainfed fields with no chemicals are

farmed only once a year. All the basic processes are made

except that they do not use chemicals in weeding, fertilizing

and pest management. This is also true to irregated field

with no chemicals. While on the other hand, other irrigated

and rainfed fields use chemicals. Upland farming is also

practice in the study area. This is ussually done in sloping

land prone to erosion and in soil ussually poor in physical

and chemicak properties. Preparation of land involves pulling

out grasses and other vegetation. After land preparation, dry

seeds are directly planted on the field. In between planting

and harvesting regular weeding is done.

Result also show that the highest average count of

organisms can be observed in upland rice fields. The second

highes count of microarthropods can be observed in irrigated

fields with no chemicals used in farming. This implies that

more soil organisms can be observed in soils that are not

flooded with water and the farming practice do ot use

chemicals.
 50

Nitrogen content in all soil sample registered at medium

availability. Phosphurus in all soil samples registered at

Low availability. Potasium content, on the other hand, are

sufficient in all soil samples collected. Average pH ranges

from 5.3 to 5.5. Organic contents ranges from 6.0 to 7.2

percent, with the highest observed in fields not using

chemicals. Moisture contents of soil samples ranges from 2.0

to 8.3 percent, with the driest registered from soil samples

collected from upland rice fields.

Conclusion

Based on the findings presented, this study led to the

following conclusion.

1. Rice farming system in the study area is diverse with

rainfed and irrigated, using and not usind chemcals and the

upland rice farming.

2. Abundance of microrthropods is influenced by faming

practices. Basically abundant in drier sois and in fields not

using chemicals.

3. Physical and chemical properties of soil in rice

fields is influenced by farming practices.

 51

Recommendations

Based on the findings, the researcher recommends the

following:

1. A similar investigation be conducted in other areas

of the province so that a baseline information of

microarthropods as bioindicator be established in the

province of Northern Samar. This would not only benefits the

academic or research institutions, but the general public as

well.

2. Information drive should be initiated on the

species composition and the importance of microarthropods in

soil health.

3. Education campaign may be made on the conservation

of habitats.
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PHOTO DOCUMENTATION
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