ALAGE AGRICULTURAL TECHNICAL

VOCATIONAL AND EDUCATIONALTRAINING

COLLEGE

SMALL SCALE IRRIGATION DEVELOPMENT LEVEL II

Learning Guide ≠13

Unit of Competence: Assist Basic IPM for irrigated crop

Module Title: Assisting Basic IPM for irrigated crop
MODULE CODE: AGR SSI2 M13 1116
TTLM Code: AGR SSI2 TTLM 0816

LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of the module the learners will able to:
LO1. Understand principle of integrated pest management
LO2. Assess pests and disease infestation
LO3. Plan the implementation of control measures
LO4. Implement control measures
 ASSIST BASIC IPM FOR IRRIGATED CROPS 2009E.C

Information sheet 1 Understand principle of integrated pest management (IPM)

INTRODUCTION
Integrated pest management (IPM) has been developed as a way to control pests without relying solely on
pesticides. IPM is a systematic plan which brings together different pest control tactics in to one program.
Integrated: a focus on interactions of pests, crops, the environment and various control methods. This
approach considers all available tactics and how these tactics fit with other agricultural practice used.
Pest: an organism that conflicts with our profit, health or convenience. If a species does not exist in number
that seriously affect these factors, it is not considered past.
Management: a way to keep pests below the level where they can cause economic damage. Management
does not mean eradicating pest. It means finding tactics that are effective and economical, and that keep
environmental damage to a minimum.
1.1 The principle of IPM Described
1. Consideration of Ecosystem
Control of insect pest population is a function of the ecosystem itself by means of natural enemies and other
factors. Knowledge of the role of the principle elements of the units is essential to an understanding of
population phenomenon. The study of individuals is of prime importance, their biology behavior response to
other members of the same species and to other organisms and to biotic factors in the environment. The study
of individuals offers a potent method for this analysis of population change. The most effective system for
controlling pests can be derived only after understanding the principles responsible for the population
fluctuation in the ecosystem.
2. Pest Surveillance:
Pest Surveillance and forecasting are having a vital part in the integrated pest management. Surveillance or
monitoring means constant observation of a subject i.e., a crop or pest, and recording the factors observed,
compilation of information obtained and prediction of future events about pest population. Hence pest
surveillance comprises of three basic components.

a. Determination of the level of incidence of the pest species.

b. Determination of what loss the incidence will cause.
c. Determination of economic benefits or other benefits the control will provide.
The above information would be immense use in determining the need for a pest control measure. Mere
presence of a few numbers of pest species should not be the criterion for pesticide application and there
should be sufficient justification. Surveillance can provide the necessary information to determine the
feasibility of a pest control program. It should be a tool that assists pest management specialists in
determining the actual factors that are involved in a pest build up, so that the specialists can determine
practices that will manage these factors and prevent the initial buildup of a pest.
3. Utilization of Economic Threshold Levels (ETL)
The level of pest population is very important consideration for taking up control measures. Pest population
must be maintained at levels below those causing economic injury. The economic threshold is the pest
density at which control measures should be determined to prevent an increasing pest population from
reaching economic injury level. The determination of these thresholds is a pre-requisite to the development
of any pest management strategy.
4. Application of minimum selective hazards:
The application of chemical measures to pest population has to be in such a manner that target pest
populations are just kept below economic injury thresholds. By observation of this principle the development
of resistant populations of pest is avoided or delayed, the possibility of resurgence of treated population is
decreased, adverse effect on non-target organism and amount of environmental contamination are reduced,
and the cost of control is also lowered.
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When insecticide treatments are deemed necessary special consideration should be given to (1) Effectiveness
of the insecticide against most vulnerable life stage of the pest (2) Employing an insecticide that will cause
least disturbance in the ecosystem. (3) Applying the insecticide in such a way that it will restrict its
distribution to the area where it is needed.
1.2. Identifying and describing the methods of pest management
Management procedures
 Determine if control action threshold has been exceeded
 Implement control actions
 Document control actions taken and responses to treatment
Methods of pest management: the pest control strategy or tactics you choose depends on the nature of pest,
the environment of the pest and economic or tolerance considerations. Some of the pest management
methods include:
Crop rotation: Changing on an annual basis the place in the garden or field where crops are grown
interrupts the host/pest cycle and thereby reduces or limits the development of populations of both arthropod
pest and pathogens
Cover cropping: A form of crop rotation, cover cropping interrupts the host/pest cycle, and with certain
cover crop species serves as habitat for natural enemies of insect pests, which often suppress pests. Be aware
that inappropriate choices of cover crop species can increase pest populations
Polyculture cropping patterns: An agricultural landscape that is populated with a diversity of crops reduces
the carrying capacity of the land for a given pest population and increases the possibility of supporting
natural enemies of insect pests
Sound soil fertility management
 Soil organic matter management: Regular additions of organic matter (e.g., compost, cover crops,
and/or manure) stimulates soil biological activity and diversity, which may prevent certain pest
populations from increasing beyond economic thresholds.
 Nutrient budgeting, soil amending, and supplemental fertilizing: Designing efficient amendment and
fertilization plans around crop nutrient requirements and avoiding unnecessary nutrient inputs may
prevent pest problems associated with both nutrient deficiencies and excesses.
 Sound irrigation and tillage practices: Maintaining desirable soil physical and chemical properties
through properly applied irrigation and tillage will help prevent the pest problems associated with
poor soil quality.
Farmscaping
 The use of non- crop vegetation for increasing and managing on-farm biodiversity to favor beneficial
insects.
 Native plant associations, farmscaping, and the use of non-crop vegetation. A greater diversity of
non-crop vegetation (native and planted) in and around the farm may increase the carrying capacity
for natural enemies of arthropod pests that often suppress pests before they become a problem.
Insectary plantings: Plants known to produce abundant nectar used by natural enemies as a secondary
food source. Help provide habitat for beneficial insects.
 "Trap crops": Intentionally planted alternative food sources for pest organisms. Trap crops reduce
or prevent large numbers of pest arthropods from feeding on cash crops.
 A trap crop is one the bugs prefer to the main crop. It is planted to "trap" the pests and keep them
away from the main crop.
 Trap crops are used to protect the main crop from a pest or a variety of pests.
 The trap crop can be a different plant species, variety, or just a different growth stage of the same
species as the main crop, as long as it is more attractive to the pests when they are present. If given a
choice, cucurbit pests such as squash bugs and striped and spotted cucumber beetles prefer squash
and pumpkins to watermelons, cantaloupes, cucumbers, and gourds—in that order.

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 The required trap crop planting size depends upon the intensity and direction of the pest attack
expected, as well as the mobility of the target pest insect.
 Usually, planting a trap crop around the perimeter of a crop area will be effective against insects of
intermediate mobility.
 Trap cropping tends to work best for insects of intermediate mobility rather than those, like aphids,
which are passively dispersed by air currents, or insects that are strong fliers.
 Trap crops are more economical to use if the system is easily planted and maintained and if they have
some other use, such as supporting beneficial insects or if they can also be marketed. If they require a
small amount of space relative to the main crop, they will be more economical.
 The type of plants to use as trap crops varies according to the intended primary crop and expected
types of pest insects. These will also vary due to the differences in climate within the state. One plant
that is commonly used as a perimeter trap is collard greens to protect cabbage.
Companion planting: Plants intentionally planted adjacent to cash crops that repel pests. The use of
resistant crop varieties: Certain crop species have undergone extensive selective breeding in order to develop
greater resistance and resilience to common agricultural pests. Such varieties should be used where
appropriate.
1.2.1 Advantage of Integrated Pest Management
1. Fits better in National Economy. Pest control activities at present are mainly based on the application of
chemical pesticides, quite a large proportion of which has to be imported. The expenditure envisaged for
plant protection runs into crores of rupees even when only one or at the most two pesticide application are
envisaged per crop. High yielding varieties show that many more pesticide applications are called for many
crops if pest control has to depend only on the use of pesticide. Thus a time has come where Integrated Pest
Management is not only advisable but also inevitable.
2. More efficient and cheaper method.
In IPM schedule efforts are made to utilize various methods of control including use of pesticides but some
times and in some cases it is feasible to nip the trouble in the bud itself even by a mechanical campaign like
destruction of egg masses of some pests or collecting the caterpillar stages. In such cases it envisages a lot of
saving in the use of pesticides, this means saving of money and saving of foreign exchange and also the
destruction of the pest before it has been able to inflict damage.
3. Avoid upsetting the balance of nature.
Chemical control has often been reported to upset the balance of nature at times leading to upsurge of new
type of pest problem which did not exist before. The seriousness of mites in many parts of the world has
occurred by the use of DDT. It is confidently expected that such adverse side effects will be much less as a
result of integrated pest management schedule.
4. Minimizes residue hazards of pesticides:
It is obvious that in an IPM schedule the use of pesticides will be considerably reduced, hence the pesticide
residue hazards will also get automatically minimized.
1.3 Discussing the role of IPM in modern agriculture
The roles of Selected IPM strategies include:
 Promote natural controls.
 Protect human health.
 Minimize negative impacts to non-target organism.
 Enhance the general environment.
 Be most likely to produce long-term, beneficial results.
 Be cost-effective in the short and long-term
 Be easily and efficiently implemented.
1.4 Explaining IPM in different crop ecosystem

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1.5 Describing the Role of Chemical, Biological, And Cultural Control Methods in IPM
There are many tactics that are effective in controlling pests, and each one or combination will give
pesticides applicators the best strategy for a specific goal Those Includes:
Prevention: this includes such things as planting weed-and disease-free seed and growing varieties of plants
resistant to diseases or insects, sanitation, using cultural controls to prevent weedy plants from seeding, and
choosing harvesting times that minimize pest problem.
E.g. pesticides.
Suppression: are used to reduce pest population levels. The method chosen usually do not eliminate all
pests, but reduce their population to a tolerable level or to a point below an economic injury level; additional
suppressive measures may be required if the first attempt does not achieve the management goal.
Eradication: is the total elimination of a pest from a designated area. Over larger areas eradication may be
very expensive and often has limited success. Larger eradication program are usually directed at exotic or
introduced pests posing an immediate area-wide public health or economic threat.
Self-check Written test
Name: ___________________________ Date: _________________________
Answer the following question with appropriate illustration.
1. Write the principle of IPM and Describe briefly?
2. What are the roles of Selected IPM strategies write at least five?
3. Write and describe the Methods of pest management?

Information sheet 2 Assess Pests and disease infestation

2.1 Assessing scope and size of infestation.

2.1.1 Economic Thresholds and injury levels of pests
Keeping insect infestations below significant levels through preventative measures is at the core of long term
integrated pest management. More immediate control is reactive and is warranted only when the insects
begin to affect the producer financially. A common problem for most producers is deciding whether or not to
treat a crop for a specific insect pest.
The question is how many insects are too many insects? The initial response may be to spray as soon as
insects are found in the crop. But implementing control measures is costly, sometimes involving large
amounts of chemical and fuel. Also, the labor involved in control operations is not insignificant. Many
insecticides have broad spectrum activity affecting non-target organisms and therefore, unnecessary
applications can have undesirable environmental effects. So when does an infestation become economically
viable to control? Ultimately the decision will have to be made by the producer. Economic thresholds attempt
to resolve this problem by providing guidance in making the decision as to whether insect control has an
economic benefit.
Understanding economic thresholds of insect infestations is central to sound pest management. Knowing
whether or not it is necessary to take action against an insect pest, especially when insecticides are involved,
enables the producer to make financially and ecologically sound decisions.So where properly used, this
knowledge can reduce crop losses, production costs and potential impacts on non-target organisms and the
general environment.
Economic thresholds can be expressed in a variety of ways including, number of insects per plant or per
square metre, the amount of leaf surface damage, etc. It is important to identify the insect and to determine its
status as a pest. In many cases thresholds have been established through scientific research. Unfortunately,

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not all combinations of pests and crops have been studied, and some reported thresholds are merely educated
estimates.
Economic thresholds can fluctuate depending on a combination of factors including the pest, crop, stage of
the crop, cost of control and the final market prospects for the product.
The economic threshold may also vary with growing conditions. When conditions are ideal, a vigorously
growing crop may be able to withstand a higher pest population with little yield loss, depending on the stage
of the plant. Conversely, relatively fewer insects may significantly damage a stressed crop.
Furthermore, researchers have suggested that with some sucking insects, such as aphids on flax, a higher
yielding crop will suffer a greater percentage yield loss than will a crop already under stress.
Economic thresholds serve merely as a guideline to the producer, and to be effective, the plant’s growth stage
and growing conditions must be considered along with these other factors.
2.1.2 Types of IPM Thresholds
IPM Thresholds: Set levels a pest population must reach before treatment to control the pest can begin.
These are often expressed numerically and indicate the population levels that will cause economic or
aesthetic damage.
a. Economic Thresholds (action thresholds)
Economic thresholds are the pest density at which some control should be exerted to prevent a pest
population from increasing further and causing economic loss.
b. Damage Thresholds
Damage thresholds are the maximum damage a crop can sustain without yield loss. It is generally used for
plant diseases. Since disease pathogens are too small to be easily seen, counting their numbers is impractical, so
an estimate is made of the amount of damage caused by them.
c. Economic damage: is the amount of damage done to a crop which is financially justified the cost of
taking artificial control measures which is different from crop to crop. Examples:
 counting diseased leaf petioles for soybean pod and stem blight
 estimating the percentage of whole plant infection caused by fungal leaf blights in corn
Characteristics (especially of economic thresholds)
 can change throughout the season at different stages of crop development
 can vary from variety to variety
 must be constantly revised to account for new pests, new varieties,
 new management practices, new marketing standards and variation in commodity prices
 can be developed by the grower to suit their IPM needs

How Thresholds are developed

 Thresholds, mainly thresholds used by commercial growers, can be developed from the following
factors:
 Amount of physical damage related to various pest densities; how large the pest population can grow
before it causes a certain level of damage.
 Monetary value and production costs of the crop at various levels of physical damage
 Monetary loss associated with various levels of physical damage
 Amount of physical damage that can be prevented by the control measure
 Monetary value of the portion the crop that can be saved by the control measure
 Monetary cost of the control measure
 History of the field
 Determining the danger of the pest at different stages of the crops development
 The pest distribution
 How much aesthetic or economic damage can be tolerated

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 Establish a treatment level that keeps the pest population small enough so it does not cause an
unacceptable level of damage.
 Ultimate destination of the crop, what the standard of the end consumer is.
 Ability to control the pest rapidly and effectively
Importance of Thresholds
 For decision making on scheduling of control and control methods
 To establish the optimal amount of control which can be used to minimize risk of economic damage
and environmental hazards
 Symptoms and sign are very important indicators of the presence of the causal agents of plant disease.
Disease symptoms develop because there is an interference with the plant’s functions. Unlike insect
pests, which can be detected in the field, diseases are often not detected until the plant already shows
symptoms of the disease. It is important that field workers know what healthy plants look like and
that they are on the look-out for disease symptoms and signs that plants are affected by disease. It is
however always important to remember that many disease symptoms are similar to those of nutrient
deficiencies or other abiotic conditions. The presence of symptoms does therefore not automatically
mean that the disease is present. All diseases must be diagnosed and confirmed by experts.
 To detect the presence of pests and diseases it is necessary to scout plant field repeatedly in a
structured and organized manner. These inspections should be done regularly and could be done in
conjunction with inspections for weed densities, and crop nutrient and water status. Scouting is aimed
at identifying the pest or disease species that are present and the extent of infestation. If it is not
possible to accurately identify the pest or disease responsible for the damage that has been caused, an
expert in the field should be asked for assistance.
 The damage caused by pests and diseases has a significant economic impact on the profitability of a
crop farm. It is however necessary to be able to assess when damage may lead to economic losses.
 Threshold values, also referred to as action levels, have been established for most pests, and indicate
the pest density at which suppression measures should be implemented in order to prevent the pest
population from reaching the economic injury level. Threshold values are expressed in different ways,
e.g. pest per square cm, insect per trap, etc.
 Scouting records must be kept of all observed damage, the cause of the damage, and actions taken to
eradicate the pest or diseases causing the damage. The data from the scouting form is transferred to a
permanent record. The current pest and disease activity in this field can now be compared to
historical information, and to the information from other fields.
2.2 Assessing damage or threat to plants.
Plant damage can be assessed by different things as follows

1) Wilting: - Wilt is the result

of inadequate water supply. In
any cases soil-borne fungi and
bacteria are the causes. E.g.
Fusarium wilt and Bacterial
wilt of tomato.

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2) Distortion and mottling:-Distortions arise

by a cessation of growth or overgrowth of plant
parts resulting in odd shape; while loss of
chlorophyll causes mottling and chlorotic
lesions. Viruses are the cause of such
symptoms. E.g. tomato mosaic virus, leaf curl
in peppers, etc.

3. Spots or lesion:-a localized necrotic area.

The spots can vary in size, shape and
color. Individual spot may be circular,
angular or irregularly shaped. Several
spot may run together or merge forming
large necrotic areas.
Both fungi and bacteria cause leaf spots.
E.g. cercospora leaf spots of beans.

4. Rotting is the disintegration and

decomposition of host tissue.
 Soft rots: - These are caused by
bacteria usually Erwinia species; which
enter through wounds caused by
mechanical damage. E.g. Erwinia rot
of capsicum.

4. Blight – an extensive, usually sudden, death of host tissues.

5. Shot-hole – perforated appearance of a leaf as the dead areas of local lesions drop out.

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6. Canker – often sunken necrotic area with cracked border that may appear in leaves, fruits, stems and
branches.

2.3 Identifying and reporting or recording plant pests, disease and disorder and beneficial organisms
in field notes.
Pests can be identified through the various methods
 By sending the specimen to an expert
 Thorough comparison with the specimens in a labeled collection.
 By comparing with picture or descriptions.
2.3.1 Plant pests
1. Insect pests
Insects are animals characterized by a segmented body with three main parts- head, thorax, and abdomen.
In their adult forms, insects typically have three pairs of legs, one pair of antennae, and in most instances
two pairs of wings.
Insects are invertebrates, animals without backbones. They belong to kingdom Animalia, phylum
arthropods, which all have the following characteristics
 narrow or widest host range
 narrow or widest geographical adaptation
 migration to production sites every growing season
 variable occurrence
 some have sporadic nature .e.g. locust
 Classification of insect pests
I. Based on seriousness and amount of damage
1. Minor pest:-pest of their development cause loss of yield which leads to less profit but can be major pest
with change in agro-ecology & deviation from main host.
2. Major pest:-are either serous in restricted locality or over large geographical area by causing loss for
specific crop or diversity of crops at different locations by causing economic loss.
II. Based on their feeding habit
A. Biting and chewing parts: - In this category, the insects consume plant parts with biting & chewing
mouth parts. E.g. Grass hoppers, locust, caterpillars, beetles, etc consume whole proteins of leaves, stems or
roots of plants.
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B. Piercing and sucking pests: - Some insect pests have piecing & sucking mouthparts do mechanical
damage to plant tissues by sucking sap. These insects also inject toxic saliva into plant tissue and this may
cause blemishes on fruit and lower the quality. The important aspect of piercing and sucking is secondary
damage caused by pathogenic organism’s fungi and bacteria, which invade the wounds resulting from insect
attack, e.g. thrips, aphids, white flies, mealy bugs’ cause leaf curling and premature leaf fall.
C. Boring insect pests: - Some insect pests tunnel into the stems and fruits of crop and consume large
quantity of tissue, e.g. shoot and fruit of tomato & sweet potato weevil, potato tuber moth, maize stem borer
etc.

2. Symptoms caused by attack of insect-pests:-

 Discolored patches: - Loss of chlorophyll in damaged leaves, intervene chlorosis.
 Distortion and open crakes: - Cracks may be found on fruits due to damage by insect pests.
 Spots: - Different shaped spots may be caused by foliage feeder insects.
Wilting: - Some vegetable show temporary wilting symptoms.
 Stunting: - Growth may be stunted due to damage by boring or chewing insect-pests.
 Damaged roots:- Mole crickets tunnel underground and eat plant roots
 Rotting: - Fruits may be rotten due to borers, beetles, etc.
 Vectors of viruses:- thrips, aphids are responsible for transmitting many virus diseases including
tomato spotted wilt, cucumber mosaic, etc.
Insects can damage plants in several ways.
 They can chew leaves.
 They can bore in stems, leaves and fruit.
 They can eat underground parts of plants.
 They can suck sap, causing plants to wilt or become twisted.
 They can spread diseases
2.3.2 Plant Diseases
A plant disease is a physiological or structural abnormality that affects the plant, or reduces its economic
value. Any biotic, abiotic & meso biotic agent that causes damage on crops, animals humans & his
possessions.
Major diseases of Horticultural crops:-
I Infectious/pathogenic diseases
Fungal disease:-
 General characteristic
 It is the most important and common plant pathogens in agriculture.
 Unlike plants, lack chlorophyll and conductive tissue.
 A typical fungus consists of a vegetative body (mycelium) made up of individual branches
(hyphae)
 Reproduces chiefly by means of spores
 Affect all parts of the plants, including:-
 Leaves, petioles, stems, roots, fruits, etc.
E.g. late blight, early blight, fusarium wilt, etc.
Bacterial diseases:-
 General characteristics
 Bacteria are primitive organisms classified as prokaryotes.
 They are microscopic organisms.
 Almost all bacteria are unicellular.
 All plant pathogenic bacteria are rod-shaped.
 Most of them are beneficial to man as saprophytic decomposers.
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 produce by a process known as binary fission

E.g. wilt of tomato & potatoes, soft rot of cabbage & carrot and other root crops.
Viral diseases:
 General characteristics
 It is a very small organism that is thinner than bacteria and can only be seen through very powerful
microscope.
 All are parasitic and requires living cell to multiply or reproduce.
 Requires host for replication.
 They do not consist of cells but of particles made up of a nucleic acid
 causes distortions by cessation of growth or overgrowth of plant parts, resulting in odd shapes
 It replicates in the host cells.
E.g. tomato mosaic, mosaic of long beans and cucurbits and leaf curl in peppers.
The most common Insect-pests and diseases of some vegetable crops:-
Vegetable crops Insect-pests Diseases
Peppers 1. African boll worm 1. Bacterial wilt
2. Tobacco white fly 2. Root rot
3. Cut worms 3.Late blight
4. Aphids 4. early blight
5. Downy mildew of pepper
Tomato 1. African boll worm 1. Late blight of tomato
2. Tobacco white fly 2. Early blight of tomato
3. Red spider mite 3. Bacterial wilt
4. Blossom end rot
5. Leaf spot
6. Powdery mildew
Cabbage 1. cabbage aphids 1. Black rot
2. Cabbage saw fly 3. Ring spot
3. Cut worms 4. Dark leaf spot
5. Downy mildew
Lettuce 1. Aphids 1. root rot
2. Cut worms 2. leaf spot
3. White fly 3. Downy mildew
potato 1. Cut worms 1. Late blight
2. white fly 2. Powdery mildew
3. Cotton aphid 3. early blight
4. aphids 4. Fusarium wilt
5. cut worms
Onion 1. Onion thrips 1. Purple blotch
2. cut worms 2. Downy mildew
3. root rot
4.rust
5. basal rot

2.3.3 Important insect pest orders in Ethiopia

Order Lepidoptera
General description

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The order is almost exclusively plant feeding in the larval stage and includes some of the most serious pests
of plants in the world. Almost every kind of cultivated plant has one or more lepidopterous pests that attack
it.
Adult butterflies and moths feed mostly on nectar form flowers, though some do not feed at all, and are thus
almost without exception quite harmless.
Larvae of butterflies and moths (caterpillars) injure plants by consuming plant tissue of one sort or another.
Many species feed openly on leaves but others bore into stems or fruits, or tunnel within leaves, while a few
are root feeding. Some are important pests of stored foods. Others damages woolen goods, including clothing
and carpets.
Examples
Stalk borers ( Papaipema nebris Guen Family: Noctuidae)
There are three kinds of stalk borers in Ethiopia: Busscola fusca (maize stem borer), B. fusca (spotted stem
borer) and Sesamia calamitis (pink stalk borer).
Chilo partellus (spotted stem borer)
Host: Rice, maize, sugarcane, sorghum, pearl millet, German millet, wild grasses
Damage: partellus larvae feed in leaf, causing scars and holes; older larvae tunnel extensively in stems and
in maize cobs, weakening the stems, which may break and lodge.
Life history:
Each female lays up to a total of 20-600 scale-like overlapping eggs in 10-80 separate butches on the
undersides of leaves, mostly near mid-ribs.
Larvae hatch 4-8 days, initially feed in the leaf whorl, then tunnel into stems. Larval development is
completed in 2-4 weeks.
Larvae pupate in damaged stems and adults emerge 5-12 days later.
The life cycle is completed in 25-50 days when climate and growing condition are favorable.
Distribution: Nationwide insect pest, especially in GamoGofa, Harerghe and Sidamo regions.
African bollworms (Helicoverpa armigera Family: Noctuidae)
Host: Cotton, pigeon-pea, tomato, sorghum, groundnut, soybean, tobacco, potato, maize, forest trees and a
range of vegetable crops.
Damage: It has been reported causing serious losses throughout its range, in particular to cotton, tomatoes
and maize. For example, on cotton, two to three larvae on a plant can destroy all the bolls within 15 days; on
maize, they consume grains; on tomatoes, they invade fruits, preventing development and causing falling.
In Ethiopia, 4-6% grain yield loss on beans and 17% loss in chilies have been reported.
Life history:
The oviposition period is 10-23 days, with an average of 730 eggs per female. Hairy surface are preferred for
oviposition, which is closely linked with the period of bud burst and flower production in most host plant.
Eggs hatch in 3 - 9 days at depending on different temperature.
The larval period lasts 18-50 days depending on different temperature. Rate of development is also affected
by food.
Fully grown larvae leave the plant to pupate in the soil at a depth of 3-15 cm.
Emerging female moths must feed before their ovarioles are mature. Average life spans for males and
females in South Africa are 9 and 14 days, respectively (8 and 11 days in Zimbabwe).
Distribution: It is found all over the world. It is also largely found in Ethiopia and causes serious
damage in Ethiopia.
Order Orthoptera
General description
Most Orthoptera are rather general plant feeders though there is perhaps an overall preference for
graminaceous plants (grasses and cereals).
All members of the Orthoptera possess mouthparts of generalized biting type with powerful biting mandibles
and most species therefore can tackle the thoughest of plants.
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The most serious pests within the Orthoptera are the locutst which are large tropical or subtropical
grasshoppers that develop in enormous number.
There are several species and each occurs in two distinct phases which differ in appearance and behaviour.
The solitary phase, which develops from sparse population, does not band together or migrate and so is
relatively harmless.
The gregarious phase however, which is produced when overcrowding occurs in breeding areas, gathers into
huge swarms which migrate over long distances and is extremely destructive.
The loss caused by grasshoppers and locusts is great all over the world.

African migratory locust (Locusta migratoria, subfamily---Oedipodinae)

 True Locust
Host: L. migratoria is primarily a grass feeder. During outbreaks, however, gregarious individuals are less
discriminating and feed on a wider range of plant material. Economically important hosts include sorghum,
millets, maize, rice, sugarcane, wheat, bamboo and pasture grasses, cassava, sweet potatoes, beans and other
legumes.
Damage: African migratory locust primarily damage wheat, sorghum, corn, but during years of high
populations, they may feed and seriously damage any other crops, trees, and shrubs. Defoliation is the
primary injury to plants due to both the foliage eaten and clipped from the plant; however, grasshoppers also
may cause direct losses by feeding on ripening kernels of grain.
Life History:
There are three stages in the African migratory locusts life cycle — the egg, nymph (hopper), and adult.
After 2-4 weeks, the eggs hatch into wingless nymphs called hoppers, depending on temperature.
Hoppers shed their skins 5-6 times, each time growing in size (duration 4-8 weeks), depending on
temperature.
After final shedding, the nymph become adult locust, first having soft wings that must dry and harden before
it can fly. Sexually matured, adults’ locusts copulate and lay eggs, the duration is about 2-5.5 months.
There are three to five generations each year.
Distribution: Different subspecies in southern Europe, Africa south of the Sahara, Russia, China, Australia.
Order Isoptera
General description
These social insects, often erroneously called “white ants”. All termites’ species live in complex colonies on
which they are utterly dependent.
Termites feed mostly on dead plant material and some are serious pests of timber buildings and other wooden
structures in tropical countries.
Mound building termite ( Coptotermes)
Host range: rubber, mulberry, lychee, sugarcane, sweet potato, cassava, coffee, coconut, citrus, mango, and
so on
Life History:
There are three stages in the African migratory locusts life cycle — the egg, nymph (hopper), and adult.
After 2-4 weeks, the eggs hatch into wingless nymphs called hoppers, depending on temperature.
Hoppers shed their skins 5-6 times, each time growing in size (duration 4-8 weeks), depending on
temperature.
After final shedding, the nymph become adult locust, first having soft wings that must dry and harden before
it can fly. Sexually matured, adults’ locusts copulate and lay eggs, the duration is about 2-5.5 months.
There are three to five generations each year.
Distribution: Different subspecies in southern Europe, Africa south of the Sahara, Russia, China, Australia.
Damage:
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 It attacks roots and stem of plants and fill it with soil.

 It causes wilt in seedlings and small plants, finally the crops attacked will fall on the ground by the
action of wild wind.
 Distribution: distributed in sub-saharan countries. It is also largely found in Ethiopia and causes
serious damage in “Klollega” region.
Order Coleoptera
General description
The Coleoptera form the largest order of insects comprising some 40% of known species.
Many species of beetles feed on living plants both as larvae and adults and the order contains some of the
world’s most important crop pests.
Nearly every kind of cultivated plant is attacked by one or more beetles and in addition many serious pests of
stored foods and of timber are beetles.
Maize weevil ( Sitophilus zeamais Motschulsky)
Host range: maize, rice, wheat, cassava, dried stored products. The affected plant stages: Post-harvest. The
affected plant parts: seeds.
Damage: important pests of cereals. In maize or sorghum, attack may start in the mature crop when the
moisture content of the grain has fallen to 18-20%. Subsequent infestations in store result from the transfer of
infested grain into store or from the pest flying into storage facilities, probably attracted by the odour of the
stored grain. In stored maize, heavy infestations of these pests may cause weight losses of as much as 30-
40%, although losses are commonly 4-5%.
Life history:
The adults are long-lived (several months to one year). Eggs are laid throughout most of the adult life,
although 50% may be laid in the first 4-5 weeks;
Each female may lay up to 150 eggs. Upon hatching, the larva begins to feed inside the grain, excavating a
tunnel as it develops.
Developed adult chews its way out, leaving a large, characteristic emergence hole.
Total development periods range from about 35 days under optimal conditions to over 110 days in
unfavourable conditions. The actual length of the life cycle also depends upon the type and quality of grain
being infested:
Distribution: existing in all over the world, including in Ethiopia. These pests are carried all over the world
in grain shipments and can establish themselves wherever there is food and where grain moisture and
temperature are favorable.

Self-check Written test

Name: ___________________________ Date: _________________________
Answer the following question with appropriate illustration.
1. What are the indicators during Assessing damage or threat of plants describe briefly?
2. Write Plant Diseases which affect plant growth with their general characteristics?
3. Write host, damage, life cycle and damage of the following Important insect pest
African migratory locust, African bollworms, Mound building termite and Maize weevil

Information sheet 3 Plan the implementation of control measures

3.1 Selecting Control Measures from IPM Strategy
Generally, control measures for pests can be classified in to:-
1. Legislative control – Regulatory control methods
2. Cultural control methods

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3. Biological control Methods

4. Chemical control methods
5. Integrated pest management (IPM) methods
1. Legislative control/ Regulatory control
 It is an attempt to exclude pathogens from areas where they do not already exist.
 It may be operate under national or international scale.
 The purpose of setting quarantine or regulatory control is to prohibit or restrict the introduction of
plants or plant parts, which are diseased.
 Involves seed certification schemes in which obtain seeds of any arable crop which are certified with
standard quality that including free from disease.
Importance
 To eradicate alternative hosts
 To restrict the spread of plant diseases by destruction of the crop,
 disinfection of the equipment,
 Sterilization of soil and extra physical barriers around infected fields.
2. Cultural control method
Cultural control methods include a broad range of normal management practices that can be
manipulated to manage one or more pest problems. Cultural control techniques may include:
a) Crop-rotation: - The buildup of soil borne insect-pests can be eliminated by rotating crops with
legume vegetables.
b) Crop sanitation: - All plant debris including weeds should be removed to compost pits and insect
infested plants should be burned to prevent insects from spreading.
c) Use well decomposed organic matter: - It helps to check buildup of soil borne
fungus and bacteria.
d) Proper watering: - Excessive watering promotes damping off while sprinkler irrigation encourages
foliar disease and their spread
e) Mulching:-Covering soil with mulching materials minimizes the splashing of pathogen-laden soil
onto leaves.
f) Staking:-It helps to keep away shoots and fruits from the ground which prevents rotting of fruits e.g.
tomato.
g) Correct plant spacing: - Pathogens hide underneath the overcrowded plants. Correct spacing allows
air circulation between plants so that leaves dry quickly which limits germination of spores.
h) pruning, thinning, use of appropriate fertilizer, appropriate planting time & right harvesting dates,
weeding are also plays a big role in cultural control method.
3. Biological control method
Biological control of pests and diseases is a method of controlling pests and diseases in agriculture that relies
on natural predation or use of natural enemies rather than introduced chemicals. Or Biological control is
defined as the reduction of pest populations by natural enemies and typically involves an active human role.
Natural enemies of insect pests, also known as biological control agents, include predators, parasitoids, and
pathogens.
There are three categories of natural enemies of insect pests:
Predators; parasitoids; and pathogens or micro organisms’ introduction Predators:
Predators are nature's method of controlling rodent populations. Parasitoids: Parasitoids are
insects with an immature stage that develops on or in an insect host, and ultimately kills the host.
Pathogens: Insects, like other animals and plants, are infected by bacteria, fungi, and viruses that cause
disease. These diseases may reduce the rate of feeding and growth of insect pests, slow or prevent their
reproduction, or kill them

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4. Chemical control method the

most common method of pest control is the use of pesticides—chemicals that either kill pests or inhibit their
development. Pesticides are often classified according to the pest they are intended to control.

For example,
Pest type pesticides
1. Fungal disease Fungicides/ fungal killer
2. Bacterial disease Bactericides
3. Viral disease Virocides
4. Insects Insecticides
5. Weeds weedicides/herbicides
Using chemical compounds or chemical pesticides.
 Stomach poisons: - These compounds are sprayed over the crop foliage so that those pests with biting
mouth parts, like flea beetles, caterpillars and weevils, eat a poisoned meal. In other
words, these stomach pesticides enter the pest through the mouth with the food. This
happens when the pest consumer food previously treated with the pesticides.
 Contact poisons: - The pesticide is absorbed through the body surface when the pest makes physical
contact with the treated surface. These chemicals are applied in such a way that an insect cannot
avoid contact.
 Systemic poisons -Sap feeding insects are the particular target for these chemicals. Sprayed material
is absorbed by the plant, entering the circulatory system. When the insect pierces the leaf cuticle and
penetrates the sap stream, it withdraws poisoned fluid.
 Fumigants: - Chemicals which are in the vapor phase and can be absorbed through the respiratory
system of the pest. . Fumigants are mainly used for soil treatment or in grain stores, where the
chemical vapor can give optimum penetration.
Precautions in using chemicals for control of insect-pests and diseases
 Use the least toxic and persistent insecticide that is effective.
 Apply only to target area and with only the recommended amount.
 Regularly check and maintain sprayers to avoid any leaks.
 Read label well for safety and precautional advice.
 Ensure the application is essential and beneficial.
 Avoid drift to other areas and do not spray on a windy day.
 Keep all pesticides locked up, especially if children live or play nearby.
 Practice good personal hygiene after spraying.
 Adhere strictly to recommended time of spraying, especially to the period to be allowed before
harvesting.
Spaying of chemicals should be:-
• Environmentally Save
• Economically Viable
5. Integrated pest management
Using the best possible combination of various methods of pest control (cultural, mechanical, biological,
chemical, etc.) to restrict pest population to non-injurious level is called integrated pest management.
The goals or the aims of pest management are
 To reduce the risk of disease and pest outbreaks by preventive measures. The time span of preventive
measures is usually long. It comprises the use of sound crop rotation n large areas and the choice of
resistant cultivars.
 To control outbreaks of pests and diseases preferably by mechanical and biological methods. If these
methods are not available selective pesticides are used only when their use id economically justified.
3.2 Selecting tools, equipment and machinery
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Tools, equipment and machinery required in implementing control measures include standard horticultural
tools such as gardening implements, mechanized and manually operated spray applicators and cultivators
and/or tractor and trailed equipment. Monitoring equipment for the implementation of an Integrated Pest
Management program may include insect traps, soil, fertilizer and plant tissue test kits, and sampling
equipment
3.3 Identifying occupational health and safety (OHS) hazards, assessing risks and implementing risk
control
During the task of controlling plant pest, diseases and disorders the probable OHS hazards include the
following:
 chemicals and hazardous substances
 manual handling
 operating machinery tools and equipment
 noise
 dust
 solar radiation
 falling branches
 overhead power lines
OHS requirements may include:
 identifying hazards, assessing and reporting risks,
 cleaning, maintaining and storing tools and equipment,
 appropriate use of personal protective equipment
 personal hygiene and reporting problems to supervisors,
 appropriate use, maintenance and storage of personal protective equipment,
 Safety procedures in chemical handling and use, safety procedures for the protection of others
3.4 Selecting, using and maintaining personal protective equipment’s (PPE)
PPE should be considered as the last line of defence to your safety.
 Always reduce the risk of contamination through good sprayer maintenance and the way you use
products for spraying.
 Operator exposure studies have found that most contamination comes during the mixing process
and using leaking equipment.
 Always follow the product label recommendations for PPE. Do note these are the minimum
needs. Extra requirements might include: Gloves, boots, goggle, respirator or facemask, hat,
hearing protection, chemical resistant overalls etc
Therefore, wear the proper safety gear when you are using pesticides in order to reduce the occupational
health and safety hazards which may include:-
use of hazardous chemicals
use of tractors and machinery
solar radiation
manual handling, falls, tripping and noise

Self-check Written test

Name: ___________________________ Date: _________________________
Answer the following question with appropriate illustration.
Part I. Say true or false
1. Gloves are the most important personal protective equipments.
2. The purpose of setting quarantine or regulatory control is to prohibit or restrict the introduction of
plants or plant parts, which are diseased.

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3. Spaying of chemicals should be environmentally save and economically viable.

4. Pesticides enter the pest through the mouth with the food is called Contact poisons.
Part II. Answer the following questions.
1. Mention the occupational Health and Safety hazards?
2. What are the most important control measures for pests and diseases?
Operation sheet Following Procedure To Implement Control Measures
I. Purpose: to implement the control measures to manage the pest population.
II. Conditions/Situations
III. Equipment Tools and Equipment
A. Equipment/Tools/Materials
 Compressed sprayer or knapsack sprayer
 Pesticide (insecticide, fungicide, bactericide, nematicide)
 Personal protective equipment
IV. Procedure
1. Wear the personal protective equipment, like the gloves, mask, overall clothing or long sleeves
shirt.
2. Test the sprayer if there is a leak so that the insecticide solutions will not directly contact to your
clothing or your clothing will not be soaked to the solution for the whole duration applying the
pesticide.
3. Fill the sprayer tank with water then dilute the pesticide and mixed it thoroughly.
4. Now it is ready to apply the pesticide to the field.
5. After applying the pesticide clean and wash the equipment, clothing and all the materials that you
used in the implementation of the control measure.
6. Take a bath after all the equipment is in place.
V. Pre-caution
1. Always wear personal protective equipment.
2. Do not spray if target leaves and stems are wet or if it is about to rain
 product will be lost due to run-off
 many products require around 2 to 3 hours of dry weather after application to be fully
effective (refer to product label)
 if working in tropical conditions, consider using products with rapid activity
3. Do not spray in moderate to high winds. Spray will be lost as drift and distribution patterns may be at
risk. Acceptable maximum wind speeds are dependent on application method, nozzles and crop.
4. Do not spray against the direction of the wind so that you will not contact directly the mist.
5. Do not smoke while applying pesticide.
6. Always wash the cloths that was used in applying the pesticide
7. Always take a bath after applying pesticide

VI. Quality Criteria:

Always use clean, non leaking, calibrated spraying equipment. Before spraying, check
everything is working properly using clean water only, with a working nozzle capable of
giving the required operating pressure and output.
Ensure the sprayer is set up to enable spray to reach and be retained by the target.
Operation sheet Practical Demonstration
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I. Reading : Implementing control measures

II. Objective
 Implement the control measures in accordance with the integrated pest management standard and
occupational health and safety requirements.
III. Laboratory Works
A. Equipment/Facilities Tools, and Materials
1. Sprayer
2. Pesticides
IV. Illustration
Pesticide application using backpack sprayer
A. Look forward, not down so that you can see your target lines.
B. Walk straight lines and only forward step and never used backward step.
C. Pump once in every step.
D. Keep nozzle to side so boots do not get wet
E. Keep walking past last plant at the same speed and then release the pistil grip

Information sheet 4 Implement control measures

4.1 Coordinating enterprise work team, contractors and IPM products
Pest and disease control measures will not be implemented alone or by one/two persons; it needs cooperation
of different stakeholders. So that, the activities in the measure should be arranged, scheduled with the
responsible stakeholder and noticed in effective manner. In consultation with the supervisor the enterprise
team, contractors and IPM product suppliers should be coordinated to ensure that the activities implemented
in specified sequence and time.
4.2 Implementing control measures
The control measures should be implemented in a way that it fulfill the requirement of IPM Standards or
industry Code of Practice; those established by registered industry associations, clients or markets of the
enterprise and land management agencies or quality assurance program.
Undertaking implementation of IPM activities according to OHS requirements
 The plant pest, disease and disorder control action may cause detrimental damage to non-target
organisms, humans and environments when improperly implemented. So implementation of IPM
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activities must be undertaken according to OHS requirements in a manner that the side effects are
minimized.
 The OHS requirements in implementing IPM activities include:
 identifying hazards,
 assessing risks and implementing controls
 cleaning, maintaining and storing tools, equipment and machinery
 appropriate use, maintenance and storage of PPE including
 sun protection
 safe operation of tools
 equipment and machinery
 safe handling
 use and storage of chemicals
 organically based materials and hazardous substances
 correct manual handling
 basic first aid
 safety procedures for protection of others
 personal hygiene
 reporting problems to supervisors
4.3 Maintaining a clean and safe work area
On the cease of IPM activities the work area should be cleaned and maintained safe. Cleaning and
maintaining safe work area includes tasks such as:
 disabling unused tools, equipment and machinery and storing neatly out of the way of IPM activities
 correct storage of PPE
 safely storing materials on site, and
 Swiftly and efficiently removing and processing debris and waste from the work area.
4.4 Maintaining records
A written log should be kept of pest type, locality, abundance, and all pesticides applied. Such records can be
of long-term benefit as many pests tend to appear at about the same time each year. However, the short-term
benefits of written records may be greater. Knowing what pests survive a pesticide application alerts the
grower to the possibility of poor timing, poor application, or pesticide resistance in the pest population. A
change in strategy, application technology, or type of pesticide can be made before the crops are significantly
damaged.
 Records applied to controlling plant pests, diseases and disorders may include:
 types of plant pests, diseases and disorders and beneficial organisms present,
 numbers of pests and beneficial organisms present
 treatments applied
 date of application
 application rates
 success of treatments
 economic thresholds and
 Accident and dangerous occurrence records.
4.5 Monitoring Control Methods
Once control measures have been applied, it is essential that the efficacy of the application is monitored, both
in terms of its impact on targeted pests and diseases and on non-target plants/animals and beneficial insects
or external environment. Scouting must continue as per usual after treatments have been made. Monitoring of
the controlling methods involves; monitoring the effects of the control methods applied on pests. Monitoring
is important to investigate whether there is an environmental problem created due to the application of
chemicals during the implementation process.
Assessing effectiveness of control methods
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Monitoring is used to see whether the applied method is effective or not. From the recorded data, it is
possible to determine whether there has been a decline in pest level and if this level is now below the action
threshold. The recorded and plotted monitoring data would speak for itself.
The presence of pest, pest numbers and disease symptoms should be looked at strategic positions in crop
field and recorded.
Self-check Written test
Name: ___________________________ Date: _________________________
Answer the following question
1. How to implement control measures, describe briefly?
2. What is the importance of maintaining a clean and safe work area?
3. What is the importance of monitoring?

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