through @ ag. when a gasisenclosed in (ji) Heat produced by flow of current tuyersing : Be because i stem pies out ofthe three variables resistor is an irreversible process Pent in, heat Pia nie ne the direction of current again eg rsaerenawn PY using the equation of state. production. e558 - sereversible process: 1IfecanP® gible Process (ii) Rustng of iron is 3 ean eversible Oe ine retraced in a reverse __(iv) Fall of water froma WBN 0 jinetic enerBy 3h oe ‘under consideration passes process. On striking the ground, the “re reverse aN goin the direct proces, wjgh of waterisconverted nto heat and sou rene rasa reversible process]If , process is not possible. peratures es fe ane nergy at any stage fromthe |” (v) When two systems at different tem ee abso rect process, the same amount arebrought in contact, the result iS XTNEE Fi gher wine Hythe system in the reverss process | Heat flows from body of SYSte™ 5) tse 4 re. sree’ by the surroundings) Thus, a | temperature to that at lower temperate % yoeat gain which allthepariipating | process is not possible. Hence, the ep Peres nings can be brought back to | lcreyersibe : : ny effect on the inverse. §1217.Heat Engine ater Saks without relts into water by absorbing (A heat engine is a cyclic device ea punles: O71 eat. Extraction of the same | continuously convert heat energy into mech qunamourt OF Moar results into freezing of | work)The essential parts of 2 heat engine are of heat the same amount of ice. This | _A-Source: It is a reservoir at high temper fer gvinB er ible process. \ a infinite thermal capacity. Any amount © 0 f Beep ‘or expansion of a gas is | can be extracted from it. Without decreasing «Grom reversible Process. Smount ofthat content oF teMpeFAENE ay a2 cal decomposition is a reversible | 2. Sink sis a reservoir of int ay ie cal decomposition of CuSO, the | capacity and is maintainet’ 2 ea Seanardscatode an S0,"fonsmove | temperature T>. Although es will absorb large ‘ow, if the direction of current is | quantity of heat, still its tem] 1 - ee in reverse directions and the l T;, Hence, any amount of heat can be given ie pn “frndes regain their original state. sink, Atmosphere acts as @ proper sink in ae cae ‘Conditions of reversible process: (A reversible because it has an infinite capacity to al stipe very slow so that in each stage, the | without any change in its emperatet Sowing conditions must be fulfilled : 3, Working substance : Steam, petrol, etc., act as {)Thesystem must be in mechanical equilibrium | working substance. The working substance absorbs is atone of unbalance should act between the | heat Qi from the source, does 2" ‘amount of work W, syem and the surroundings, returns the remaining amount ofheat to the sink and “(p) The system must be in thermal equilibrium | comes back to its original state and there occurs NO. iulthere should be no temperature difference | change inits internal energy. Itshould be noted that, tween this system and its surroundings. | the working substance does not retrace the same path 1) The system must also be in chemical | in reverse direction. It adopts a different path of sulirium iz, no new product should be formed | reversal. Hence, the indicator diagram is a closed process is daring the process. curve, instead of a single smooth curve. {i) Ina reversible process, no dissipative effects sich as due to function, electrical resistance and | K/BB 7, ‘iscsty should be present. §1246, Irreversible Process \ Processes which are not reversible are called inserble processes fin other words, an irreversible Press cannot be retraced in reverse direction so as meats through the same states as in the direct aes: (yWiork done against the friction is ible because on reversing the direction of b Fig, 12-10, Heat engine. ion, the system has to do work again. ' aa "ES ET 57 ERTre io aa The nature of the working substance is ae changed during each cycle, Hence, the same ae can be Fepeated to perform maximum possible ete Working : Fig 12:10Ghows the operation of te engine is one cycle. In one cycle, the working substance absorbs heat Q from the source and reje Q: amount of heat to the sink)(Hence, (Q) ~ 2) amount of heat is used to do the tseful mechanical work (W) Q-Q=W, i (According to first | law of thermodynamics) | Thus, in a complete cycle, | (_ Heat absorbed from the engine = Q; | Heat rejected to the sink = Q, | Useful work done W= Q; - Q) ) : | Efficiency of heat engine : The ratio of the | amount of external work done by the engine to the amount of heat absorbed, in exch cycle is called | efficiency of the heat engine. ie,, The efficiency of a heat engine, ixternal work done Heat absorbed W_Q-Q 2 2 or =1-& aC From above expression, it is clear that the efficiency of a heat engine is always less than 1 or 100%. The efficiency will be 100% only if Q, =0, ie., no heat is rejected to the sink ina cycle; which means that the amount of heat absorbed from the source is converted into mechanical work, But in practice, the efficiency of heat engine is never 100%. Heat engines are of two types : () Internal combustion engine, ii) Extemal combustion engine. In the internal combustion engine, within the engine to produce heat. engines are of two types : (i) Otto engine or petrol engine, (ii) Diesel engine. In the external combustion en outside the engine. Steam en; combustion engine. § 12-18. Limitations of F dynamics The limitations of first law of are given below : or | | | | | | | | | | | I i fuel is ignited The internal | | I | | | | gine fuel is brunt gine is an external ‘rst Law of Thermo- thermodynamics | energy of rotation of wheel and put it back ing | heat from a source and fully converts this heat int | mechanical work. This negative statements the basi s) arin ekeon ot tell us about the direction ofp, mi a doce know that the heat always yyy irs Chet a higher temperature to a body af j., acces First law does not give any re, e why the he bali one. i) Itdoes not tell us about the extent upto whig t ean be converted into mechanical work: 1 Ha ible for a heat engine to convert all the hy Oe ad from the heat source into mechanica wor extTinuously without giving a fraction of i toy Sanding First law gives no explanation for, ar ) It does not give any informations about conditions under which heat is converted ing mechanical energy : Iti fails to explain the fact why the heat cannot be transformed into kineti SO th at cannot flow from a colder body 4 Pn. Need of Second Law of Thermg dynamics and its Statement First law of thermodynamics merely explains equivalence of work and heat. It does not explain wi heat flows from bodies at higher temperatures 14 those at lower temperatures. It cannot tell us w! the converse is not possible. It cannot explain why the efficiency of a heat engine is always less thay Unity. It is also unable to explain why cool water off stirring gets hotter whereas there is no such effe on stirring warm water in a beaker. Second law g thermodynamics provides answers to thesé questions. Statement of this law is as under : [itis not possible to design an engine that absor of second law of thermodynamics. ( Clausius statement : It is impossible fora sel For example, electric current can not flow from @ conductor at lower electrostatic potential to that at higher potential unless an external work is done Similarly, abody ata lower gravitation potential levd Eat not move upto higher level without work do by an external agency. )| ;i)Kelvin’s statement: It is impossible AW em to perform continuous work so perature lower than the temp one of its Surroundings, ote amot engine cannot work, If the so yareat the same temperature because # ine engine will result into cooling the jhe ihe surrounding more and more, wi Kelvin Planks statement : It is i Jesign an engine that extracts heat vies into work without producing forabod, by cooling it rature of the urce and, work done Source and Mpossible ee thisstatementitis clear that any amount of reannever be converted completely into work It tial for an engine to return some amount of tro the sink. An engine essentially requires a ;ceas well as sink. The effeciency of an engine is ‘ays ess than unit because heat can not by ated into work. ) 1220, Camot’s Engine and Camot’s Cycle ,e fully ‘Theefficiency of a heat engine is very small (12% | gi. Hence, in the early stage scientists suspected fatthere must be some fault in designing the engine. guteven after several modifications in the designing, diiency could not be improved satisfactorily/This prem was solved by Sadi Camot. He suggested fu tisimpossible to design an engine having 100% aficency and such an effort goes against the law of Teal gas | ature, Conductor Perfeciy insulated platform Fig. 1241. Various parts of Carnot's reversible engine. (Carnot proposed an ideal engine which ‘an not be achieved in practice, but its efficiency is naximum, This is called Carnot's reversible engine. Inthe fig. 12-11 main parts of Carnot’s engine aré sown, The essential parts of Carnot engine are as fellows: 1 Source of heat : This is a heat reservoir of infinite thermal capacity and is maintained at Constant high temperature T,. Any amount of heat @n be taken from this source without lowering the . perature 7}. and fully | any other | thea + This is too a heat reservoir of infinite tem rey, maintained at a constant low this ature T,. Any amount of heat can be given to reservoir without effecting the temperature T;. oy Cylinder and piston assembly : The cylinder ict etteetly conducting base and perfectly nless insulating walls. The cylinder is fitted with a perfectly insulating piston having frictionless motion in the cylinder. The cylinder contains ideal 8aS as working substance. 4. Non-conducting platform : This is a perfectly | insulating body acting as a stand for the cylinder. 5. Working subsiance : The ideal gas enclosed in | the cylinder acts as working substance. Carnot cycle or operating cycle : In order to enable Carnot engine to continuously perform mechanical work, the engine is run in a definite Sequence or cycle.fhe ideal gas acting as working, Substance is subjected to change of pressure, temperature and volume and is brought back to the original state, The four stage process of changing | of state, of the ideal gas and bringing it back to | initial state és called Carnot cycle)The processes in | each cycle are shown by the indicator diagram, Fig. | 1212. The four stages of operations are explained below : | __ 1. Isothermal expansion : Let the working | Substance, ie, 1 mole of an ideal gas be filled in the | Cylinder at temperature T}K. Let the pressure be Py and volume V, at this initial temperature. Point A represents the initial state. Fig, 1212. P-V curve of Carnot engine for one cycle. Now, let the cylinder be placed in contact with the source at constant temperature T;K ahd the ideal gas is allowed to expand slowly. The base of the cylinder being perfect conductor, allows a slow gain of heat, from source (lost by the ideal gas during expansion) since the conducting base of the cylinder is in contact with the source at constant temperature TK. Let P, be the final pressure and V; be the final“Volume after e *xpansion at constant temperature, This o isothermalexprnsion isgivenby the curve Al Work (RT, -RT,) done W, by the ideal Bais equivalent to the amount of heat absort (Q,) from the source.) (T,-T,) W%=Q,= fray =f Say opv=RT) = Area BCCbB, % yV 3. Isothermal compression : Wher, the : rature of the ideal gas falls down to 74, n° mg = RT, [log, vy at | the cylinder is placed on the sink The va | substance is now compressed slows) that be, the heat developed during compression on | any rise in temperature, it easily flowe Ft Prod (!) through the conducting base of the eytinye”® i = RT;(log, V, ~log, V;) Vv, or W=Q,=R7, log. A the temperature of the working substance i = Area ABbeA in indicator diagtam, i at Ty, The fothermal compression iscartied outay 2. Adiabatic expansion : The gas isnow removed | CD between the initial siete (Ps Vana a ™ the sourceand is placed on the insulating stand. | D(P,, V,) The working substan isolated from the surro he amount of heat rej is etely thermally | Let Q) be tl ‘ Eanes to the inertia ce | working substance to the sink and ejected by 4 f Wa be the wg ano! Piston (moving upwards), the gas is further | done on 1 me ae af dene Ws on the allowed to expand slowly and adiabatically. Hence, | is equivalent to the tap ci ¢ Of heat Q2 given tof the process becomes adiabatic expansion. This part | sink during the isothermal cor Impression, is represented by the curve BC. Since, heat cannot Enter from outside and work is done by the gaseous | pyStem at the cost ofits intemal energy so there will i bea decrease in temperature, the temperature of the ideal gas falls from T;K to Ty (ve sign shows that work is done o nthe syste K. Let the pressure and Yer, Volume of the gas on adiabatic expansion acquire | =o J “Pav =-RT, (log, v) i Values Ps and V; denoted by point C. | ¥ + Work done by the gas W2= decrease in internal | energy V, V; =-RT, sey] = RT, log, “3 ( Me cen) = Area CDdcC 4. Adiabatic compression : The cylinders apap K [¥,"-)—v,-t-)) | placed on the insulating stand and the “7 iston D (Py V,) and the initial state For the adiabatic curve BC, PV} = VY =K (Py Vi). + Work done on t internal energy | | | further moved slowly causing slow ¢ iabatf | compression of the ideal gas until the Bas acquis oes ieee | initial pressure P;, volume V, and temperature T, 1Ev iMG aT | __This is shown by the adiabatic curve DA on | indicator diagram, SSE an 1 per ctt Wa be the work done on the working subst y-ALyyt yy | between the state | the system W, = increase jf 1 w, ¥ 7(Pa¥2 = P,V5) ot W=-f Pav Tr Ye For point B, P,V, = RT, For point C, PyV, = RT, ua K wv spu AY = RVI =K | 1 meter“ BVO i aneadiabaticcurve DA, P,¥4= RTs on point D i int A, PyVy = RT}. ea T, - RT, Weert “RED | | A) | ‘Area DAndD in the indicator diagram, | Hence, in the complete cycle, the working sub- | in comes back to it ial state and so there | ge in its internal energy. The shape of the | im“ABCD on the P-V indicator diagram does not | car don the nature of working substance. itfiiency of Camot engine : The efficiency of sisengine is given by the ratio of the useful work fpthe amount of heat absorbed in each cycle, Useful work done Heat absorbed | | | | | | {) The amount of work done by the ideal gas in ! | | I | | of Thus, = igthermal expansion equals the amount of heat absorbed. ve ie, W=Q,=RTjlog v2 1 = Area of the curve ABbaA in the indicator diagram. : | (8) Work done by the ideal gas during adiabatic | | = Area of the curve BCcbB (ii) Work done in isothermal compression will beequal to the amount of heat given to the sink. ie Wy=0,=RTylog, Yt A = Area of the curve CDdcC- (iv) Work done in adiabatic compression. i R te Wye Ron) = Area DAadD. Hence, the total work done in one complete cycle, W=W,+W, -W,-Wy =W,-Wy, (: My=W) =Q-Q Thus, in Carnot heat engine, during each cycle, | the mechanical work obtained is equal to the net amount of heat absorbed by the working substance. Iso, ~W=area ABbdA + area BCcbB + (area CDdeC) + (- area DAadD) area ABCDA ie, in Camot engine, during each cycle, the me- chanical work obtained is numerically equal to the area of the Carnot cycle. | Therefore, the efficiency of Carnot engine, no M2 24S Q Qa ram) n=1-——_& RT log, ) JS|S S| ses n=1- +) <|S[SLs Toe, Now, since the points B and C lie on the same adiabatic curve. Ty ety a o = L(Y tm Similarly, A and D lie on the same adiabatic curve, therefore Tyan rt Raf Ma RY vaya yy Va Y or LCSubstituting in eqn. (5), ne1-B (6) T From eqn. (6), we conclude that : (i) The efficiency of Carnot engine de on the temperature of the source and sin on the nature of working substance. (i) Two engines working between temperatures have equal efficiency. | Camot engine is impracticable and hypothetical. | This engine as an ideal engine cannot be realised in) practice. The reasons are as follows : a (In Carnot engine, itis assumed that the cylinder walls (except at the bottom) are perfectly insulating | and the piston moves within the cylinder without | any friction. These are merely ideal assumptions. | (ii) It is also assumed that the source and the sink | have infinite thermal capacities. This is practically | impossible. (iii) The processes of compression and expansion | must be very slow so that Carnot engine is perfectly reversible. But, this is also an ideal condition which cannot be practically maintained. § 12-21. Camot Theorem | ‘According to this theorem : (i) The efficiency of an engine operating between two given temperatures cannot be more than the | efficiency of a Carnots engine operating between the | same temperature. (ii) The efficiency of Carnot’s engine does not | depend on the nature of working substance. ‘Proof : Consider two engines one is reversible (R) and another is irreversible (1) as depicted in the fig. 12-13, These are so coupled that as irreversible engine runs forwards, it drives reversible engine backwards. _ Hence, reversible engine works as a refrigerator driven by irreversible engine. Irreversible engine I absorbs heat Q, from source, does work W and rejects the heat Q, to the sink. depends only | and not | | the same two | a | snd gains heat Q from reversible engine | and gai gine. | engine and loses heat Q; to R. Fig, 1213, Eificiency of engine ireversibe engine -W 9-0, a “RQ Thereversible engine R absorbs heat 0”, sink, work W is done on the working sibtane, heat QJ is transferred to source, Efficiency of reversible engine R be : ang ea Se Let the irreversible engine I is more eff reversible engine R, then ficient thn ™>™ pee o QQ or Q0 ie, positive The source gives heat Q, to irreversible engine Net heat gained by the souree in each cycle =Q-Q, The sink gains heat (Q,—W) from irreversible z-Net heat lost by sink in each cycle =Qr(Q,-W)=Q-2,+W =Q-Q+H(Q-A)=A-Q The coupled engine is a self acting machine which transfers heat Q;~Q, from the sink at loverOO TT 1, to the source at higher temperature os any work performed by any externas ‘Hence, = Q, + W Grok {£1 this is against the second Taw of thermo. The above equation clearly indicates that Gro Must be done on the system used 3% working ficiency of an engine Substance for transfer of heat from a cold body THs more than the efficiency of a Carnoy, hot body. a Ina refrigerator used as home appliance. woke i, nefrigerator or Heat Pump Substance extracts heat from the materials put irs «2% Jaw that the working substance of a hear _ the refrigerator. Work is done on the working system we Korbs heat from source, does useful work, | With the help of a motor. The system finally £579 6 ave remaining amount of heat tothe ink, | Out heat to the surroundings at higher temperature me, the reverse Process also possible(Thig | THUS, the refrigerator is cooled from inside. ha me possible to construct adevice that willbe | Coefficient of performance of refrige-rator: Th iit et heat from the sink at lowe temperate | fatio of heat extracted from cold body and the work se doing work on the system more heat may | 49R€ on the system used as working substance af ee is clear that the effici piesa the source) The device that can be Ktlown as coefficient of performance of the fie this is known as ‘refrigerator’ and the | TtPigerator. operat cubstance is Known as ‘refrigeranv’, eine 7 -& 1 sa bow Ly Q r+ Ww . Q-Q2 But, for Camot refrigerator, w Qh QT Qs.5_ " (subtracting 1 from both the sides) 1 Ee Fig. 12:14. Principle of refrigeration. Q-O _T-% sola refrigerator is an appliance employed for | or o E from a cold body and transferri 7 catracting hea So ly ferring heat Hence, coefficient of performance, fpahotter one. ' refrigerator essentially consists of three parts: T, LAbody:Atlow temperature thatistobecooled | pas ink father. 2A body : Of infinite thermal capacity and | _ Where, T; isthe temperature of the surroundings maintained at a constant higher temperature. | and T, that of the cold body. 3.A working substance : Usually this is liquid | tis clear that b= 0, when T,=0. Ammonia or Freon undergoing continuous cyclic |__ That means the coefficient of performance will process. The working substance is called refrigerant, | be zero if the cold body is at the temperature equal Suppose the working substance extracts heat Q, | to absolute zero. In other words, the cold body that from cold body and work is done on the working | is to be cooled further, it is more difficult to run a substance that finally returns an amount of heat Q; _ refrigerator. Thus, we can say that it is impossible to tnthehot reservoir. Now, since the working substance _ achieve absolute zero of temperature. comes back to its initial state after each cycle, its Relation between coefficient of performance intemal energy does not change. and efficiency of a refrigerator : In a refrigerator, Hence, from first law of thermodynamics, the working substance extracts heat Q, from a cold 2~0,=-w body and returns the amount Q, to body at higher The negative sign indicates that workis doneon fe engine Narr RelP of external work done on the system used as working substance. ni CT