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A Review on Recent Progress of Batteries for Electric Vehicles

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 International Journal of Applied Engineering Research ISSN 0973-4562 Volume 14, Number 24 (2019) pp. 4441-4461
© Research India Publications. http://www.ripublication.com

A Review on Recent Progress of Batteries for Electric Vehicles

T. Y. Chian, W. L. J. Wei, E. L. M. Ze, L. Z. Ren, Y. E. Ping, N. Z. Abu Bakar*, M. Faizal and S. Sivakumar
School of Engineering, Taylor’s University, Taylor’s Lakeside Campus,
No. 1 Jalan Taylor’s, 47500, Subang Jaya, Selangor DE, Malaysia.

Abstract
The progress of the development of electric vehicles over the
decades has been improving in a fast pace. After the outbreak
of oil shortage and the impact of greenhouse gaseous released
from the internal combustion engine vehicles to the
environment in 1970s, society started to work on investigating
the usage of environmentally friendly vehicle that uses
alternate energy. Out of all the solutions, electric vehicle could
be the answer to the challenges addressed. As battery serves a
large part in the industry of electric vehicles, this review paper
focuses on the recent progress of battery for electric vehicles.
This review paper discussed about the oldest type of
rechargeable battery, lead- acid battery to the recent commonly
used battery, which is the latest technology of battery, lithium-
ion battery. The materials of battery components, battery
parameters, battery pack design and cell design as well as the Figure 1. The first invention of electric car by Gaston Planté
sustainable issue of batteries for lead-acid battery, nickel metal
hydride battery (NiMH), ZEBRA battery and lithium ion
battery (Li-ion) were descripted and examined in exquisite 1.1 ELECTRIC MOBILITY
details. The future development of the batteries such as
rechargeable magnesium battery and sodium ion battery were Electric mobility is one of the fields that uses rechargeable
energy which is the electricity. Electric mobility includes all the
also evaluated.
street vehicles using electric motor that rely on the electricity
Keywords: Electric Vehicles; lead-acid battery; nickel-based power either fully or partially. Vehicles using purely electric
battery; ZEBRA battery; Lithium based battery motor (Electric Vehicles – EV), vehicles using small
combustion engine and electric motor (Range Extended
Electric Vehicles – REEV) as well as vehicles using
1.0 INTRODUCTION conventional internal combustion engine system and electric
propulsion system (Hybrid Electric Vehicles – HEV) are
Due to public attention of the limited amount of fuel energy in considered as electric mobility. The automotive vehicles
the world and the emission of greenhouse gaseous by the created in the industry of electric mobility use electricity energy
internal combustion engine vehicles, people started to look for in the rechargeable batteries to power up their systems in order
environmentally friendly vehicles that can be powered using to function. As the automotive vehicles use electricity to power
alternate rechargeable energies. As electricity is one of the up their electric motors, there are no emission of greenhouse
sustainable energies, the concept of vehicles using electricity to gaseous by the automotive vehicles as there are no combustion
power up the car was introduced. Although electricity is the occurred in the system unlike the usage of internal combustion
sustainable energy to power up the motors of the vehicles, the engines [2].
concept of an electric vehicle was not introduced to the world
until the year of 1859. In the same year, the rechargeable
battery named lead-acid battery was first conceived by Gaston
Planté [1]. Batteries play an important role to the evolution of 1.2 ELECTRIC VEHICLE
the electric vehicles as it is a must for the electric vehicles to The electric vehicle, which is as known as EV, is powered
carry a portable item that stores electricity in order to have the purely by its electric motor that gains energy from the source
electricity supply to its motor. of electricity. Electric vehicles are not something new to
today’s world, the first electric car was invented back in 1859,
which is 160 years ago from 2019. The electric vehicles lost the
game in the industry of automobiles to the internal combustion

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engine vehicles over the years. According to the US the first type of rechargeable battery in the world that was
automobiles sales data in 1900, among 4800 automobiles sold, commercially used especially in the industry of automobiles
the percentages of electric vehicles, internal combustion engine [5]. The lead-acid battery was modified by Camille Alphonse
vehicles and steam-power vehicles were 38%, 22% and 40%. Faure in 1881 and the performance and capacity of the modified
At that time, the demand of electric vehicles is considerable. lead-acid battery has improved by using the lead grid lattice.
Frantically, the popularity of electric vehicles did not last and The manufacturing processes of the lead-acid batteries were
the demand of it almost wiped out just 30 years later. The also made easier after the modification of lead-acid batteries by
demand of electric vehicles in 1930 was almost replaced by the Camille Alphonse Faure. Although the lead-acid battery was
demand of internal combustion engine vehicles. However, due invented 160 years ago from 2019, it is still contributing widely
to the announcement of oil shortage in 1970s as well as the in the field of automobiles considering its cheap cost [6].
concerns of environmental and awareness of air quality in the
surrounding in 1980s arise, people starting to rekindle their
interests in electric vehicles. The development of the electric 1.5 NICKEL CADMIUM BATTERY (NICD)
vehicles accelerated as people wanted to save the environment
[3]. Norway is one of the many countries in the world that Nickel Cadmium Battery has been widely used by the society
highly promotes the usage of electric vehicles to its nations. and intended to replace lead-acid battery especially the
The government of Norway promotes electric vehicle usage by automobiles manufactured in Europe. The usage of Nickel
adapting measurements like exemption of roadway tolls, Cadmium battery in the electric vehicles is developed in 1980s
accessing infrastructure of charging stations, limited lanes for and 1990s. The Nickel Cadmium battery is well known for its
public bus and more [4]. good battery cycle life. Unfortunately, due to its relatively low
range and uncompetitive selling price, the market of Nickel
The usage of using electric vehicles can certainly bring several Cadmium battery did not expand [7].
benefits to the humankind society. One of the most obvious
advantages that people using electric vehicles is the reduction
of greenhouse gaseous emission. Electric vehicles that powered
1.6 NICKEL METAL HYDRIDE BATTERY (NIMH)
mainly by the electric motor do not require combustion to run
the vehicles like internal combustion engine vehicles. Without The usage of hydrogen inserted in metallic alloys instead of
combustion, there is zero emission of greenhouse gaseous by cadmium at the negative electrode, the Nickel Metal Hydride
the electric vehicles. battery is considered an advanced version of the Nickel
Cadmium battery. The Nickel Metal Hydride battery is
However, there is also downsides of using electric vehicles than constantly sealed to prevent hydrogen from leaking. Due to the
using internal combustion engine vehicles. The downsides of Nickel Metal Hydride battery’s significant improvement in
using electric vehicles including the lengthy time required for
energy density, it replaces Nickel Cadmium in the application
the electric vehicles’ batteries to recharge. By using electric
of electric vehicles. The usage of Nickel Metal Hydride battery
vehicles, the users required to charge the vehicles exactly just
did not get commercialized in the 1990s as the newer
like how the internal combustion engine users needed to refill
technologies of battery were introduced very soon after the
the fuel. Unlike refilling the fuel, the time required to recharge
Nickel Metal Hydride was developed [7].
the batteries in the electric vehicles is longer. The time-
consuming batteries recharging session could be quite
inconvenience to the electric vehicles’ users.
1.7 LITHIUM-ION BATTERY
Rechargeable lithium-ion batteries were developed and
1.3 TRACTION BATTERY introduced in the 1990s to the world with a significant weight
advantage over other battery systems. Lithium-ion battery,
Traction battery was one of the most important components of known as one of the most outstanding quality in the new
the electric. Mainly road vehicles, locomotives, industrial
electrochemical industry. It is one of the most used and
trucks and mechanical handling equipment use the traction
widespread batteries used by electric vehicles today [8]. The
batteries as power resources. It is also possible to refer to the
Lithium-ion battery's weight advantages make it competitive
rechargeable traction battery as the electric vehicle battery
with other battery systems. Because of its high specific energy,
(EVB). The traction batteries, unlike the auxiliary batteries, the lithium-ion battery has a relatively greater travel distance,
support the entire electric vehicles instead of just providing the which is about three times greater than the mileage of the lead
energy needed to start the engine for the vehicles. The lead-acid
acid battery [9].
battery, the nickel-cadmium battery (Ni-Cd), the nickel-metal
hydride battery (NiMH) and the lithium are examples of the In the automotive industry, the Lithium-ion battery has obvious
major traction batteries. advantages as it has a long cycle life, high energy capacity and
high efficiency. Lithium-ion batteries are extremely likely to
contribute more to the current markets and the lives of people
1.4 LEAD-ACID BATTERY as the development of new products, innovations and strategies
continues to advance[10].
Lead-acid battery was invented in 1859 by Gaston Planté as the
world’s first rechargeable traction battery. The lead-acid was

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2.0 ELECTROCHEMISTRY Oxidation and reduction take place at both electrodes through
an electrolyte which consists of 30 % by weight of alkaline
Batteries with the ability to store energy electrochemically have
potassium hydroxide (KOH) in water.
achieved many of today’s advancements. Batteries are widely
used in variety of devices and machinery; however, it is the In charging condition. oxidation took place in nickel hydroxide
complex chemistry occurring within the battery cells that Ni(OH)2 electrode. Hydroxyl ion reacts with nickel hydroxide
enables the modern conveniences. Batteries are composed of Ni(OH)2 and form nickel oxyhydroxide (NiOOH) and water.
two terminals which are positive and, negative terminals or On the other hand, the MH electrode which represents the
cathode and, anode, electrolyte and casing to hold all the hydrogen-absorbing alloy is reduced. Water is separated into
components within. The electrolyte is added to divide anode hydrogen which again reacts with the metal to form MH in the
and cathode but allowing the ions to flow. Battery undergoes cathode. The nickel hydroxide Ni(OH)2 served as positive
an electrochemical reaction where the conversion of chemical electrode to promote the reversibility in electrochemical
energy to electrical energy occurs when a load or power supply reaction with nickel oxyhydroxide (NiOOH). The stream of the
is connected between the terminals [11]. In this reaction, anode nickel-metal hydride battery charging and discharging is
undergoes oxidation which donates or releases electrons therefore in the opposite direction.
through the terminal. Meanwhile, cathode undergoes reduction
where the electrode reacts with the ions and accepts the Sodium-nickel chloride battery used a negative electrode which
electrons given by the anode. In short, the anode releases its is composed of liquid metal sodium and a mixture of nickel (II)
electrons and, the cathode accepts and uses them. chloride (NiCl2 ) and iron (II) chloride (FeCl2 ) as the positive
electrode. A ceramic solid metal, Na-β” alumina (Na 2 Al11 O17 )
Currently, there is a few different types of rechargeable is used as an electrolyte to separate both electrodes away. It
batteries available to be used in electric vehicles. The batteries prevents the direct chemical reactions between the electrode
are enhanced and transformed to have better quality and constituents but allowing the sodium ions to flow between the
chemical properties as the time passes by. The evolution of the electrodes. Also, the second electrolyte of molten sodium
batteries can be arranged in the sequence of lead-acid battery, tetrachloro-aluminate ( NaAlCl4 ) is used in helping the
nickel-metal hydride battery, sodium-nickel chloride battery transportation of sodium ions to the positive electrode [5]. The
and a lithium-ion battery. Today, lithium-ion batteries have constitution of a cell for sodium-nickel chloride battery is
dominated the major commercial market. Therefore, a brief shown as Figure 2.
description of the electrochemistry in all rechargeable batteries
used in electric vehicles and the recent progress on the materials
selection for the electrodes used in lithium-ion battery will be
discussed.
Lead-acid batteries are assembled with multiple individual cells
covered with layers of lead alloy plates drenched in an
electrolyte. In each cell, there is a plate with lead dioxide as
positive electrode, a metallic lead plate as negative electrode.
Both plates are separated by an insulated separator and
immersed in an electrolyte with the composition of
approximately 65% H2O and 35% sulphuric acid [12].
In the charge and discharge condition of lead acid battery, huge
chemical processes take places for the conversion of energy.
The diluted sulphuric acid molecules dissolve and convert into
positive hydrogen ions (2H+) and negative sulphate ions
( SO4 − ). If a DC supply is connected to the terminals, the
positive hydrogen ions (2H+) moved towards the negative
electrode. Also, the negative sulphate ions (SO4 − ) are attracted
by the electrode that connected to the positive electrode. The
hydrogen ions receive two electrons at the cathode and form a
hydrogen atom. This atom reacts with the lead sulphate Figure 2. The constitution of a cell [5]
(PbSO4 ) to form a product with the composition of lead (Pb)
and sulphuric acid (H2 SO4 ).
In the discharged state, the mixture of metal chloride phase is
Nickel-metal hydride batteries in a solid hydride cycle store fabricated in the positive electrode from a mixture of
hydrogen as an active component. The negative electrode of the aluminium, iron, nickel and common salt. These metals are
nickel-metal hydride battery is a hydrogen storage medium that oxidized by the initial charge and the salt is decomposed into
releases the hydrogen when charging and discharging and sodium and chloride ions. The chloride ions react and combine
enables the electrochemical reaction to take place [3]. This with the oxidized metals to form metal chlorides. The cell
electrode is made from metal hydride which is usually the rare discharging process is a reversible chemical reaction.
earth mixture of lanthanum alloy [4]. The nickel hydroxide
Ni(OH)2 serves as the positive electrode in the battery cell. Lithium-ion batteries relied on the insertion of reactions from
both negative and positive electrodes where lithium ions act as

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the charge transporting system to store energy. In 1991, Sony negative electrode to positive electrode via the electrolyte so
became the first to manufacture and sell lithium-ion batteries that the electroneutrality can be maintained. At present, there
[6]. The idea of the reversibility in the movement of lithium ion are many choices of materials that could be selected to be the
between the electrodes in the battery is first developed by positive and negative electrodes, and the electrolyte in the
Armand which used different intercalated materials for two lithium-ion battery.
electrodes [7]. It enables the lithium ions to flow back and
forward among two electrodes. Goodenough laboratory
discovered the reversibility of the NaFeO 2 crystal structure in 2.1 CATHODE
deintercalation of the lithium ions at relatively high potentials.
Metals, including magnesium, aluminium, iron, etc. with the Intercalation compounds which enable the lithium ions (Li +) to
mixture of nickel and cobalt were discovered later to have the diffuse out and in are generally used as the positive electrodes.
These compounds include lithium cobalt oxide (LiCoO 2),
similar ability and adopted the lithium cobalt oxide (LiCoO 2)
lithium nickel oxide (LiNiO2), lithium manganese oxide
to be the active positive materials for Sony’s lithium-ion
(LiMn2O4), lithium iron phosphate (LiFePO4), lithium nickel
battery. Lithium cobalt oxide (LiCoO2) is the first and most
manganese cobalt oxide (Li(NixMnyCo1-x-y)O2), and lithium
common form of layered transition metal oxide cathodes. It is
very suitable to be a cathode material because it has high nickel cobalt aluminium oxide (Li(NixCoyAl1-x-y)O2). Lithium
theoretical specific capacity, volumetric capacity, discharge cobalt batteries are very reactive which cause it to have low
thermal stability and unsafe to use if it is not being monitored.
voltage, and good cycling performance. Meanwhile, most
The limitation of resources in cobalt also makes it be more
lithium-ion batteries ' negative electrode consists of graphite or
expensive which decrease the feasibility to be implemented
lithium titanate (Li4Ti5O12) and certain materials still under
into electric vehicles. However, it is used to create high energy
development, namely lithium metal and Li-Si alloys [8]. The
electrolyte is used which is usually created to allow the to power the Tesla Roadster and Smart Fortwo electric drive.
movement of ions between electrodes with a mixture of organic Lithium nickel oxide (LiNiO2) is recognized to be a low-cost
material for the high voltage batteries where it has a high
solvent and lithium salts. Besides, a separating membrane or
theoretical capacity with a value of 250 Ah kg-1. But the self-
separator is used to separate both electrodes away from each
passivation layer which formed on the surfaces cause
other but, allowing the electrode to flow while eliminating the
chances of internal short circuit. Figure 3 shows the schematic difficulties in the handling of this material. This material has a
construction of a battery cell of the lithium-ion battery. complex manufacturing process due to its stoichiometric
properties and a lot of requirements needed to be met. Thus,
Lithium nickel oxide (LiNiO2) is somewhat a less practical
electrode materials used in rechargeable batteries. Lithium
manganese oxide batteries (LMO) also have low internal
resistance and good current handling due to their architecture
that forms a three-dimensional spinal structure that could
improve the ion flow between the electrodes. The chemistry
within the battery cells provide better thermal stability.
However, it has roughly thirty-three percent lower capacity and
lower life span than lithium cobalt oxide. Most of the lithium
manganese oxide batteries are blended with the lithium
manganese cobalt oxide (NMC) to enhance its specific energy
and extend its life span. Nissan Leaf, Chevy Volt and BMW i3
had been manufactured in the past with the LMO-NMC
batteries [9]. Besides, a researcher in the University of Texas
had discovered which phosphate materials are selected as the
positive electrodes in the lithium-ion battery in 1996. Lithium
iron phosphate (LiFePO4) was then introduced, which has
improved electrochemical efficiency with low cell resistance
and high current rating Phosphate helps to stabilize the
electrode against overloading and increase heat tolerance which
restricts material breakdown [9]. Lithium iron phosphate
(LiFePO4) battery is less likely to experience the thermal
runaway as it has a wide range of operating temperature. This
battery also has higher self-discharge as compared to other
lithium-ion batteries. However, the moisture is an issue of this
Figure 3. Schematic construction of a Li-ion battery cell [8] battery where it significantly limits the its lifetime.
Based on Figure 3, a separator is integrated to avoid the direct Additionally, lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide
contact between two electrodes. The electrons flow from (Li(NixMnyCo1-x-y)O2) electrode is designed to increase its high
negative electrode to the load, and then went to the positive specific energy either power with high density. This electrode
electrode through the current collector when it acts as a is composed of nickel and manganese where nickel has high
galvanic device. Concurrently, the lithium ions (Li+) flow from specific energy but low stability; manganese helps in forming
a spinel structure which achieves low internal resistance but

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provides low specific energy. Nickel is used to combine with electrode chemistry, during the transition between Si and
the manganese enables to enhance the strength of each other’s Li15Si4, there is a significant volumetric change in the
which make the NMC to be one of the most effective lithium- electrode material that creates high internal strain in the active
ion system. This battery is currently high demand in the current materials [12]. The internal strain could cause the Si material
commercial market due to its high specific energy and excellent to crack and eventually disintegrate, resulting in a significant
thermal properties. Lastly, lithium nickel cobalt aluminium fade in reversible capacity. In contrast, Si has strong electrical
oxide (Li(NixCoyAl1-x-y)O2) battery is somewhat similar to resistivity and poor lithium diffusivity. The composite
NMC which offers high specific energy, power and a long life electrodes made of nanostructure Si have a high capacity to
span. This battery is not as safe as other batteries mentioned withstand volume expansion [13], and boost mechanical and
above and require a special safety monitoring measure before electrical properties through the use of a highly doped Si
integrating it into the electric vehicles. It is also more expensive embedded in conductive matrices. The issues mentioned to date
to manufacture which limits their viability to be used in a wide have prevented the practical use in electric vehicles of silicon-
variety of application. based electrodes. Finally, batteries that use the conversion-type
electrodes have a higher density of energy storage but undergo
a substantial fading in power than the one with intercalation-
2.2 ANODE type electrodes. In the conversion electrodes there is an actual
chemical reaction where it is opposed to the only intercalation
There are two types of negative electrodes that are used in
of the lithium ions into a host material's lattice.
lithium-ion batteries, namely lithium titanate and carbon-based
electrode. New types of negative electrodes are currently under
development, including lithium metal, lithium-metal alloy,
3.0 BATTERIES PARAMETERS
lithium-silicon alloys and conversion electrodes. First of all,
carbon and usually synthetic graphite are still used as the The most important core for the electric vehicle is the traction
negative electrode in the lithium ion batteries because they have battery component. Without the main battery, the electric motor
high specific capacity, low average voltage and high energy cannot perform its function relatively. Lately, EV battery
efficiency in the round trip [10]. It is generally used and an manufacturers were keeping developing new type of battery for
excellent alternative for the electrode as it is a material that is electric vehicle, innovating and improving the existing batteries
low cost, available and safe from toxic. However, if the carbon to increase the efficiencies for each parameter.
reacts with the atmospheric oxygen or experiences a thermal
runway event, the electrode may catch on fire. Furthermore, in
the traditional lithium ion battery, lithium titanate was used to 3.1 BATTERY SPECIFIC ENERGY, SPECIFIC POWER,
substitute graphite as the negative electrode which shapes into ENERGY DENSITY, WEIGHT AND SIZE
a spinel shape. The appropriate counter-electrode with lithium
At the early stages of the EV generation, Pb-Acid has used as
titanate is lithium manganese or lithium manganese cobalt
oxide. There is no volume difference in the spinel lithium the primary core to power the EV. Pb-Acid battery basically
titanate during lithiation that extends the electrode's operational can be identified as two primary categories : Starting battery
and Deep-Cycle Battery[22]. Deep-cycle type such as VRLA,
life. Because of its lithium diffusion coefficient, it has weak
AGM and Gel was used for EV as it has a greater energy
electrical conductivity and poor performance at high power
capacity and durability. In fact, Pb-Acid batteries was unable
rates, but this can be enhanced by increasing the duration of the
to generate voltage itself; instead they received or stored a
transport path of lithium ion by correct nano-structuring.
Lithium titanate batteries are integrated in the Mitsubishi’s i- charge from another origin. Therefore, Pb-Acid batteries are
MiEV electric vehicle. Therefore, lithium metal is a favorable referred to as storage batteries as they carry just one charge.
The size and amount of electrolyte of the battery plates will
negative electrode in the lithium ion battery with large capacity
determine how much charge lead acid batteries can be stored.
and low negative electrochemical potential where the electrode
A battery's amp-hour (Ah) or watt-hour (Wh) rating is
size will decrease the negative electrode mass due to the
magnitude order. However, during lithium plating or stripping, described as the size of the storage capacity for all types of
the growth of metallic dendrites in the lithium metal electrode batteries [23]. The Pb-Acid battery has a low specific energy
and energy density with a value of 35-40 Wh/kg and 80-90
may cause short circuit. The design of this electrode progresses
Wh/L [24], in which the early electric vehicle required a large
and aims to create a stable lithium metal electrode that could
amount of battery size in powering the vehicle that resulted in
boost electric vehicle efficiency [11]. In addition, alloy-based
incremental of curb weight of the electric vehicle at the same
electrodes made of lithium-alloy metals have a higher specific
capacity than conventional graphite electrodes. Throughout time. According to study by Ahman, an EV battery should be
phase transitions, accommodation of a large amount of lithium able to store up 30 kWh capacity to afford the vehicle an
acceptable range [25]. In order to generate 1 kWh electrical
is followed by a major density shift in the host material. The
energy, an approximate 30 kg lead acid battery was required.
mechanical strain allows the metal electrode to break and
Assuming the initial electric vehicle consumed 20 kWh/100
crumble during the alloying or de-alloying processes and the
km, for the Pb-Acid battery to be capable to support the electric
lack of capacity that used to hold charge. The electrochemical
method experiments that are partly reversible to form alloys vehicle, 20 packs of batteries to travel 100 km which consisted
between several metals and lithium proceed. In comparison, total of 600 kg mass from the batteries itself. The typical Pb-
Acid battery has a specific power of 285 W/kg [26]. Specific
lithium-silicon alloy has a greater potential effective strength
power, or gravimetric power density can be defined as the
than metallic lithium in its completely lithiated structure. In this

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loading capability for a battery. Batteries made for EV primary sources for almost every EV around the world are
application usually have a low specific energy or energy using the Li-ion based battery. Lithium has the smallest value
density in combination with a high specific power. A higher of weight among of all metals, with the greatest
specific power value indicate that more energy can deliver to electrochemical potential and possessed the largest specific
the electric motor to drive the vehicle which means greater weight and high density of energy [33]. Li-ion based battery
acceleration in a short time. basically consisted of two types, those with liquid (Li-ion-
liquid) and those with polymer electrolyte (Li-ion-polymer)
It did not take long for people to recognize that lead-acid type
while the liquid-ion type is preferable for EV purpose. There
battery was not suitable for powering the EV for a long-term
are three different combination of materials for the liquid Li-
period due to low energy densities, sensitive to temperature and
ion type battery which are Lithium Iron Phosphate (𝐿𝑖𝐹𝑒𝑃𝑂4 ),
life cycle. Soon, a new nickel-based battery was invented by
Lithium Manganese oxide ( 𝐿𝑖𝑀𝑛2 𝑂4 ) and Lithium Cobalt
Waldemar Jungner in 1899 [27] which replaced the lead-acid
Oxides ( 𝐿𝑖𝐶𝑜𝑂) . Li-ion based batteries that used for EV
battery as the power source in EV. Unlike Pb-Acid, the nickel
applications normally has a specific energy of 150-200 Wh/kg
metal hydride (Ni-MH) uses an alkaline electrolyte
and an energy density of 250-400 Wh/L [34]. The specific
– a concentrated potassium hydroxide aqueous solution. Some
power rating for a typical liquid Li-ion battery used for EV
common type of nickel-based batteries consisted Nickel-Iron
application has a value of 260 W/kg [26]. In order to generate
(Ni-Fe), Nickel-Cadmium (Ni-Cd), Nickel-Zinc (Ni-Zn) and
1 kWh using Li-ion battery, an approximate 7 kg of Li-ion
Nickel-metal hydride (Ni-MH). Because of the short life cycle
battery was required. Comparing to the Pb-Acid and Ni-MH,
and low specific strength characteristics, the Nickel Iron and
the battery mass can say to be reduced by 77 % and 65 % for 1
Nickel Zinc batteries were not really applied on the EV
kWh capacity.
application [28]. The battery which commonly used for EV was
the Ni-MH type as it possessed higher specific energy and
energy density compared to Pb-Acid battery with a value of 50-
70 Wh/kg and 100-140 Wh/L [28]. Ni-MH battery was chosen Table 1. Comparison among four batteries used for EV
over the Ni-Cd is because it has relatively higher specific
Battery type Specific Energy Specific Mass of battery for Mass reduction
energy and density content and Ni-MH did not contain toxic
Energy Density Power EV to run a 100 km compared to
metals which was cadmium. Besides, research also had shown (Wh/kg) (Wh/L) (W/kg) with 20 kWh/100km previous battery
that Ni-MH provided 40 % higher specific energy than the
standard Ni-Cd [27]. Therefore, most of the EVs has adopted Lead -
the Ni-MH battery technology as it can greatly lower the battery 35-40 80-90 285 500 – 600 kg 0%
Acid
packs total weight and improve the energy consumption
efficiency. It also has a lower energy density value which allow Ni- MH 50-70 100-140 200 300 – 400 kg 36.36 %
the battery system to be contained within a smaller space. In
order to generate 1 kWh using Ni-MH battery, an approximate ZEBRA
20 kg of Ni-MH battery was required. Comparing to the lead- 100 160 170 200 kg 42.86 %
(Na-NiCl2)
acid, the battery mass can say to be reduced by a 33 %.
However, the used of Ni-MH battery in EVs has reached a Li-ion 150-200 250-400 260 100 – 140 kg 40 %
bottleneck as its practical specific energy limitation can only
achieved until 75 Wh/kg [29]. A typical Ni-MH battery has a
specific power of 200 W/kg [26]. Other than that, Ni-MH
The data and specifications of each type of battery was
battery also having self-discharge problem. In the first 24 hours
summarized and tabulated in Table 1. Table 1 displays that the
right after charge, the self-discharge rate of the Ni-MH battery
specific energy and energy density of Li-ion type of battery are
has a value of twenty percent and 10 percent per month
greater compared to others. This means that the EV powered by
thereafter [27]. the Li-ion batteries was lighter in mass and the batteries pack
Later, there was another alternative battery that can be used for occupied a relatively small volume space. The Li-ion batteries
power the EV which named as sodium-nickel chloride were already become a very mature technology in powering the
(ZEBRA) or ‘Zero Emission Battery Research Activity’. This EVs for year s[25]. Due to the improved technology of the Li-
technology was first invented in South Africa during the 1970s ion battery, many car manufacturers had implemented the Li-
and 1980s [30]. This type of battery has a remarkably specific ion batteries into their EV to introduce into the consumer
energy and energy density with a value of 100 Wh/kg and 160 market. Among the well-known vehicles are Nissan Leaf, VW
Wh/L [31]. The specific power rating and power density for E-Golf, Hyundai Ioniq, Renault Twizzy and Tesla Model S
ZEBRA battery is 170 W/kg and 250 W/L respectively [32]. [35].
However, the optimum operating temperature (300 °C) for
Currently, the used of Li-ion battery in EV application has
ZEBRA battery requires pre-heating before use, which
developed maturely. It consists a lot of different combination
consumed considerable energy if parked regularly for long
of material for the Li-ion battery and each of the battery has
periods. Therefore, it is more suitable to applications where the different parameters. A study has also stated that the specific
EV is being used continuously such as the urban public
power for the current Li-ion battery can reach approximately
transportation.
1000 W / kg and can be driven beyond 10,000 W / kg and the
Finally, the revolution of the battery reached the stage where energy density of 1000 W / L can be forced above 10,000 W /
the lithium-ion based battery took over the place. The current L when needed, such as motor sports and military applications.

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[32]. Figure 4 that compares the various type of Li-ion batteries Lithium Manganese Oxide （LMO）, Lithium Cobalt oxide
will be illustrated below which consisted of Lithium Titanium (LiCoO), and Lithium Iron Phosphate (LFP).
Oxide (LTO), Lithium Nickel Manganese Cobalt Oxide
(NMC), Lithium Nickel Cobalt Aluminum Oxide (NCA),

Figure 4. Specifications of different type of Li-ion batteries used for EV [17]

As shown from above, NMC, LiFePO4 and LMO has an a battery with a high capacity. Table 2 below has indicated the
overall better performance based on the six parameters comparison of the rated capacity from typical batteries used for
compared among the six and most of the EVs today were using EV.
these three types of Li-ion batteries.
Table 2. Comparison of battery capacity

Type of Energy Nominal Rated Rated Distance that can

3.2 BATTERY CAPACITY (EFFICIENCY) & TRAVEL battery Efficiency Voltage Capacity Capacity travel on a single
DISTANCE (%) [24] (V) (Ah) (kWh) charge

The efficiency of a battery is a function of how much power the Lead – Acid 85 6 215 1.29 Approximate 22
battery can charge and eventually discharge which in terms of miles [36]
battery capacity. In fact, different battery models made by Ni-MH 85 343 77 26.4 75 - 150 miles
different manufacturers had different capacity numbers. In
which among of all the batteries types, Li-ion battery Na-NiCl2 75 278.6 64 17.83 ~ 120 miles
technology has been proven that it possessed higher energy [37]
density than Pb-Acid battery and other batteries used for EV Li-ion 90 350 158 55 250 miles
applications. This means that the same physical space can be
used to store more energy in a Li-ion battery. Because with Li-
ion batteries, it can retain more electricity as well as able to Some of the batteries from the existing EVs were taken to
discharge more fuel, running more devices for long duration at compare the battery capacity. Lead-acid battery properties was
the same time. The travel range of an EV depends on the type determined from 6 V electric golf car [38], Ni-MH battery
and number of batteries used. There are other considerable properties was determined from General Motors EV1 [39], Na-
factors such as terrain, weather or the driver performance but NiCl2 battery properties was determined from the Z5-278-ML-
type of batteries being used was the focus. In addition, energy 64 series and Li-ion battery properties was determined from the
efficiency also related to the battery capacity. The greater the current Tesla Model 3 - Standard Range Model [40]. From
value rated for the battery efficiency, the more percentage the Table 2, it can be clearly seen that the Li-ion based battery has
energy stored in the battery can be utilized. Besides, the the greatest battery capacity (kWh) compared to others and
charging time for a high efficiency battery is faster and most of the current EVs are all using Li-ion based batteries. As
allowing the battery can achieve a greater depth of discharge at observed from table above, Li-ion based batteries have the
the same time. Thus, a high efficiency battery corresponding to overall greater performance in EV application. Therefore, most

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of the current EVs are utilizing Li-ion based batteries to be the

power source in propelling the vehicle as Li-ion batteries
outperformed others in significant parameters. Some of the
aspects that affect the battery capacity would be discussed.
In fact, the battery capacity is affected by several factors such
as internal resistance, type of discharging method, discharge
mode and rate of discharge and charge. If the battery cannot
deliver the stored energy effectively, it will limit the use of
battery capacity. Thus, a battery needs a low internal resistance
(IR) as it is the person in charge of the amount of the energy
that can be delivered. A high resistance will heat up battery and
cause a voltage drop under load.
Table 3. Relationship between type of battery, internal
resistance and impact to battery capacity
Type of battery Internal Impact to battery capacity
Figure 5. Ni-MH memory effect
Resistance

Lead – Acid (VRLA) 15 ~ 16 mΩ [41] Low resistance – smooth flow 3.3 SELF-DISCHARGE & CHARGING TIME &
TEMPERATURE
Ni – MH 778 mΩ [42] High resistance restrict flow

Na – NiCl2 180 mΩ [43] Relatively low resistance

This section will be focused on the charging parameters of each
types of batteries used for EV. A battery’s charging and
Li – ion 320 mΩ [42] Moderate resistance discharging rate are subject to C-rates. A battery's power is
usually rated at 1 C, so a fully charged 1 Ah battery should
provide 1 A for an hour. Over two hours, the same battery
Another factor is the different types of discharging mode of the discharge at 0.5 C should provide 0.5 A, and for 30 minutes at
battery. There are basically two types of discharge which are 2 C, 2 A. A higher C-rate meaning can provide more current
continuous discharging and intermittent discharging. flow in a relatively short time [45].
Continuous discharging refers to when battery continuously
supply energy to load without rest which the capacity is First and foremost, the Pb-Acid battery. As mentioned at the
dropping continuously. Intermittent discharging means connect previous section, Pb-Acid battery consisted of two types which
and disconnect the battery to drive a load at an interval period. are Starting battery and Deep-Cycle Battery. However, the
Some voltage will be recovery during this period and it will common lead-acid battery used for EV application was the
provide a longer discharging time. Three common discharge VRLA which from deep-cycle category while some EVs still
modes consisted of constant load, constant current, and using SLI type for auxiliary function. Most of the Pb-Acid
constant power. Constant power mode has the shortest batteries has a self-discharge rate of 5 % per month [46]. In
discharge time, followed by the constant current and then fact, all types of batteries suffered from the self-discharge
constant load. Lastly, the discharge and charge rate of the problem. It is a permanent process and cannot be reversed. It is
battery. Repeating overcharging and over-discharging a battery a part of battery characteristics but not a manufacturing defect,
can reduce the battery capacity as well as its lifespan. but poor fabrication process and improper handling can further
worsen the discharge rate per month. Self-discharge in the form
Most of the Nickel-based batteries have suffered from the of leakage fluid indicated that the highest self-discharge rate
memory effect problem. Basically, the Nickel-based batteries occurs immediately after charge and tapers off. Based on
will retain its memory of the most often used of depth of research, the Pb-Acid battery and Li-ion battery have a lower
discharge in the recent past. For any value that exceed the self-discharge rate compared to Nickel-based batteries.
regular usage of DOD, the battery cannot perform well beyond
the value, and partly decreases its unused capacity for future Normal Pb-Acid battery has a charging time of around 8 – 16
use. For instances, as shown in Figure 5, the point M represents hours for a deep-cycle charge at a charging temperature around
the frequent usage of a Ni-MH battery with a 25 % charging -20 °C to 50 °C [46]. The lead-acid battery is encouraged to be
and discharging of its capacity, in which the point M will be always stored in a charged state (2.10 V) to avoid sulfation [47].
remembered by battery itself. For any usage beyond point M at The lead-acid battery is best to operate at an optimum
the next subsequent use, it will cause battery cell voltage to fall temperature of 25 °C and has high overcharge tolerance. The
below its original value as indicated by dotted line in the figure acceptable operating discharging temperature for the lead –
below [44]. So, memory effect is one of the reasons that makes acid range between -45 °C - +50 °C [31]. However, the lead-
Nickel-based batteries are not the ideal type battery for EV acid battery has a low charging rate of 0.1 C – 0.05 C which it
purpose. needs longer duration to full charge the battery itself [48]. The
lead-acid battery has a columbic efficiency around 90 % [46].
Coulombic efficiency (CE), also known as faradaic efficiency
or current output, defines the efficiency of charge that transmit
electrons into batteries. CE is the proportion of the battery's

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total discharge capacity to the battery's total charge capacity Longevity is also influenced by these same causes. In contrast,
over a full cycle. The longevity of the battery will be reduced a fully charged Li-ion is more likely to fail than a partly charged
as temperature goes higher. According to study, the battery life Li-ion. Table 3 displays Li-ion's self-discharge at different
is cut in half for every 8 °C increase in temperature. A VRLA temperatures and level of charge every month. As shown in the
that would last at 25 °C for 10 years would only be good at 33 table, the Li-ion battery has a higher self-discharge rate at a
°C for 5 years. If maintained at a steady desert temperature of high temperature with a full charge. Hence, it can be concluded
41 °C [49], the same battery will desist after 2 ½ years. The that the self-discharge rate of the Li-ion battery is directly
nominal cell voltage of Pb-Acid battery is 2 V[46]. proportional to the operating temperature and the state-of-
charge of the battery itself. It is advisable to not discharge a Li-
For the Nickel-based battery, the typical battery that normally
ion battery below 2.50 V/cell as it will turn off the protection
used for EV application is the Ni-MH battery. Most of the Ni-
circuit at that state, in which the battery will not able to be
MH batteries have a high self-discharge rate around a value of
charged by most of the battery chargers[52].
20 % - 30 % per month [46]. Whenever a Ni-MH battery must
be used, it needs to be recharged first. It takes around a charging
time of 3 hours for rapid charge and an hour for a fast charge
Table 4. Relationship between of the various temperature and
purpose [47]. The Ni-MH batteries usually has an optimum
state-of-charge in affecting the self-discharge rate per month
range of operating temperature from -30 °C to 65 °C [47].
of the Li-ion battery [52]
Unlike lead-acid, Ni-MH battery has a low overcharge
tolerance as can damage the battery cells and create potential State-of-charge 0°C 25°C 60°C
hazards such as depleted battery capacity, possible explosion
and generate excessive heat [50]. It has a peak load current C- Full charge 6% 20% 35%
rates of 0.5 C – 5 C [46]. The Ni-MH batteries commonly has 40-60% charge 2% 4% 15%
a columbic efficiency of 70 % for slow charge and 90 % for fast
charge [46]. The nominal cell voltage of Nickel-based batteries
is around 1.2 V[46]. 3.4 LIFETIME / LIFECYCLE AND COST
For the ZEBRA battery, it has a negligible self-discharge rate In this section, cost, lifespan and lifecycle parameters for the
or none [37]. The ZEBRA battery has a 100 % coulombically different types of batteries that utilized in EVs will be
efficiency, in which the capacity charging in equal to capacity discussed. The Pb-Acid battery act as the ancestors for all the
discharging out [37]. It is because the ZEBRA battery has a recent technology of batteries and has the overall lowest cost
chemical element that possessed good electronic insulating compared to Ni-MH, ZEBRA as well as the Li-ion battery. Due
properties and has no chemical side reactions, which is the to low specific energy and energy density value, utilization of
sodium ion conducting beta alumina. In terms of the charging Pb-Acid battery in the early EVs is limited. From past until
time, ZEBRA battery takes about 6 hours for normal charge today, the Pb-Acid battery that typically use for EV application
and an hour for a fast charge [51]. It has an optimum operating is the valve-regulated type (VRLA). VRLA has a fast recharge
temperature from 270 °C – 350 °C as the beta alumina capability, high specific power and low initial cost as well as
electrode contribute only a little amount resistance at these having a maintenance-free operation [28]. Nevertheless, it
temperature [37]. The nominal cell voltage of ZEBRA batteries suffers from a low cycle life about 1000 cycles at the depth of
is around 1.2 V[46] discharge (DOD) of 50 % and has an initial cost of $ 120 /
For the Li-ion based battery, it has a small discharge rate per kWh[24] as well as having a lifetime of roughly 3-15 years.
month with a value less than 5 % / month [46]. The Li-ion Depth of discharge is a parameter used to determine the total
based batteries normally has a columbic efficiency of 99 % and amount of the discharged battery. In fact, the amount of
battery remains cool during charge [46]. For the charging time, discharged for a typical lead-acid battery should not exceed 50 %
Li-ion based batteries has a charging duration about 2 – 3 hours as it will shorten the battery life [53]. The dominant reason for
for a complete charge[46]. Li-ion batteries manufacturers its relatively short lifecycle of the VRLA battery. For examples,
recommended using a 0.8 C or less to prolong the battery life, the grid of the positive electrode corrodes, active material
nevertheless, most Li-ion batteries can take a higher charge C- depletes and positive plates expands in the battery [54]
rate with only little stress. Thus, The acceptable range of As shown in Figure 6 below, it illustrated that the higher depth
discharging temperature and charging temperature for the Li- of discharge used for a battery, the less life cycle that a battery
ion batteries are ranged between – 20 °C – 60 °C and 0 °C - is. An alternative way to think of loading a battery or
45 °C respectively and it has a low overcharge tolerance[47]. It discharging it is to visualize it as a balloon. If you constantly
has a peak current range from 10 C – 30 C [46]. The Li-ion inflate a balloon to its maximum capacity and then totally
battery was encouraged to be stored at an intermediate DoD deflate it, repetitive pressure will fatigue the material of the
with a value of 3.7 – 3.8 V. It is advised to avoid storing the Li- balloon. Imagine now that by inflating repeatedly with another
ion batteries at full charge and above room temperature as balloon and deflate it from 50% to 90% full, the material will
irreversible self-discharge will occur [47]. The nominal cell become less stressed and last longer than the first balloon.
voltage of Li-ion based batteries is around 3.2 V – 3.7 V[46]. Likewise, the concept of the balloon example is like the battery
Under normal circumstances, Li-ion's self-discharge is technology. The plate inside the battery is exposed to the same
relatively stable throughout its service life; nevertheless, there pressure as the balloon content. In this example, when
is a rise in maximum loading status and high temperature.

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compared to Pb-Acid battery, Li-ion batteries are simply could be achieved with a full-function Ni-MH battery[57]. At a
manufactured from a more superior, greater balloon material. DOD of 80 %, the lifecycle of the Ni-MH battery can be
achieved over 1000 cycles for current trend. It is believed that
lifetime for a Ni-MH battery used for EV can be last over 7
years[58]. The cost for a Ni-MH battery is somewhere around
$ 200 – 350 /kWh [59]. In fact, due to roughly one third of the
mass of a Ni-MH battery pack was originated from the nickel
metal itself and the price of nickel has a large impact on the
overall price of a Ni-MH battery pack [60].
After the introduction of the Ni-MH battery into the EV field,
there is another alternative battery which come after Ni-MH
which was Sodium-Nickel Chloride (Na-NiCl2) or ZEBRA
battery. This battery is commonly used for public transportation
such as bus or van due to its high operating temperature. Thus,
Figure 6. Number of cycles against DoD for VRLA battery for this battery, it has a lifecycle of around 1000 cycles at 80 %
[55] DOD and expected to cost roughly between $160-300 /kWh
[28]. Lifetime is expected to be sustained more than 10 years
[51]. Overall for the ZEBRA battery, it has a greater
A higher working temperatures and high discharging current performance compared to lead-acid but it is only to able to
condition would accelerate the aging phenomenon not only for perform its maximum efficiency at temperature around 250 –
the lead-acid battery but also for others as shown in Figure 7. 350 °C which made this battery only suitable for urban public
transportation.
In 21st era of centuries, the most modern battery technology
used in EVs is the Li-ion based battery. It is majorly used for
many EV application and HEV today such as Nissan Leaf,
Toyota Prius, Honda Insight and Tesla Model due to its long
cycle life and high energy density. Considering the customer-
driving profiles, the Li-ion battery is designated in a way to
ensure that it can be performed full-operating capability at least
10 years. According to one of the studies, Li-ion battery was
believed that it has reached its end of life when the cell achieved
80 % of beginning of life power or 80 % of beginning of life
capacity. The Li-ion battery can be able to provide a total
energy of up to 800,000 kWh for a 10-year vehicle life
depending on the demand for power and vehicle mileage
expectations [61].
Besides, the cost for the Li-ion battery pack is high at the initial
stage when the Li-ion was freshly introduced into EV
application which having a value of $ 1000 +/kWh in the year
Figure 7. Relationship between battery capacity, discharge around 2005 – 2010 and expected to drop to below $ 400 /kWh
rate and operating temperature[56] in future trend as shown in Figure 8 [62]. However, due to
progressively advanced technology in battery field, the process
After introducing of the nickel-based battery into the EV, the
to manufacture the Li-ion battery become simplified as well as
usage of lead-acid battery for the EV has reduced as the nickel-
a lot of alternative materials can be utilized in the Li-ion battery
based battery has a higher specific strength and energy density
which has a lower cost. Based on a market analysis paper, the
compared to Pb-Acid battery. Among of the nickel-based
author made a core conclusion that the reduction of the costing
batteries, Ni-MH was the one commonly used for EV
to manufacture a full automotive Li-ion battery packs has been
application. It is because that Ni-MH battery has no utilized
reached to roughly $410/kWh industry-wide whereas
cadmium material act as the electrode and more
automotive car manufacturing leaders such as Tesla and Nissan
environmentally friendly. Ni-MH also has a great specific
predicted the Li-ion battery cost around $300/kWh
energy and energy density among other nickel-based batteries.
[62]. Likewise, the lifecycle of the Li-ion battery also depends
Since after the introduction of Ni-MH battery in 1991, the
on the DOD. The larger the DOD, the shorter the lifecycle for
battery technology has developed rapidly until today. But,
a Li-ion battery and avoid fully discharging and charging the
mostly Ni-MH batteries are used for Hybrid Electric Vehicle
Li-ion battery between uses to prolong the battery life. One
(HEV) application such as Toyota Prius and Honda Civic
more thing is that Li-ion battery has no memory effect and does
Hybrid as it has a great specific power value. According to
not required periodic full discharge cycles to extend life. A
study, a Ni-MH battery has a lifecycle as high as 3000 cycles
typical type of Li-ion battery that used for EV application is
with the battery operating between 20 % - 80 % DOD. The life
Nickel Manganese Cobalt Oxide (NMC) such as Nissan Leaf,
requirements of full-function battery EVs and plug-in HEVs
Chevy Volt and BMW i3 [18].

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Figure 8. Cost for Li-ion and future prediction

The discharge cycle for the NMC battery at each of the DOD batteries cost which also displaying the findings from the
will be shown in the Table 5 below. A typical Li-ion based studies that highlighted the likely range for 2020–2030 battery
battery can have a lifecycle around 500 – 2000 cycles at a 80% pack costs which will be shown in Figure 9.
DOD condition [46]

According to some of the papers, some estimations has made

Table 5. Lifecycle for Li-ion (NMC) battery at different DOD on the analysis of the battery cost. At year of 2020-2022, the
Level battery pack costs is believed will be reduced to $130–
$160/kWh, and at year of 2025, the battery cost is claimed to
Depth of discharge (DOD) Discharge Cycles reach to a price of $120–$135/ kWh. Furthermore, Tesla also
100 % DOD ~ 300 made a report that the price of the battery cost will become
$100/kWh by 2022 due to its NCA-based battery pack design
80 % DOD ~ 400 combining with the high-production volume can promote the
60 % DOD ~ 600 cost of battery pack become lower. In Berckmans’s finding, by
replacing the 2018-dominant graphite with the silicon alloy in
40 % DOD ~ 1000 the NMC cathode batteries, the battery costs can has a great
20 % DOD ~ 2000 decrease and solving the cycle-life issues at the same time [63].
BNEF's market survey indicated that the battery pack's volume-
10 % DOD ~ 6000 weighted average cost is $176/kWh and expects pack-level
prices will fall to $62/kWh by 2030 [64].
Besides, there is another study on the future trend for the EVs

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Figure 9. Future prediction for electric vehicle battery pack costs [64]

4.0 BATTERY PACK DESIGN AND CELL DESIGN

4.1 REVOLUTION OF THE DESIGN (FROM INITIAL
ARCHITECTURE GEOMETRY UNTIL LATEST DESIGN)
Battery pack is the essential component to power electric
vehicles. It is the entire battery energy storage system. It
consists of the battery modules, battery management system
(BMS) and cooling system. The amount of power needed for
EV is huge and hence it needs dozens to thousands of batteries.
Current Li-Ion batteries have overheating issues, they are also
prone to failure which is caused by mechanical vibration and
impact force. The battery pack provides protection to the
batteries and manage batteries efficiently and safely. The
battery pack design has undergone significant development in
recent years.
Figure 10. Battery Pack of NiMH Ranger [65]
In 1998, Ford produced the Ford Ranger EV. The first Ford
Ranger EV is powered by Delphi lead acid battery. It had 39
battery modules. In 1999, nickel metal hydride version of Ford
Ranger was produced. It had 25 Panasonic battery modules. Nissan Leaf is an electric vehicle launched in 2010. The battery
The NiMH Ranger has better performance than lead-acid pack of Nissan Leaf has 48 serially connected modules. Each
Ranger. The driving range for lead-acid Ranger is 105 km while module consists of 4 battery cells. There are total of 192 battery
the NiMH Ranger has 132 km driving range. The recharging cells. It uses Lithium Manganese Oxide laminated pouch cell
duration also decreases from 8 hours 51 minutes to 8 hours 13 [66]. Laminated cell is smaller than cylindrical cell and thus the
minutes. The mass of the packs has also been reduced packaging can be more compact and flexible. Figure 11 shows
significantly from 870.1 kg to 485 kg [65]. The lead-acid the laminated cell used by Leaf.
Ranger had double layer of modules while the NiMH Ranger
had single layer. Figure 10 shows the battery pack of NiMH
Ranger.

Figure 11. Laminated Cell [66]

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The way of cells connecting in the module is two cells 60 kWh energy. Chevrolet Bolt EV has driving range of 380
connected in parallel and two cells connected in series. Figure km [68], which doubled the driving range of Nissan Leaf.
12 shows the battery module used by Nissan Leaf.
By comparing battery pack of these models, battery pack
design has developed in implementing more battery cells in a
compact design, storing more energy and increases the driving
range.

4.2 CELL CHEMISTRY, MATERIALS, BALANCING,

INTEGRITY
Batteries provide power to electric vehicle through electricity.
Figure 12. Battery Module of Nissan Leaf [66] The electricity comes from the electrochemical reactions
The modules are connected in series, and together with the occurred, which results in the flow of electrons and produces
Battery Management System, service disconnect switch and electricity [69]. Different types of batteries contain different
junction box, it forms the battery pack. Figure 13 shows the chemical components and thus the chemical reaction also
battery pack of Nissan Leaf. varies from each other. The theory of the chemical reaction of
different batteries is similar.
As mentioned earlier, there are different materials used for the
anode, cathode and electrolyte of Lithium-Ion battery. The Li-
Ion battery developed by Sony in 1991 used Lithium Cobalt
Oxide (LiCoO2) as the positive electrode and graphite as the
negative electrode [70]. During discharge, oxidation is
occurred at the negative electrode. The lithium ion and electron
are released. The lithium ion moves through the electrolyte
while the electrons move through external circuit and both
particles react with cobalt dioxide at the cathode to form lithium
Figure 13. Battery Pack of Nissan Leaf [66]
cobalt oxide. The reaction is in reverse direction when the cell
The battery pack has total energy of 24 kWh. The driving range is charging. The electrolyte consists of lithium
is 160 km. Comparing to NiMH Ranger, the driving range of hexafluorophosphate (LiPF6) and organic solvent.
Nissan Leaf has increased by approximately 20%.
It was found by researchers from University of Texas in 1996
Chevrolet Bolt EV started to produce in 2017. The battery pack that the material for positive electrode of Li-ion battery could
consists of 10 modules, there are eight modules which have 10 be phosphate material too[17]. Lithium Iron Phosphate
groups of cells each, another two modules have 8 groups of (LiFePO4) battery has longer cycle life than other lithium ion
cells each. Each group has three cells connected in parallel. batteries. The negative electrode is also graphite. The half
There are total of 96 cell groups and 288 lithium ion cells [67]. reaction of negative electrode is the same as Lithium Cobalt
Figure 14 shows the battery pack of Chevrolet Bolt EV. Oxide battery since graphite is used for both cases. At the
positive electrode, Lithium Cobalt Oxide is replaced by
Lithium Iron Phosphate [71].

4.3 BATTERY MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

(REQUIREMENTS, DESIGN, TOPOLOGY)
Battery Management System is an important electronic system
to maintain the performance of batteries. Overcharging may
damage the batteries. BMS helps to keep the batteries working
under safe conditions by monitoring the charging voltage and
stops charging when the required voltage has reached [72].
BMS also measures state of charge (SOC), which is the
available capacity of batteries [73]. The longevity of battery life
is also maintained by BMS.
4.3.1 Requirements for Lithium Ion batteries
Figure 14. Battery Pack of Chevrolet Bolt [67] Lithium Ion batteries are common batteries used by EV today
due to their high energy density and efficiency. However, there
The cell used is also laminated pouch cell. The group of three
is risk of electric shock and fire hazard if not handled properly.
cells resembles a book and each group is stacked together
BMS is a complex system. There are certain requirements of
which forms the module like a bookshelf. The battery pack has
BMS that have to be met for it to perform all the important task.

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4.3.2 Temperature Sensing connected lithium ion cells. There are also three temperature
sensors in each PCB. Other components in the battery pack
The temperature of batteries affects the performance greatly.
includes contactors, service plug, current transducer, fuses and
The range of operating temperature for Li-Ion batteries is -20
a fan. The BMS Master is placed under the rear bench seat. The
⁰ C to 60 ⁰ C. Nagasubramanian has found that when the
Cell Management Unit (CMU) is connected to BMS Master by
temperature is 25 ⁰ C, the energy density of Panasonic 18650
Controller Area Network. Figure 15 shows the battery pack of
Li-Ion battery was 100 Wh/L and was reduced to 5 Wh/L at -
Mitsubishi i-MiEV.
40 ⁰ C[74]. Thus, it is important to measure the temperature of
batteries. A few temperature sensors are needed and the
location where the sensors are placed need to be determined.
Simulations can be conducted to find the suitable placements
for the sensors. Example of the sensors are thermocouple and
fiber sensors [75].
4.3.3 Voltage Sensing
Minimum of one voltage acquisition channel is needed per cell.
Most electric vehicles have an additional programmable device
which alert BMS whenever any cell is not operated within the
allowed voltage range. The voltage acquisition is also
responsible for the SOC estimation. If the voltage measured is
more accurate, the SOC estimation is better [76].
4.3.4 Current Sensing
The determination of SOC using voltage measurement is
suitable during stand-still periods, another method which is
suitable for determining dynamic SOC is by measuring current, Figure 15. Battery Pack of Mitsubishi i-MiEV [76]
also known as coulomb counting. The coulomb counter can
track the SOC. Current sensors in EV should be capable of
measuring current ranging from milliampere to 1000 Ampere 4.3.7.2 Volkswagen e-Up
[76]. The battery pack of VW e-Up contains 17 modules connected
4.3.5 Communication in series, each module has six pairs of two prismatic cell. There
are total of 204 cells in the pack. There are BMS slave in the
BMS needs to communicate with other system such as power white box which is situated at the left side of the pack. The fuse,
electronics, energy management system and others, to transmit contactors and current measurement is situated below the black
important information and receive instructions. The common cover in the middle. The BMS master can be found in another
mean of communication is Controller Area Network (CAN). It white box. There is no cooling system in this pack. Figure 16
can provide robust communication under harsh operating shows the battery pack of VW e-Up.
environment such as loud electrical noise. Other requirements
include electromagnetic interference (EMI) filtering device
which reduce the influence of EMI on sensors, galvanic
isolation to isolate high voltage part and low voltage part of
battery packs, and contactors which can cut off DC currents
when hazardous events happen.
4.3.6 Topologies and Design
As mentioned, battery pack consists of many batteries. The
Integrated Circuit (IC) of BMS plays important role in
monitoring these batteries at once. The front-end IC of modules
is referred as BMS Slaves. Their function is acquiring signal
and filtering. Another important component is The Electronic
Control Unit (ECU), also known as BMS Master. It controls
and oversees the electrical system.
4.3.7 The traction batteries of three EV models
4.3.7.1 Mitsubishi i-MiEV.
Figure 16. Battery Pack of Volkswagen e-Up [76]
Battery pack of Mitsubishi i-MiEV has 12 modules. 10
modules contain eight cells each and another two modules have
four cells each, there are total of 88 prismatic cells [76]. There
is a Printed Circuit Board (PCB) mounted on each module, 4.3.7.3 Smart Fortwo Electric Drive
which contains a battery monitoring IC. It can monitor 12 series

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There are 90 pouch bag lithium ion cells in the battery pack of battery. There is phase changing during heat transfer, which
third generation Smart ED. The batteries are connected in helps to keep the temperature almost constant. Audi e-tron
series. There are three PCBs in the battery pack and each of started production in 2018. It uses liquid cooling system. There
them has six monitoring IC[76]. The BMS master is placed is 22 liters of coolant flowing around the 40 m cooling pipes
beside the communication signal connector. The fuse and [79]. Important components such as the electric motor,
contactor can be found beside the power connector. The entire batteries, stators are liquid cooled. A heat pump is used to
BMS of Smart ED is placed in the battery case. The space of utilize the waste heat from the electric motor for heating and air
battery pack is used efficiently and there aren’t many cables conditioning the interior.
used. Figure 17 shows the battery pack of Smart ED.

5.0 ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES OF BATTERIES

Batteries can help on replacing our reliance fossil fuels which
can make the economy to by greener, although it may make the
world greener, the environment footprint for batteries need to
be consider too. In this part, lithium-ion batteries will be
mentioned regarding the environmental issues since lithium-
ion batteries are the batteries that commonly used in these days
[80]. Lifecycle analysis (LCA) will be used in this section to
Figure 17. Battery Pack of Smart Fortwo Electric Drive [76] calculate the footprint of the environment across the range of
impacts on GHG emissions, pollution issues, and more. LCA
can be defined as a way of assessing the impact on the
The main difference between the BMS of these three batteries environment through the life cycle and process of the raw
packs is integration. The battery of Smart ED showed large materials, manufacturing, use, recycling and final disposal of
scale of integration, while there is average amount of the product [81].
integration in the batteries of VW e-Up and Mitsubishi i-MiEV.
For Smart ED, the monitoring IC and PCB are mounted on the
battery modules in a space saving method. The BMS master is 5.1 MATERIAL ISSUE
placed inside the pack too. As for the i- MiEV, the BMS master
is not placed in the pack, which leads to more cabling required. There are a lot of choices of materials can be used to produce
electrodes and electrolytes. Since there are a lot of materials
Smart ED showed large scale of integration, while there is choices, this brings in slot issues such as toxicity, safety,
average amount of integration in the batteries of VW e-Up and recycling or disposal impacts [82].
Mitsubishi i-MiEV. For Smart ED, the monitoring IC and PCB
are mounted on the battery modules in a space saving method.
The BMS master is placed inside the pack too. As for the i- 5.1.1 Resource Availability
MiEV, the BMS master is not placed in the pack, which leads
to more cabling required. Due to the soaring demand and huge size of future energy
storage installations, more material resources need to produce
more batteries to fulfill these circumstances [83]. Nowadays,
there are enough batteries key constituents, but as the
4.4 BATTERY THERMAL MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
production getting larger years by years, the reserve key
(BTMS)
constituents for batteries will ended up used up and one day this
Battery temperature affects the performance, reliability and will be the issue if there aren’t any further action taken when
safety of EV. It is important for batteries to maintain within there are still resources in the world [83].
ideal operating temperature range. The four important
In lithium-ion batteries, the key constituents of this battery are
functions of BTMS are cooling by removing heat, heating to
lithium, manganese, cobalt, nickel and natural graphite, it were
increase temperature of battery when temperature is too low,
expected to meet the near-term demand of batteries and the
insulating to reduce sudden change in battery temperature and
ventilation to expel hazardous gas from battery [77]. inventor and researcher mentioned that these key constituents
are able to supply until the next decades with the rise in demand
BTMS can be classified into two categories, which are BTMS [83].
with vapor compression cycle (VCC) and without VCC. The
In the statement from the researcher and inventor of the lithium-
options of system for BTMS with VCC includes cabin air
ion batteries does not include the sharp increase in demand
cooling, direct refrigerant two phase cooling and secondary
where this will boost the market prices. It seems like the amount
loop liquid cooling. As for BTMS without VCC, there are
phase change material cooling, heat pipe cooling and of lithium left will not be enough to supply for the world to
have 100% electrification vehicles [80]. This might happen in
thermoelectric element cooling.
the next decades since the production and manufacturing line
Production of BMW i3 started in 2013. It uses direct refrigerant of vehicles has slowly innovate electric vehicles. It has already
two-phase cooling system [78]. The refrigerant evaporator been 10% of the world vehicles were functioning with the help
which is implemented in the cooling plate is used to cool the of electricity with reducing of fuels [83].

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The key constituents of lithium-ion batteries were very limited binders took another process, but it can still be considered as a
nowadays in the sense that the minded area were very small substance that can be recycled.
selections and this will be very risky in the terms of only supply
lithium-ion batteries to the technologies [84].
5.2 ENERGY ISSUE: PRODUCTION & CHARGING
5.1.2 Environmental Impacts
5.2.1 Energy Source for Production
5.1.2.1 Electrode Materials
The carbon intensity normally used in producing batteries have
Among all the life cycle stages, mineral extraction and metal
a big impact on the environment footprint. In the production of
refining has the most important contributions. Lithium-ion
lithium-ion batteries, the production can be very complicated,
batteries key constituents such as nickel and cobalt will
this is because to prevent the HF to be formed therefore it need
significantly increase the environmental footprint. According
to be manufacture at extremely low humidity and cell assembly
the lifecycle analysis, these materials were considered as toxic
at very dry surroundings [90]. According to a research paper
substances and from the min tailing, this will have the chance
stated that there are 7 types of lithium-ion batteries which
of leaking [85]. Besides that, when smelting takes place for the
assessed cumulative demand of 19 studies and took the average
virgin cobalt and nickel recovery, high levels of Sulphur oxide
of 1 Wh of lithium-ion batteries needs approximately 328Wh
will be produced [86]. Cobalt and nickel can only be mined in
of energy to produced. With the 1 Wh will be around 110 grams
a less strict countries on environmental, health and regulations.
of CO2, which are the GHG emissions[90]. Asian country is
However, just minimize the leakage will reduce the toxicity
mostly placing to manufacture lithium-ion batteries with some
where it will benefit the environment, and this will beneficial
mixture of electricity which results differently compared to
the environmental performance of batteries [87].
majority of the Europe countries [91]. An example shows that
The way to reduce the impact of extractive activities are to in South Korea, the lithium-ion batteries there are production
increase the efficiency of the resources and recycling or reusing with the mixture of coal, nuclear and gas. This results that the
the batteries. Lead acid batteries can be last until this decade impact to the global warming will be 60% higher than using
are because there are more recycled (secondary) than raw 100% electricity supply [91].
(primary) lead acid batteries were used in worldwide. However,
After all these incidents, the things that can overcome GHG
there are new inventor trying to replace lead acid batteries are
emissions from the production of batteries will be by making
mainly because the European Chemicals Agency (ECHA) has
sure that the cells can be fully renewable sources [92]. When
added lead acid batteries as the Candidate List of Substances of
the world thinks that this is nearly impossible, but there goes in
Very High Concern (SVHCs), this is mainly due to the toxic
one of the largest batteries’ factory in Sweden, in the year of
substances [80].
2023, the manufacturing batteries factory will make sure it will
be 100% powered by renewable sources such as
hydroelectricity [92].
5.1.2.2 Electrolyte Risks
The electrolyte used for batteries brings major impact on the
performance of a battery. However, electrolyte performance 5.2.2 Roundtrip Efficiency
and safety will need to be compromise. Minor electrolytes
Roundtrip efficiency can be defined as a place to store the
substances will bring impact to human health such as the
energy and give the energy back to the grid. In mathematically
electrolyte of lead acid batteries, sulphuric acid [88]. Not just
term it means the ratio of energy input is the ratio of energy
lead acid batteries, for one of the latest technologies batteries,
output which it is normally calculated in percentage. It can be
lithium-ion batteries, it is consider as relatively high flammable
simplified with saying that when the power needs to be used,
and the electrolyte of the lithium-ion batteries will form a toxic
the amount of energy coming out when there is discharge
atmosphere when the lithium-ion batteries are not closed or
occurring of a secondary (recycled) battery.
semi-closed properly and this aloe the formation of hydrogen
fluoride (HF), where it is an extremely toxic and corrosive In a commonly used lead acid battery, there are efficiency over
chemical reaction. This will only occur when there are car 70-80%. In another words, 20-30% of the energy will be lost
crashing happening or any incident that not closing the batteries during the charging cycles. In another hand, lithium-ion
properly [88]. efficiency is over 90%, where after the charging cycle, only
10% of the energy will loss. All these lost energies will be the
impact to environmental [87]. It is a serious scenario since if
5.1.2.3 Binders the improvement to overcome these issues can be reduce from
90% to 92% for lithium-ion battery, these 2 % difference will
Binders is like a glued where is “glued” the components of the
lead to 7% reduction from the impact of environmental [93].
battery together. The binders used has cause impact to the
environmental. Majority binders are made of fluorinated
substances, this is because these substances will produce
5.3 LIFESPAN
energy intensive and the emission of ozone depleting
substances [87]. In the terms of recycling, it needs further If a battery has a longer lifespan, it drags the number of times
process such as toxic solvent to break down the binders only on replacing the battery. The longer the lifespan will also affect
can be recycled, and it is not biodegradable[89]. Therefore, the the cost reduced by relating it back to less impact to the

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environment. In real life application, battery in the electronic emission by approximately 100% which is emission completely
vehicle’s lifespan is longer than the other smaller electronic since it prevents from smelting [86]. Somehow it will be
device. If the battery drained up dramatically, users will change challenging to recycle lithium-ion batteries [95]. It contains a
the whole electronics away and this will consider as end-of-life huge number of mixed materials in lithium-ion batteries, where
(EoL) of the whole electronics which will increase the impact compared to simpler batteries such as Pb-Acid batteries, the Li-
of environment. ion battery is much more complicated. For an electric vehicle
that powered by Li-ion battery, at least 100 individual cells are
Battery’s lifespan has 2 categories to differentiate the batteries
needed [95]. Some of the materials need to be separated in the
namely calendar years and life cycle. For calendar years, the
lithium-ion batteries as the composition of the materials is not
inventor will calculate the maximum use of the batteries with
allowed to be recycled.
the length of time. For example, the battery can last for 3 years,
then the battery will be drained off completely. On the other When there are lithium-ion batteries without any labeled on it,
hand, life cycle of the batteries is where the inventor will it stand for there are some of the compositions are not allowed
calculate with the number of charges to the batteries. For to be recycled [95]. Due to the production of electric vehicles,
example, if the battery can be charge for 2400 cycles, after 2400 the number of productions for lithium-ion batteries reaches
cycles, the battery will be “half dead” or completely not approximately 25 billion by just 2019 globally [96]. The
functionable. For the case of using lead acid batteries, it will go method of extracting cobalt, nickel and copper were known one
through 3 phases which are formatting, peak and decline [94]. of the most economically valuable resources in the field of
recycling lithium-ion batteries, the other products will not be
recycled and neglected as there are too many cells in lithium-
ion batteries [95]. The main reason that cobalt lithium-ion
batteries can be recycled is that cobalt is a precious element, so
if cobalt is not extracted, the recovery of lithium-ion batteries
will be commercially unattractive [96].

5.4.2 Reuse
Batteries from electric vehicles that has lost the initial
capacities can be used in other lesser demand energy storage, it
means by lost the initial capacities means the batteries has only
75% compared to the initial capacities [89]. In some of the
Figure 18. The three phases of lead acid batteries [94] research studies stated that secondary lithium-ion batteries are
feasibility and environmental benefits [97]. There are some
challenges to reuse due to the complex physical and chemical
process, one of the challenges is to design a battery
From Figure 18, it clearly shows how a battery life span will
management system which fulfill the qualification of evolution
be like. In formatting, this required 20-50 cycles to reach the
[98].
second phase, which is the peak phase. It will take 100-200
cycles to reach the third phase which is the decline phase. To
increase the lifespan of lead acid batteries, these batteries must
make sure to charge for ± 15 hours [94]. For lithium-ion 6.0 CONCLUSION AND FUTURE DEVELOPMENT
batteries, the peak it can reached 2000 cycles, in another words, The development and revolution of battery technology from old
the lead acid batteries result higher impact on environmental centuries to latest battery technology have been reviewed in the
compared to lithium-ion batteries. paper. The revolution processes and parameters of the
rechargeable batteries from the earliest which is Pb-Acid
battery to the recent latest Li-ion battery were examined. Based
5.4 END OF LIFE (EOL) on the evolution from lead acid battery to lithium ion battery,
the parameters such as specific energy, energy density, specific
Recycle and reuse can be the ways for batteries that came end
power, weight and size had enhanced along the evolution. The
of life (EoL). Recycle in batteries also called as secondary
battery specific energy, energy density and specific power have
batteries, this will give a big hand on reducing impact on
increased over the evolution and the weight and size of battery
environmental Besides that, by comparing on increasing the
have significantly decreased over the years. Tin terms of
lifespan, reuse the batteries will be a better choice [80].
battery capacity and travel distance, the lithium ion battery has
the best performance among the other batteries. The charging
time and the discharge time of the batteries were also discussed.
5.4.1 Recycling
The lifetime / lifecycle and cost of the evolution of batteries
Recycling has the direct environmental benefits. In lithium-ion were also reviewed. However, there are currently a few
batteries, if the cathode used were materials such as aluminum developing batteries which use different anode, cathode and
and copper, this may help the environment to save over 50% of electrolyte separator that could possibly enhance the
its lifetime which is a decade’s number [80]. As mentioned performance of the batteries by increasing the parameters such
earlier in section 5.1.2, the reduction of sulphuric oxide will be as heat capacity, lifetime / lifecycle sustainability. The

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revolution in terms of the essential of battery pack design and 1.5 V lower than lithium ion battery’s layered. The success of
cell design were considered in the review paper. This include further research, investigation and development on the
the cell chemistry, materials, balancing and integrity of materials to have layered materials that is suitable to use on the
batteries. The attributes of battery management system, thermal sodium ion battery system will let sodium ion battery to make
management system for battery pack and the battery state a major impact on the electrochemistry industry.
estimation were deliberated. Lastly, the sustainability issues of
Ultimately, in EV applications, the battery plays the most
the batteries including the impact of batteries to the
important core role. To encourage more industrial EV
environment, the degradation / aging defects, the recyclability,
implementations in the future, other battery targets such as long
repurposing and extend life issues were discussed in detail.
lifecycles, high specific energy and power, and the right
Li-ion batteries have changed dramatically over the past 25 amount of price that can compare with an ICE must be met.
years, making it possible to introduce better performance in
consumer electronics and new applications such as drones and
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