Unit Expected Outcomes

❑ Explain metabolism
❑ Explain metabolism and cell structure
❑ Name some important nucleotide in –
Containing
❑ compounds in metabolic pathways
❑ Describe the Citric Acid cycle
❑ Explain Electron Transport Chain
 Biochemistry
Metabolism
-1
2nd Semester AY
2022-23

Natural Science
Department College of
Arts and Sciences Our
Lady of Fatima University
Metabolism is the complex chemical processes of our body
uses for normal functioning and sustaining life, including
breaking down food and drink to energy and building or
repairing your body.

Energy production

Metabolism is the process by which your body converts what you eat
and drink into energy. During this complex process, calories in food and
beverages are combined with oxygen to release the energy your body
needs to function.
Cellular Respiration

• During cellular respiration, plants and animals combine

energy-rich compounds with oxygen from the air,
producing CO2 and releasing energy.
• Cellular respiration can be represented as:

• A portion of the energy released during respiration is

captured in the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP),
which stores energy for use in other processes.
• The remainder of the energy from respiration is
released as heat.
  Metabolism is the sum of all
reactions occurring in an
organism:
 catabolism — the reactions
involved in the breakdown of
biomolecules.
Metabolism  anabolism — the reactions
involved in the synthesis of
biomolecules.

 In general, energy is released

during catabolism and required
during anabolism.
 A metabolic pathway is a
sequence of reactions used
to produce one product or
accomplish one process.

• Each pathway consists of a series

of chemical reactions that convert
Metabolic a starting material into an end
product (e.g., the citric acid cycle
pathway and the electron transport chain).

Fortunately, there are a

great many similarities
among the major
metabolic pathways in all
life forms.
Catabolism of Food
• The catabolism of food is a three stage process.
• Stage I: The digestion of large, complex molecules into
simpler ones.
• The most common reaction in digestion is
hydrolysis:
Catabolism of Food
• Stage II: The small molecules from digestion are
broken down into even simpler units, usually the
two-carbon acetyl portion of acetyl coenzyme A
(acetyl CoA):

• Some energy is produced at this stage, but much more

is produced during the oxidation of the acetyl units in
Stage III.
Catabolism of Food

Stage III: This is referred to as the common catabolic

pathway because the reactions are the same regardless of
the type of food being degraded.
• citric acid cycle
• electron transport
• oxidative phosphorylation

Energy released in Stage III appears in the form of energy-

rich molecules of ATP.

The whole purpose of the catabolic pathway is to convert

the chemical energy in foods into molecules of ATP, which
carries energy to parts of the cell where energy is needed.
Catabolism of Food
ATP as primary energy carrier
Adenosine triphosphate, ATP, consists of:

• the heterocyclic base adenine

• the sugar ribose
• a triphosphate group

At physiological pH, the protons on the triphosphate group are

removed, giving ATP a charge of -4.

In the cell, it is complexed with Mg2+ in a 1:1 ratio, giving it a net

charge of -2.
Hydrolysis of ATP
• The triphosphate group is the part of the molecule that
is important in the transfer of biochemical energy. The
key reaction is the transfer of a phosphoryl group, —
PO3 2- , from ATP to another molecule.
• During the hydrolysis of ATP in water, a
phosphoryl group is transferred from ATP to
a water molecule:

• The products are adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and a

phosphate ion, often referred to as an inorganic
phosphate, Pi , or just phosphate.
 The transfer of a phosphoryl
group from ATP to water is
accompanied by a release of
energy.

Hydrolysis
of ATP
Free energy, ΔG, is used as a
measure of the energy change.
When ΔG is When ΔG o is
measured measured
When energy is When energy is
under standard under body
released, ΔG is absorbed, ΔG is
conditions, it is conditions, it is
negative. positive.
represented by represented by
ΔG o. ΔG o’.
Hydrolysis of
ATP
• The liberated free energy is available for use by the cell
to carry out processes requiring an input of energy:
• ATP + H2O ADP + Pi + H+ , ΔG o’= -7.3 kcal/mol
• Other phosphate-containing compounds also liberate
energy on hydrolysis:
Hydrolysis of ATP
• Compounds that liberate a large amount of free
energy on hydrolysis are called high-energy
compounds.
• The hydrolysis of ATP to ADP is the principal energy-
releasing reaction for ATP. Some other hydrolysis
reaction occur under some conditions, such as the
hydrolysis of ATP to adenosine monophosphate,
AMP, and pyrophosphate, PPi :
Hydrolysis of
ATP
• This is usually followed by immediate hydrolysis of the
pyrophosphate, which releases even more energy:

• The hydrolyses of ATP and related compounds are

summarized below:
 ATP functions as an immediate
donor of free energy rather than
as an energy storage medium.
The turnover rate
of ATP is very high: At rest, a human During strenuous
typically, an ATP body hydrolyzes exertion, this rate
molecule is ATP at the rate of may be as high
hydrolyzed within about 40 kg every as 0.5 kg per

ATP-ADP 1 minute after its 24 hours. minute.

formation.

Cycle

ATP must be continuously

regenerated from ADP if cellular
work is to occur.
Mitochondria
The mitochondrion is the powerhouse of the cell. It is the
organelle where many of the reactions of the common
catabolic pathway occur. It consists of an outer membrane,
which surrounds an inner membrane.
• The folds of the inner membrane are called cristae.
• The space that surrounds them is the matrix.

The enzymes for ATP synthesis (electron transport and oxidative

phosphorylation) are located on the cristae. The enzymes for
the citric acid cycle are found within the matrix, near the
surface of the inner membrane.
Coenzymes

• Coenzymes are weakly-bound organic groups that

participate in enzyme-catalyzed reactions, often by
acting as shuttle systems for the transfer of chemical
groups (e.g., hydrogen transport). Many important
coenzymes are formed from vitamins.
• Coenzyme A is a central compound in metabolism. It is
part of acetyl coenzyme A (acetyl CoA), the substance
formed from all foods as they pass through Stage II of
catabolism.
Coenzyme A
• Components of coenzyme A:
• vitamin B5 , pantothenic acid, in the center.
• a phosphate derivative of ADP
• b-mercaptoethylamine, which puts a reactive
sulfhydryl group (—SH) at the end of the molecule
(CoA—SH).
Coenzyme A
• The letter A is included in the name Coenzyme A to
signify its participation in the transfer of acetyl groups,
but Coenzyme A transfers all acyl groups. This is
important in fatty acid oxidation and synthesis.

• Acyl groups are linked to coenzyme A through the sulfur

atom in a thioester bond:
 Most of energy for ATP synthesis is released
when the oxygen we breathe is reduced.

• Oxygen accepts electrons and H+ , producing water.

• The electrons come from the oxidation of fuel
molecules but are not transferred directly to the
oxygen.

Electron • These substrates first transfer the electrons to special

coenzyme carriers.

transporters The reduced forms of these coenzymes

transfer the electrons to oxygen through
the reactions of the electron transport
chain.

ATP is formed from ADP and Pi as a result

of this flow of electrons.
Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide (NAD+ )
• Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+ ), is an
electron transporter which is a derivative of ADP and
the vitamin nicotinamide (B3 ).
Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide (NAD+ )
• A typical cellular reaction in which NAD+ serves as
an electron acceptor is the oxidation of an alcohol:

• In this reaction, one hydrogen atom of the alcohol

substrate is directly transferred to NAD+ , whereas
the other appears in solution as H+ . Both electrons
lost by the alcohol have been transferred to the
nicotinamide ring in NADH.
Flavin Adenine Dinucleotide (FAD)
• Flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD) is another major
electron carrier. It is a derivative of ADP and the
vitamin riboflavin.
Flavin Adenine Dinucleotide (FAD)
• The substrates for reactions involving FAD are often
those in which a —CH2—CH2— portion of the substrate
is oxidized to a double bond:
 Biochemistry
Metabolism
-1
2nd Semester AY
2022-23
THE END
Natural Science
Department College of
Arts and Sciences Our
Lady of Fatima University