FIRST TERM E-NOTE FOR SS1

SUBJECT: FURTHER MATHEMATICS

TOPICS

1. SET THEORY
2. SET THEORY
3. INDICES
4. LOGARITHM
5. COORDINATE GEOMETRY I
6. COORDINATE GEOMETRY II
7. COORDINATE GEOMETRY III
8. SURDS
9. TRIGONOMETRIC RATIO OF SPECIAL ANGLES
10. LOGICAL REASONING
11.LOGICAL REASONING
TOPIC 1: Set Theory
SET

A set is a collection of distinct objects, called elements of the set

A set can be defined by describing the contents, or by listing the elements of the set, enclosed
in curly brackets.

EXAMPLE 1

Some examples of sets defined by describing the contents:

1. The set of all even numbers less than 12
2. The set of all the colours of rainbow

Answers

Some examples of sets defined by listing the elements of the set:

1. {2, 4, 6, 8}
2. {red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, purple}

A set simply specifies the contents; order is not important. The set represented by {1, 2,
3} is equivalent to the set {3, 1, 2}.

NOTATION
Commonly, we will use a variable to represent a set, to make it easier to refer to that set later.
The symbol ∈ means “is an element of”.
A set that contains no elements, { }, is called the empty or null set and is notated ∅

A singleton set is a set that contains only one element. e.g A={2}

A finite set is a set whose number of element is countable e.g K = { The states in Nigeria }
An infinite set is a set whose number of element is uncountable e.g M = { natural numbers }

Power Set Definition

A power set is defined as the set or group of all subsets for any given set, including the empty
set, which is denoted by {}, or, ϕ. A set that has 'n' elements has 2n subsets in all. For example,
let Set A = {1,2,3}, therefore, the total number of elements in the set is 3. Therefore, there are
23 elements in the power set. Let us find the power set of set A.
Set A = {1,2,3}
Subsets of set A = {}, {1}, {2}, {3}, {1,2}, {2,3}, {1,3}, {1,2,3}
Power set P(A) = { {}, {1}, {2}, {3}, {1,2}, {2,3}, {1,3}, {1,2,3} }

Cardinality of a Set

The cardinality of a set is the total number of elements in the set.

Example: Set A = {1,2}; The cardinality of A written as n{A} = 2

EXAMPLE 2

Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4}
To notate that 2 is element of the set, we’d write 2 ∈ A

Sometimes a collection might not contain all the elements of a set. For example, Chris
owns three Madonna albums. While Chris’s collection is a set, we can also say it is
a subset of the larger set of all Madonna albums.

SUBSET

A subset of a set A is another set that contains only elements from the set A, but may not
contain all the elements of A.
If B is a subset of A, we write B ⊆ A
A proper subset is a subset that is not identical to the original set—it contains fewer
elements.
If B is a proper subset of A, we write B ⊂ A

EXAMPLE 3

Consider these three sets:

A = the set of all even numbers
B = {2, 4, 6}
C = {2, 3, 4, 6}
Here B ⊂ A since every element of B is also an even number, so is an element of A.
More formally, we could say B ⊂ A since if x ∈ B, then x ∈ A.
It is also true that B ⊂ C.
C is not a subset of A, since C contains an element, 3, that is not contained in A
Union, Intersection, and Complement
The union of two sets contains all the elements contained in either set (or both sets). The
union is notated A ⋃ B. More formally, x ∊ A ⋃ B if x ∈ A or x ∈ B (or both)

The intersection of two sets contains only the elements that are in both sets. The intersection
is notated A ⋂ B. More formally, x ∈ A ⋂ B if x ∈ A and x ∈ B.

The complement of a set A contains everything that is not in the set A. The complement is
notated A’, or Ac, or sometimes ~A.

EXAMPLE 5

Consider the sets:

A = {red, green, blue}
B = {red, yellow, orange}
C = {red, orange, yellow, green, blue, purple}
Find the following:
1. Find A ⋃ B
2. Find A ⋂ B
3. Find Ac⋂ C

Answers

1. The union contains all the elements in either set: A ⋃ B = {red, green,
blue, yellow, orange} Notice we only list red once.
2. The intersection contains all the elements in both sets: A ⋂ B = {red}
3. Here we’re looking for all the elements that are not in set A and are also
in C. Ac ⋂ C = {orange, yellow, purple}

TRY IT NOW

Using the sets from the previous example, find A ⋃ C and Bc ⋂ A

UNIVERSAL SET

A universal set is a set that contains all the elements we are interested in. This would have to
be defined by the context.
A complement is relative to the universal set, so Ac contains all the elements in the universal
set that are not in A.

EXAMPLE 6
 1. If we were discussing searching for books, the universal set might be all
the books in the library.
2. If we were grouping your Facebook friends, the universal set would be
all your Facebook friends.
3. If you were working with sets of numbers, the universal set might be all
whole numbers, all integers, or all real numbers

EXAMPLE 7

Suppose the universal set is U = all whole numbers from 1 to 9. If A = {1, 2, 4}, then Ac = {3, 5,
6, 7, 8, 9}.

As we saw earlier with the expression Ac ⋂ C, set operations can be grouped together.
Grouping symbols can be used like they are with arithmetic – to force an order of
operations.

EXAMPLE 8

Suppose H = {cat, dog, rabbit, mouse}, F = {dog, cow, duck, pig, rabbit}, and W = {duck, rabbit,
deer, frog, mouse}
1. Find (H ⋂ F) ⋃ W
2. Find H ⋂ (F ⋃ W)
3. Find (H ⋂ F)c ⋂ W

Solutions

1. We start with the intersection: H ⋂ F = {dog, rabbit}. Now we union that

result with W: (H ⋂ F) ⋃ W = {dog, duck, rabbit, deer, frog, mouse}
2. We start with the union: F ⋃ W = {dog, cow, rabbit, duck, pig, deer, frog,
mouse}. Now we intersect that result with H: H ⋂ (F ⋃ W) = {dog, rabbit,
mouse}
3. We start with the intersection: H ⋂ F = {dog, rabbit}. Now we want to
find the elements of W that are not in H ⋂ F. (H ⋂ F)c ⋂ W = {duck,
deer, frog, mouse}

Venn Diagrams

To visualize the interaction of sets, John Venn in 1880 thought to use overlapping
circles, building on a similar idea used by Leonhard Euler in the eighteenth century.
These illustrations now called Venn Diagrams.
A Venn diagram represents each set by a circle, usually drawn inside of a containing box
representing the universal set. Overlapping areas indicate elements common to both sets.

Basic Venn diagrams can illustrate the interaction of two or three sets.

EXAMPLE 9

Create Venn diagrams to illustrate A ⋃ B, A ⋂ B, and Ac ⋂ B

A ⋃ B contains all elements in either set.

A ⋂ B contains only those elements in both sets—in the overlap of the circles.

Ac will contain all elements not in the set A. Ac ⋂ B will contain the elements in set B that are
not in set A.
 EXAMPLE 10

Use a Venn diagram to illustrate (H ⋂ F)c ⋂ W

We’ll start by identifying everything in the set H ⋂ F

Now, (H ⋂ F)c ⋂ W will contain everything not in the set identified above that is also in set W.
 EXAMPLE 11

Create an expression to represent the outlined part of the Venn diagram shown.

The elements in the outlined set are in sets H and F, but are not in set W. So we could
represent this set as H ⋂ F ⋂ Wc

TRY IT NOW
Create an expression to represent the outlined portion of the Venn diagram shown
Cardinality

Often times we are interested in the number of items in a set or subset. This is called
the cardinality of the set.

The number of elements in a set is the cardinality of that set.

The cardinality of the set A is often notated as |A| or n(A)

EXAMPLE 12

Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} and B = {2, 4, 6, 8}.

What is the cardinality of B? A ⋃ B, A ⋂ B?

Answers

The cardinality of B is 4, since there are 4 elements in the set.

The cardinality of A ⋃ B is 7, since A ⋃ B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8}, which contains 7 elements.
The cardinality of A ⋂ B is 3, since A ⋂ B = {2, 4, 6}, which contains 3 elements.

EXAMPLE 13

What is the cardinality of P = the set of English names for the months of the year?

Answers

The cardinality of this set is 12, since there are 12 months in the year.
Sometimes we may be interested in the cardinality of the union or intersection of sets,
but not know the actual elements of each set. This is common in surveying.

EXAMPLE 14

A survey asks 200 people “What beverage do you drink in the morning”, and offers choices:
• Tea only
• Coffee only
• Both coffee and tea
Suppose 20 report tea only, 80 report coffee only, 40 report both. How many people drink tea
in the morning? How many people drink neither tea or coffee?

Answers

This question can most easily be answered by creating a

Venn diagram. We can see that we can find the people who drink tea by adding those who drink
only tea to those who drink both: 60 people.
We can also see that those who drink neither are those not contained in the any of the three
other groupings, so we can count those by subtracting from the cardinality of the universal set,
200.
200 – 20 – 80 – 40 = 60 people who drink neither.

CARDINALITY PROPERTIES

n(A ⋃ B) = n(A) + n(B) – n(A ⋂ B)

n(Ac) = n(U) – n(A)

Notice that the first property can also be written in an equivalent form by solving for the
cardinality of the intersection:

n(A ⋂ B) = n(A) + n(B) – n(A ⋃ B)

 EXAMPLE 16

Fifty students were surveyed, and asked if they were taking a social science (SS), humanities
(HM) or a natural science (NS) course the next quarter.

21 were taking a SS course 26 were taking a HM course

19 were taking a NS course 9 were taking SS and HM

7 were taking SS and NS 10 were taking HM and NS

3 were taking all three 7 were taking none

How many students are only taking a SS course?

Answers

It might help to look at a Venn diagram. From

the given data, we know that there are 3 students in region e and 7 students in region h.
Since 7 students were taking a SS and NS course, we know that n(d) + n(e) = 7. Since we know
there are 3 students in region 3, there must be 7 – 3 = 4 students in region d.
Similarly, since there are 10 students taking HM and NS, which includes regions e and f, there
must be 10 – 3 = 7 students in region f.
Since 9 students were taking SS and HM, there must be 9 – 3 = 6 students in region b.
Now, we know that 21 students were taking a SS course. This includes students from regions a,
b, d, and e. Since we know the number of students in all but region a, we can determine that 21
– 6 – 4 – 3 = 8 students are in region a.
8 students are taking only a SS course.

TRY IT NOW
1. The subsets A, B and C of a universal set are defined as follows A =
{𝑚, 𝑎, 𝑝, 𝑒} B = {𝑎, 𝑒, 𝑖, 𝑜, 𝑢} C = {𝑙, 𝑚, 𝑛, 𝑜, 𝑝, 𝑞, 𝑟, 𝑠, 𝑡, 𝑢}. List the elements of
the following sets (a) AUB (b) AUC (c) AU(B∩C) (d) A∩B∩C

2. If U = {1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10}, X = {1,2,4,6,7,8,9},Y ={1,2,3,4,7,9} and Z =

{2,3,4,7,9} what is (a) X∩Y∩ZI (b) XIUZI (c) (Y∩Z)I

3. If Ʃ is the set {1,2,3,…,19,20} and A, B and C are the subsets of Ʃ

such that A = {multiples of 5} B = {multiples of 4} C = {multiples of 3}
(a) list the elements of A,B and C
(b) Find (i) A∩B (ii) A∩B (iii) BUC (iii) the subsets of A each of which
has three elements
(c) show that (i) (A∩B)U(A∩C)=A∩(BUC) (ii) (AUB)I=AI∩BI

4. The sets A={x: 1≤x<13} where x is odd number, B={2,3,5,7,11,15} and

C={y: y is a multiple of 3} are subsets of U={0,1,2,3,…,15} (a) Draw a
venn diagram to illustrate the given information
(b)Use your diagram to find (i) C∩AI (ii) AI∩(BUC)

5. A, B and C are subsets of the universal set U such that:

U={0,1,2,3,…,12}
A={x: 0≤x≤7}; B={y: 3<y≤12} where y is even number and C={z: 1<z<8}
where z is prime number (a) Illustrate
the information in a venn diagram (b) Find (i) BUC (ii) AI∩B∩C
TOPIC 2: INDICES

A power, or an index, is used to write a product of numbers very compactly. The plural of index
is indices. In this topic we will learn a number of rules, or laws, which can be used to simplify
expressions involving indices.

We write the expression 3 × 3 × 3 × 3 as 34 We read this as ‘three to the power four’. Similarly z
× z × z = z3 We read this as ‘z to the power three’ or ‘z cubed’. In the expression b c , the index is
c and the number b is called the base. Your calculator will probably have a button to evaluate
powers of numbers. It may be marked x y . Check this, and then use your calculator to verify
that 74 = 2401 and 255 = 9765625

The laws of indices

SOLUTION
INDICIAL/ EXPONENTIAL EQUATIONS
Example1

Solve the equation 256 = 4𝑥−5

Solution
Example 2
Solve the equation

Solution

BRAIN TESTS

QUESTION 1
QUESTION 2

QUESTION3

(a)

(b)

(c)

Check what you did in question2 above with these answers

TOPIC 3: LOGARITHM
What is Logarithm?

The logarithm of a number ‘b’ can be defined as the power or exponent to which another
number ‘a’ must be raised to produce the result equal to the number b.

log a b = n.

Similarly, we can define the logarithm of a number as the inverse of its exponents.
For instance, log a b = n can be represented exponentially as; a n = b.

Therefore, we can conclude that;

an = b ⇔ log a b = n.

Laws of logarithms
The Product Rule Law (Addition law)

The first law of logarithms state that the sum of two logarithms is equal to the
product of the logarithms. The first law is represented as;

⟹ log A + log B = log AB

Examples:
PLEASE NOTE
MORE EXAMPLES
TOPIC 4: COORDINATE GEOMETRY
What Is The Equation Of A Line?

In coordinate geometry, the equation of a line can be written in the form, y =

mx + b, where m is the slope and b is the y-intercept.
TOPIC 5: SURDS
MORE EXAMPLES
Conjugates and Rationalization

What are the math Conjugates?

A math conjugate is formed by changing the sign between two terms in a
binomial. For instance, the conjugate of x+yx+y is x−yx−y. We can also say
that x+yx+y is a conjugate of x−yx−y. In other words, the two binomials are
conjugates of each other. Instead of a smile and a frown, math conjugates
have a positive sign and a negative sign, respectively.
Let's consider a simple example: The conjugate of 3+4x3+4x is 3−4x3−4x.
Now, Consider the surd 3+√23+2,
If we change the plus sign to minus, we get the conjugate of this
surd: 3−√23−2.

EXAMPLES
Rationalize the following surds
BRAIN TEST

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.
TOPIC 6: TRIGONOMETRY RATIO OF SPECIAL ANGLES

The following special angles chart show how to derive the trig ratios of 30°, 45° and 60°
from the 30-60-90 and 45-45-90 special triangles.
BRAIN TEST

TOPIC 7: (LOGIC AND REASONING)

Logic is the science of reasoning and thinking. It also means the ability to draw suitable references and
conclusions after a persuasive argument.
STATEMENT

In logic, a statement can be defined as declaration verbal or written which is either false or true but not
both. That is, you can assign to them either true or false. For example:

…. Abuja is not the Federal Capital of Nigeria (This is a statement because it can take the truth value;
True/False) Another example of a statement… The square of 5 is less than the product of ten and two.

SENTENCE
A sentence is a declaration that does not require any truth value. That is, you don’t need to
assign a True/ False to them. For example; ………….What is your name?
……………..Oh, what a lovely day!
These are examples of sentences not statements

Its is important to note that all statements are sentences but not all sentences are statements.

Example 1
Satisfy the following statements with True or False

1. Abuja is in Ghana ……………………….. F

2. The square of 5 is less than the product of ten and two………F
3. St Augustines college is in Nasarawa state …………………..T

CONNECTIVES IN LOGIC 1. NEGATION (~)

This is the mathematical statement that indicates opposite

See the negation table below

P ~𝑃
T F
F T

2. CONJUCTION (^)

This is used to join two mathematical statements with the use of ‘and’

See the conjunction table below

P Q P^𝑄
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F
Note that for conjunction statements to be true, both p and q must be true

3. DISJUNCTION (V)
This is used to join two statements with the use of ‘or’
See the disjunction table below

P Q PV𝑄
 T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F

Note that for a disjunction statements to be false, both p and q must be false

4. IMPLICATION (→)
This is also used to join statements. See the table for implication below.

P Q P→ 𝑄
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T

Note that Implication is false only when P is True and Q is False

5. BI IMPLICATION (↔)

This is another conditional statement that is used in joining two statements. See the table for
bi-implication below

P Q P↔ 𝑄
T T T
T F T
F T F
F F T

Note that bi- implication is True iff both P and Q are either true or false.

TAUTOLOGY

This is a compound statement or proposition whose all end results are True despite the truth
value of its sub-statements

CONTRADICTION
 This is a compound statement or proposition whose all end results are fALSE despite the truth
value of its sub-statements

Example 1

Construct the truth table for the compound statement (p → 𝑞) ↔ (p v ~𝑞) Solution

p q ~𝑞 p→ 𝑞 Pv~𝑞 (p→ 𝑞)↔ P v ~ 𝑞

T T F T T T
T F T F T F
F T F T F F
F F T T T T

Example 2

Proof that the compound statement (p ^ 𝑞) → (p v ~𝑞) is a TAUTOLOGY Solution

p q ~𝑞 P^𝑞 Pv~𝑞 (p→ 𝑞)↔ P v ~ 𝑞

T T F T T T
T F T F T T
F T F F F T
F F T F T T

BRAIN TEST
1. Proof weather or not the compound statement p ^ {(~𝑝 ^ 𝑞 ) 𝑣 (~𝑝 ^ ~ 𝑞 )} is a
contradiction
2. Construct the truth table for the compound statement (p^ q) v (p ^ q)

…see you in the class.

….Ebenezer Ishola