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978-1-107-03506-5 — Structural Geology: A Quantitative Introduction

David D. Pollard , Stephen J. Martel
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Structural Geology:
A Quantitative Introduction

Tackling structural geology problems today requires a quantitative understanding of the underlying
physical principles, and the ability to apply mathematical models to deformation processes within
the Earth.
Accessible, yet rigorous, this unique textbook demonstrates how to approach structural geology
quantitatively using calculus and mechanics, and prepares students to interface with professional geophysi-
cists and engineers who appreciate and utilize the same tools and computational methods to solve multi-
disciplinary problems. Clearly explained methods are used throughout the book to quantify field data, set
up mathematical models for the formation of structures, and compare model results to field observations.
An extensive online package of coordinated laboratory exercises enables students to consolidate their
learning and put it into practice by analyzing structural data and building insightful models. Designed for
single-semester undergraduate courses, this pioneering text prepares students for graduates studies and
careers as professional geoscientists.

David D. Pollard is a Professor Emeritus in Geology at Stanford University. He holds a Ph.D. in Geology
from Stanford University and a Diploma of Imperial College (University of London). He has been on the
faculty at Stanford since 1983, where he taught an undergraduate course in structural geology from which
this textbook emerged. He co-authored Fundamentals of Structural Geology, published by Cambridge
University Press in 2005, which won the Best Publication of the Year Award from the Structural Geology
and Tectonics Division of the Geological Society of America in 2007. He is a Fellow of the Geological
Society of America and the American Geophysical Union.
Stephen J. Martel is a Professor in Earth Sciences at the University of Hawai’i. He holds a Ph.D. in Applied
Earth Sciences from Stanford University. Since joining the faculty in Hawai’i in 1992, he has taught both
structural geology and engineering geology. He previously worked at the Bureau of Economic Geology at
The University of Texas at Austin, and at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory. Particular research
interests include landslides, nuclear waste disposal, neotectonics, fault mechanics, rock fracture, detailed
geologic mapping, and the influence of topography on stresses in rock masses. He is a Fellow of the
Geological Society of America.

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978-1-107-03506-5 — Structural Geology: A Quantitative Introduction
David D. Pollard , Stephen J. Martel
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Structural Geology
A Quantitative Introduction

David D. Pollard
Stanford University, California

Stephen J. Martel
University of Hawai’i, Manoa

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DOI: 10.1017/9781139547222
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CONTENTS

List of Boxes page ix

List of Symbols x
Preface xv
Acknowledgements xviii

PART I

1: Scope of Structural Geology 3

1.1 Deformation of Earth’s Lithosphere and Asthenosphere 4
1.2 Styles of Deformation 9
1.3 Geologic Structures 10
1.4 Methodology of Structural Geology 13
1.5 Applications and Careers 19
Recapitulation 20
Review Questions 20
MATLAB Exercises for Chapter 1: A Tutorial 21
Further Reading 21

PART II

2: Mathematical Tools 25
2.1 Characteristics of Scalar, Vector, and Tensor Quantities 25
2.2 Algebraic Representation of Vectors 30
2.3 Mapping Geologic Structures with Vectors 34
2.4 Geologic Structures Represented by Vector Functions 40
2.5 Vector Quantities 43
2.6 Tensor Quantities 53
2.7 Coordinate Rotation for Points, Vectors, and Tensors 62
Recapitulation 65
Review Questions 66
MATLAB Exercises for Chapter 2: Mathematical Tools 67
Further Reading 67

3: Physical Concepts 70
3.1 Units of Measure 70
3.2 Accuracy, Precision, and Significant Figures 73
3.3 Dimensional Analysis 74
3.4 Material Continuum 79
3.5 Conservation of Mass 85
3.6 Conservation of Linear Momentum 89
3.7 Conservation of Angular Momentum 93
3.8 Conservation of Energy 95
Recapitulation 97
Review Questions 98

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vi Contents

MATLAB Exercises for Chapter 3: Physical Concepts 99

Further Reading 99

PART III

4: Elastic–Brittle Deformation 105

4.1 Hookean Elastic Solid 105
4.2 Elastic Deformation of Earth’s Lithosphere 107
4.3 Brittle Deformation at the Outcrop and Grain Scales 107
4.4 Elastic–Brittle Deformation in the Laboratory 109
4.5 Field Estimates of Rock Stiffness at the Kilometer Scale 114
4.6 Three-Dimensional Stress States 116
4.7 Elastic–Brittle Deformation under Axisymmetric Loading 118
4.8 The State of Stress During Opening and Shear Fracture 124
4.9 Displacement and Strain Fields During Brittle Deformation 128
4.10 Constitutive Equations for the Linear Elastic Solid 134
4.11 Equations of Motion for the Elastic Solid 135
Recapitulation 139
Review Questions 140
MATLAB Exercises for Chapter 4: Elastic Brittle Deformation 142
Further Reading 142

5: Elastic–Ductile Deformation 144

5.1 Idealized Plastic Solids 144
5.2 Elastic–Ductile Deformation at the Outcrop Scale 146
5.3 Elastic–Ductile Deformation at the Crustal Scale 146
5.4 Elastic–Ductile Deformation in the Laboratory 148
5.5 Deformation and Strain for the Ductile Solid 154
5.6 Mechanisms of Ductile Deformation 163
5.7 Constitutive Equations for Elastic–Ductile Deformation 172
5.8 Equations of Motion for Rigid Plastic Deformation 175
Recapitulation 179
Review Questions 180
MATLAB Exercises for Chapter 5: Elastic Ductile Deformation 181
Further Reading 181

6: Elastic–Viscous Deformation 184

6.1 Viscous and Viscoelastic Liquids 184
6.2 Viscous Deformation at the Outcrop Scale 187
6.3 Viscous Deformation at the Crustal Scale 188
6.4 Viscous Deformation in the Laboratory 190
6.5 Field Estimates of Lava Viscosity 197
6.6 Kinematics of Flow 198
6.7 Constitutive Equations for Linear Viscous Materials 203
6.8 Equations of Motion for Linear Viscous Materials 206
Recapitulation 214
Review Questions 215
MATLAB Exercises for Chapter 6: Elastic Viscous Deformation 217
Further Reading 217

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Contents vii

PART IV

7: Fractures 223
7.1 Descriptions of Joints, Veins, and Dikes 223
7.2 A Canonical Model for Opening Fractures 230
7.3 Fracture Modes and the Near-tip Fields 243
7.4 Fracture Initiation and Propagation 249
Recapitulation 253
Review Questions 254
MATLAB Exercises for Chapter 7: Fractures 256
Further Reading 256

8: Faults 258
8.1 Fault Terminology 258
8.2 Descriptions of Faults at the Outcrop Scale 260
8.3 Descriptions of Faults at the Crustal Scale 269
8.4 A Canonical Model for Faulting 279
8.5 Kinematics of Faulting and Associated Deformation 287
8.6 Fossil Earthquakes 292
Recapitulation 296
Review Questions 297
MATLAB Exercises for Chapter 8: Faults 298
Further Reading 299

9: Folds 301
9.1 Fold Terminology 301
9.2 Descriptions of Folds at the Outcrop Scale 304
9.3 Quantifying Fold Profiles using Curvature 307
9.4 Descriptions of Folds in Three Dimensions at the Crustal Scale 310
9.5 Quantifying Folds in Three Dimensions using Curvature 313
9.6 A Canonical Model for Bending 322
9.7 A Canonical Model for Buckling 331
9.8 Fault-Cored Anticlines 339
Recapitulation 341
Review Questions 342
MATLAB Exercises for Chapter 9: Folds 344
Further Reading 344

10: Fabrics 346

10.1 Descriptions of Rock Fabrics from Outcrop to Thin Section 346
10.2 Descriptions of Rock Fabrics in Sedimentary and Igneous Rock 349
10.3 Kinematics of Ductile Deformation 361
10.4 A Canonical Model for a Viscous Shear Zone 365
10.5 Relating Fabric to Plastic Deformation at Fault Steps 367
Recapitulation 373
Review Questions 375
MATLAB Exercises for Chapter 10: Fabrics 376
Further Reading 376

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viii Contents

11: Intrusions 379

11.1 Dikes 379
11.2 Sills 394
11.3 Laccoliths 400
11.4 Stocks 403
11.5 Salt Diapirs 408
11.6 A Canonical Model for a Rising Diapir 410
Recapitulation 415
Review Questions 417
MATLAB Exercises for Chapter 11: Intrusions 418
Further Reading 418

References 421
Index 428

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BOXES

Box 1.1 Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM)

Projection and Google Maps page 11
Box 1.2 Keyhole Markup Language (KML) and Google Earth 14
Box 2.1 Global Positioning System (GPS) 35
Box 2.2 Matrix Laboratory (MATLAB) 56
Box 3.1 International System of Units (SI) 71
Box 3.2 Continuum Mechanics 81
Box 4.1 Rock Mechanics 110
Box 4.2 Engineering Geology 126
Box 5.1 Materials Science and Engineering 166
Box 6.1 Geodynamics 189
Box 6.2 Fluid Mechanics 208
Box 7.1 Solid Mechanics 237
Box 7.2 Fracture Mechanics 245
Box 8.1 Seismic Surveying 275
Box 8.2 Earthquake Geology 292
Box 9.1 Airborne Laser Swath Mapping (ALSM) 312
Box 10.1 Structural Petrology and Microtectonics 360
Box 11.1 Structure from Motion (SfM) 384
Box 11.2 Synthetic Aperture Radar Interferometry (InSAR) 396

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SYMBOLS

a acceleration vector
α azimuth angle (Greek alpha)
b Burgers vector for a dislocation
B bending modulus for a thin elastic layer
c(t) parametric representation of a curved line; a vector-valued function of the
arbitrary parameter t
c specific heat capacity
Ct conventional triaxial compressive strength
Cu uniaxial compressive strength
CPO Crystallographic Preferred Orientation
Dc differential strength in compression
dc differential tangent vector to a curved line
df total differential of a scalar function f(x, y, z)
Df
Dt material time derivative of a scalar function f(x, y, z, t)
!
rf gradient of a scalar function f(x, y, z); a vector
rv gradient of a vector function v(x, y, z); a tensor
Δp, ΔP driving pressure (Greek capital delta)
Δσ differential stress
ΔσΙ, ΔσΙΙ, driving stress for mode I, mode II fracture
Δu displacement discontinuity vector
Δx, Δy, Δz lengths of the edges of a volume element


D sample mean
D rate of deformation tensor; rate of stretch tensor
D0 deviatoric rate of deformation tensor
DEM Digital Elevation Model
EBSD Electron Backscatter Diffraction
E Young’s modulus of elasticity
E, N, U geographic coordinates: East, North, Up
E, F, G coefficients of the first fundamental form for a curved surface
E Lagrangian finite strain tensor
E xx E xy Exz
E yx E yy Eyz components of the Lagrangian finite strain tensor
E zx E zy Ezz
½E Š matrix form of the Lagrangian finite strain tensor
33
[=] “has units”
{=} “has dimensions”
ε small strain tensor (Greek epsilon)
εxx , εxy , εxz
εyx , εyy , εyz components of the small strain tensor
εzx , εzy , εzz
½εŠ matrix form of the small strain tensor
33
ε_ rate of axial strain
fH2O fugacity of water
f, F force vector

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List of Symbols xi

Fgrav gravitational body force vector

Fbuoy buoyant body force vector
F spatial gradient of deformation tensor
∂x ∂x ∂x
∂X ∂Y ∂Z
∂y ∂y ∂y
components of the gradient of deformation tensor
∂X ∂Y ∂Z
∂z ∂z ∂z
∂X ∂Y ∂Z
½FŠ matrix form of the gradient of deformation tensor
33
g acceleration of gravity vector
g* representative acceleration of gravity vector for the lithosphere
g∗ ∗ ∗
x , gy , gz components of the representative gravity acceleration vector
G shear modulus of elasticity
G displacement gradient tensor
∂ux ∂ux ∂ux
∂X ∂Y ∂Z
∂uy ∂uy ∂uy
Cartesian components of the displacement gradient tensor
∂X ∂Y ∂Z
∂uz ∂uz ∂uz
∂X ∂Y ∂Z
½GŠ matrix form of the displacement gradient tensor
33
GPS Global Positioning System
η Newtonian viscosity (Greek eta)
I first fundamental form for a curved surface
II second fundamental form for a curved surface
[I] identity matrix
^i, ^j, k
^ base vectors for the Cartesian coordinate system
k thermal conductivity
k curvature vector for a curved line
kg kilogram; base unit for mass in SI
K kelvin; base unit for temperature in SI
KI, KII, KIII mode I, mode II, and mode III stress intensity
KIC mode I fracture toughness
κ scalar curvature for a curved line (Greek kappa)
κ thermal diffusivity
κn normal curvature of a curved surface
κ1, κ2 principal values (eigenvalues) of normal curvature for a curved
surface
κg Gaussian curvature
κm mean normal curvature
L length dimension
L spatial gradient of velocity tensor
∂vx ∂vx ∂vx
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂vy ∂vy ∂vy
components of the spatial gradient of velocity tensor
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂vz ∂vz ∂vz
∂x ∂y ∂z
½L Š matrix form of the spatial gradient of velocity tensor
33
L, M, N coefficients of the second fundamental form for a curved surface
LNB Level of Neutral Buoyancy

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xii List of Symbols

λ, λο current and initial wavelength of a buckled layer (Greek lambda)

λ Lame’s constant of elasticity (Greek lambda)
Λ bulk viscosity (Greek capital lambda)
m meter; base unit for length in SI
m mass
M mass dimension
M bending moment on the cross section of a thin layer
M0 seismic moment
Mw seismic moment magnitude
μi coefficient of internal friction (Greek mu)
μc coefficient of friction
^
n unit normal vector
^
N unit normal vector to a surface
ν Poisson’s ratio of elasticity (Greek nu)
[O] shape operator for a curved surface
p pressure, thermodynamic pressure

po pressure in a static liquid

p mean normal pressure in a flowing liquid
Pc confining pressure in a conventional triaxial test
Pp pore fluid pressure
p, x, X position vectors
!
PQ vector from point P to point Q
ϕ inclination angle (Greek phi)
ϕ angle of shearing
Φ Airy stress function (Greek capital phi)
Ψ Stokes stream function (Greek capital psi)
q fold limb slope amplification factor
q heat flux vector
Q activation energy
Q volume flow rate
r, θ, ϕ spherical coordinates (Greek theta, phi)
R universal gas constant
R flexural rigidity of a bending elastic layer
Re Reynolds number
R pure rotation tensor
U pure stretch tensor
ρ mass density (Greek rho)
ρ radius of curvature of a curved line
ρd dislocation density
s second; base unit for time in SI
s estimated standard deviation
s2 estimated variance
s spherical variance
SI International System of Units
S stretch tensor
S1, S2, S3 principal values of the stretch tensor
S shear force on the cross section of a thin layer

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List of Symbols xiii

So inherent shear strength

Sf frictional strength
s(u, v) parametric representation of a curved surface; vector-valued
function of the arbitrary parameters u and v
SfM Structure from Motion
σ stress tensor (Greek sigma)
σ xx , σ xy , σ xz
σ yx , σ yy , σ yz Cartesian components of the stress tensor
σ zx , σ zy , σ zz
½σ Š matrix form of the stress tensor
33
σ1, σ2, σ3 principal values (eigenvalues) of the stress tensor
^l, m,
^ n^ principal vectors (eigenvectors) of the stress tensor
½σ 0 Š matrix form of the deviatoric stress tensor
33
e
½σ Š matrix form of the effective stress tensor
33
σys, k yield strength
σs maximum shear stress
t time
t arbitrary parameter for a curved line
t traction vector acting on a surface
t tangent vector for a dislocation line
^t unit tangent vector
T temperature
T time dimension
Tu uniaxial tensile strength
T tangent vector to curve
θv^i , θv^j , θvk^ direction angles between vector v and base vectors (Greek theta)
cos θv^i , cos θv^j , cos θvk^ direction cosines of direction angles
θc Coulomb angle; orientation of potential shear fractures
Θ temperature dimension (Greek capital theta)
u, v arbitrary parameters for curved surface
u displacement vector
ux, uy, uz components of the displacement vector
½uŠ matrix form of the displacement vector
13
UTM Universal Transverse Mercator projection
UDF undefined angle
v velocity vector
vx, vy, vz components of the velocity vector
½vŠ matrix form of the velocity vector
13
W rate of spin tensor; vorticity tensor
x, y, z Cartesian coordinates
ωx, ωy, ωz small rotation angles (Greek omega)
Ω small rotation tensor (Greek capital omega)

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PREFACE

Structural geology is a core course in the curriculum for undergraduate students majoring in Geology at the
college and university level. Usually, structural geology is a junior or senior level course, taken after
students complete introductory and core courses in geology and the supporting courses in mathematics and
physics that are appropriate for a major in the science part of a more broadly conceived Science,
Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) curriculum. This textbook is an introduction to
structural geology for the undergraduate major that builds upon those formative geology courses, and
makes extensive use of the relevant concepts and tools from the supporting courses in mathematics and
physics.
This textbook also is appropriate for geology students whose first course in structural geology was
primarily descriptive and qualitative. In addition, the quantitative approach used here has proven to be
accessible and useful for students from other disciplines, such as geophysics, petroleum engineering, and
civil engineering, who are likely to be working with structural geologists in their professional careers. Both
authors have welcomed students from other disciplines in their structural geology courses, and both have
found that these students enrich the experience for the geology students.
Although this textbook is a first course in structural geology, it takes a decidedly different approach to
the subject matter than other “first course” textbooks, which focus on descriptions of structures and
qualitative explanations for their formation. Our goal is to provide a balance between description and
analysis of structures, so we offer quantitative explanations for their formation, based on the physics of
deformation. Despite this difference in approach, the topics we cover are similar to those in other “first
course” textbooks. For example, chapters are devoted to the basic categories of geologic structures
including fractures, faults, folds, fabrics, and intrusions. However, the shift to a quantitative treatment of
the formation of structures necessarily relies on more equations to build the student’s knowledge base. We
find that carefully labeled diagrams complement the equations substantially, so we include many diagrams
in the textbook.
The mathematical pre-requisite for this book is a course in calculus that includes differential calculus
and integral calculus of functions of one variable. Some calculus courses include analytic geometry and
vector calculus, while others introduce aspects of linear algebra. Some of the elementary concepts from
analytic geometry, vector calculus, and linear algebra are used in this textbook, but they are at a level that
does not require a pre-requisite course. Instead, we introduce the necessary concepts and motivate readers
to learn them by offering direct applications to structural geology.
The differential calculus of more than one variable is used throughout the book, but a course in
multivariate calculus is not considered a pre-requisite. We introduce the few necessary extensions from
differential calculus of one variable to multiple variables, including the partial derivative, the gradient
vector, and the material time derivative. Finally, although differential equations appear throughout the
book, a course in ordinary and partial differential equations is not a pre-requisite. Differential equations
appear solely for displaying the underlying physical concepts and relationships. Solutions are provided
where they illustrate applications to structural geology, but solution methods are left to more advanced
textbooks and courses.
We recognize that some college and university students struggle with spatial thinking tasks encountered
in their first structural geology class. They are challenged to learn to “think in 3D.” The authors of this
textbook have found that a modern graphical user interface and a computational engine like MATLAB
provide many helpful tools and needed support for this learning process. Scripts with dynamic three-
dimensional graphical output are run, modified, and rerun using MATLAB to obtain spatial feedback, to
alter incorrect mental models, and to build intuition. These tools, along with an elementary understanding
of vector calculus and differential geometry, open the door for thinking in 3D.
The goal of this textbook is to build confidence in students that they know not only what the common
geologic structures are, and how to name, describe, and map them, but they also know how to apply a set of
fundamental physical principles of deformation to explain the origins of these structures. To promote this
goal, most of the analyses in this book follow a step-by-step procedure, starting with the most basic
principles and leading to a result that can be compared to observations or data. This approach results in
many equations, but each of them adds incrementally to the mathematical derivations, and to understanding

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xvi Preface

the physics of the tectonic processes. Memorization of equations is not the authors’ objective for this book.
Instead, we advocate reading the equations as an integral part of the text to build confidence and
understanding.
Commitment to the step-by-step procedure described in the previous paragraph presented the authors
with a significant challenge. If we analyzed all of the structures described in other “first course” textbooks,
this book would be too big for a typical first course. Instead, we selected a subset of those structures that
admit an analysis at the introductory level. As a consequence, this textbook is tutorial rather than
encyclopedic. For each of the five categories of structures we identify a “canonical problem” that
illuminates the underlying physics and provides a template for the student to use in the analysis of other
similar structures. The canonical problems also are the building blocks for developing a sound physical
intuition that should help students analyze other structures in the future.
Each chapter of this textbook ends with a section on Further Reading. This is aimed at students who
desire to expand their horizons and delve into related textbooks, monographs, and review papers. The
Further Reading section also provides faculty with resources for enriching their lectures and conversations
with students. The books and review papers listed in these sections would form a good working library for a
practicing structural geologist in academia, industry, or a government laboratory.
This textbook contains abundant color photographs of outcrops, hand samples, and thin sections. These,
and all the diagrams, graphs, and maps are freely available for instructors and students to download for
teaching and learning purposes from the textbook website: www.cambridge.org/SGAQI. This material
comes largely from the senior author’s photographic collection, and from the Ph.D. theses and published
papers of his students. The choice to use “in house” graphical material, data, maps, and analysis results was
made because of accessibility and familiarity. We encourage instructors to provide their students with
materials from their own collections, and to enrich their courses with results from their own research. Also
available from this website are the .kmz files referred to in the captions of selected figures, so readers can
take virtual field trips to these outcrops and map areas using Google Earth.
The book is supported by online student exercises, which are also available at the website given above.
Students are encouraged to work through the online exercises after reading and addressing the chapter
review questions. For many of the online exercises, students write MATLAB® scripts to solve quantitative
problems and present graphical results. Other online exercises ask students to derive key mathematical
relationships using paper and pencil. Solutions for selected online exercises and sample MATLAB® scripts
are available to instructors for download.
This textbook was originally conceived as one of a pair of books by the authors; the other being a Lab
Manual of practical and field-based instruction together with student exercises and activities. Writing of the
Lab Manual is underway and we anticipate that it will be published within the next year or two. In the
meantime, we intend to post some of the draft exercises and activities at www.cambridge.org/SGAQI so
that instructors can start testing them out in their classes. These include introductory exercises for mapping,
orthographic projections, stereonets and three-point problems, rotations and cross sections. Please continue
to check back to the website regularly for new materials. We welcome any feedback on any of the online
resources posted there.
This textbook has four parts. Part I (Chapter 1) summarizes the scope of structural geology. Part II
(Chapters 2 and 3) reviews and summarizes the mathematical tools and physical principles used in this
textbook. Part III (Chapters 4–6) covers the three major styles of deformation: brittle, ductile, and viscous.
Part IV (Chapters 7–11) covers the five broad categories of geologic structures: fractures, faults, folds,
fabrics, and intrusions. For each category we introduce the canonical model for that structure and derive the
resulting stress, strain, displacement, or velocity fields.
This textbook contains more material than could reasonably be presented in a one-quarter or one-semester
course. At Stanford University, the senior author developed the following schedule for a one-quarter (10 week,
20 lecture) course:

• Chapter 1 – lecture 1
• Chapter 2 – lectures 2 and 3
• Chapter 3 – lectures 4 and 5
• Chapter 4 – lectures 6, 7, and 8
• Chapter 6 – lectures 9, 10, and 11
• Chapter 7 – lectures 12, 13, and 14
• Chapter 8 – lectures 15, 16, and 17
• Chapter 11 – lectures 18, 19, and 20

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Preface xvii

This selection emphasizes brittle and viscous deformation and uses fractures, faults, and intrusions as the
representative structures. An alternative selection substitutes Chapters 5 and 10 for Chapters 6 and 11, and
thereby includes ductile deformation and rock fabrics instead of viscous deformation and intrusions.
Another alternative is to be more selective within chapters and cover more deformation styles and
structures, while omitting some of the analyses.

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978-1-107-03506-5 — Structural Geology: A Quantitative Introduction
David D. Pollard , Stephen J. Martel
Frontmatter
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

David Pollard thanks the students who enrolled in his course at Stanford University and provided valuable
motivation and feedback for developing his lecture notes into a textbook. He also thanks the Ph.D. students
and colleagues who carried out research with him and provided materials that appear here as graphical data,
diagrams, photographs, and maps. These students and colleagues shared the pleasures of discovering new
structures in the field, mapping structures with many different high-tech instruments, and solving boundary
and initial value problems of continuum mechanics using both analytical and numerical models to reveal
new insights about structures. He especially thanks his co-author, Steve Martel, for many enjoyable Skype
conversations about the manuscript, and for countless exchanges of edited drafts that eventually grew into
the published book.
Steve Martel is fortunate to have had the privilege to learn from, and work with, David Pollard and
many of his graduate students at Stanford University. He also is grateful for the wonderful opportunity to
work with many undergraduate and graduate students at the University of Hawai’i, as well as colleagues
there and around the world. The ongoing collaborative experience of trying to understand the world better
through a combination of new discoveries and the use of tools developed by our forerunners has been
fascinating, humbling, and rewarding.
The authors thank Richard Stultz for helping to set up the tabletop experiments used to illustrate the
mechanical behavior of materials in Chapters 4, 5, 6, and 9, and for his expertise in taking and editing the
photographs of these experiments. The authors also thank Ryan McCarty for his expertise in digitizing,
colorizing, and editing all the maps and many of the diagrams. His graphics skill and artistry have added a
significant dimension to the textbook. David Pollard thanks Professors Bernard Hallet and Darrel Cowan of
the Department of Earth and Space Sciences, University of Washington, for hosting his sabbatical in 2010,
during which the outlines of this textbook emerged.
Finally, we thank those scientists and engineers who, in past generations, laid down the cornerstones of
continuum mechanics, and those philosophers who established the self-correcting methodology of science
advocated in this textbook that compensates for human fallibility, technological innovation, and random
discovery. Using that methodology we may, in the words of Charles S. Peirce, confidently “pile the ground
before the foot of the outworks of truth with the carcasses of this generation, and perhaps of others to come
after it, until some future generation, by treading on them, can storm the citadel” (Peirce, 2011).

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