SECOND SEMESTER BSc.

MATHEMATICS

Foundations of Mathematics
Module II

Foundations of Co-ordinate Geometry

Parametric Equations
1. Suppose that a particle moves along a curve C in the xy-plane in such a way that
its x and y coordinates, as functions of time, are
x = f (t), y = g(t)
This representation of the curve is called the parametric equations of motion
for the particle and refer to C as the trajectory of the particle or the graph of
the equations. The variable t is called the parameter for the equations.
2. The direction in which the graph of a pair of parametric equations is traced as the
parameter increases is called the direction of increasing parameter or some-
times the orientation imposed on the curve by the equations. That is a curve is a
set of points and a parametric curve is a curve with an orientation.
3. If
x = f (t), y = g(t)
is the parametric representation of a curve,
dy dy dx
= / .
dx dt dt
dy dx
(a) If dt
= 0 and dt
̸= 0, then the parametric curve will be horizontal.
dy dx
(b) If ̸ 0 and
dt
= = 0, then the curve has infinite slope and a vertical tangent
dt
line at such points.
(c) If dy
dt
= 0 and dx
dt
= 0, then dy
dx
is an indeterminate form and we call such points
as singular points.
4. The curve represented by the parametric equations
x = t2 , y = t3 (−∞ < t < +∞)
is called a semicubical parabola. (That is y 2 = x3 .)
5. Arc Length of Curves - Parametric Curve.
6. Surface Area by Revolution - Parametric Curve.

1
Problems
1. Sketch the trajectory over the time interval 0 ≤ t ≤ 10 of the particle whose
parametric equations of motion are x = t − 3 sin t, y = 4 − 3 cos t.

2. Find the graph of the parametric equations x = cos t, y = sin t (0 ≤ t ≤ 2π).

3. Graph the parametric curve x = 2t − 3, y = 6t − 7 by eliminating the parameter,

and indicate the orientation on the graph.

4. Graph the parametric curve x = t − 3, y = 3t − 7, (0 ≤ t ≤ 3) by eliminating the

parameter, and indicate the orientation on the graph.

5. Graph the parametric curve x = sec2 t, y = tan2 t (0 ≤ t < π2 ) by eliminating the

parameter, and indicate the orientation on the graph.

6. Find the parametric form of the portion of the circle x2 + y 2 = 1 that lies in the
third quadrant, oriented counterclockwise.
x2 y2
7. Find the parametric form of the ellipse a2
+ b2
= 1, oriented counterclockwise.

8. Find the slope of the tangent line to the unit circle x = cos t, y = sin t (0 ≤ t ≤ 2π)
at the point where t = π6 .

9. In a disastrous first flight, an experimental paper airplane follows the trajectory of

the particle:
x = t − 3 sin t, y = 4 − 3 cos t (t ≥ 0)
but crashes into a wall at time t = 10.

(a) At what times was the airplane flying horizontally?

(b) At what times was it flying vertically?
dy d2 y
10. Without eliminating the parameter, find dx
and dx2
at (1, 1) and (1, −1) on the
semicubical parabola.

11. Find the slope of the tangent line to the parametric curve x = 3 cos t, y = 4 sin t
at t = π4 and at t = 7π
4
without eliminating the parameter. Check the answers by
eliminating the parameter and differentiating an appropriate function of x.

12. Find all values of t at which the parametric curve x = 2 sin t, y = 4 cos t (0 ≤ t ≤
2π) has a horizontal tangent line and a vertical tangent line.

13. Find all values of t at which the parametric curve x = 2t3 −15t2 +24t+7, y = t2 +t+1
has a horizontal tangent line and a vertical tangent line.

2
Polar Coordinates
1. A polar coordinate system in a plane consists of a fixed point O, called the pole
(or origin), and a ray starting from the pole, called the polar axis. In such a
coordinate system we can associate with each point P in the plane a pair of polar
coordinates (r, θ), where r is the distance from P to the pole and θ is an angle from
the polar axis to the ray OP . The number r is called the radial coordinate of P
and the number θ the angular coordinate (or polar angle) of P .
2. Relationship Between Polar and Rectangular Coordinates
x = r cos θ, y = r sin θ
p y
r = x2 + y 2 , θ = tan−1 .
x
3. Symmetry Tests
(a) A curve in polar coordinates is symmetric about the x-axis if replacing θ by
−θ in its equation produces an equivalent equation.
(b) A curve in polar coordinates is symmetric about the y-axis if replacing θ by
π − θ in its equation produces an equivalent equation.
(c) A curve in polar coordinates is symmetric about the origin if replacing θ by
θ + π, or replacing r by −r in its equation produces an equivalent equation.

Problems
1. Find the rectangular coordinates of the point P whose polar coordinates are (r, θ) =
(6, 2π
3
).
√
2. Find polar coordinates of the point P whose rectangular coordinates are P(−2, −2 3).
3. Sketch the graphs of r = 1 in polar coordinates.
π
4. Sketch the graph of θ = 4
in polar coordinates.
5. Sketch the graph of r = θ, (θ ≥ 0) in polar coordinates by plotting points.
6. Sketch the graph of the equation r = sin θ in polar coordinates by plotting the
points.
7. Sketch the graph of r = cos 2θ in polar coordinates.
8. Check the symmetry of the curve r = cos 2θ about x-axis and y-axis.
9. Sketch the graph of r = a(1−cos θ) in polar coordinates, assuming a to be a positive
constant.
10. Sketch the graph of r2 = 4 cos 2θ in polar coordinates.

3
Tangent Lines, Arc Lengths and Area for Polar Curves
1. The slope of tangent lines to polar curves of the form r = f (θ) in which r is a
differentiable function of θ is
dr
dy dy/dθ r cos θ + sin θ dθ
= = dr
dx dx/dθ −r sin θ + cos θ dθ

dr
2. If the polar curve r = f (θ) passes through the origin at θ = θ0 , and if dθ
̸= 0 at
θ = θ0 , then the line θ = θ0 is tangent to the curve at the origin.
3. Arc Length Formula for Polar Curves : If no segment of the polar curve
dr
r = f (θ) is traced more than once as θ increases from α to β, and if dθ is continuous
for α ≤ θ ≤ β, then the arc length L from θ = α to θ = β is
s  2
Z βq Z β
2 ′ 2 2
dr
L= [f (θ)] + [f (θ)] dθ = r + dθ
α α dθ

4. Area in Polar Coordinates : If α and β are angles that satisfy the condition
α < β ≤ α + 2π and if f (θ) is continuous and either nonnegative or nonpositive
for α ≤ θ ≤ β, then the area A of the region R enclosed by the polar curve
r = f (θ), (α ≤ θ ≤ β) and the lines θ = α and θ = β is
Z β Z β
1 2 1 2
A= [f (θ)] dθ = r dθ
α 2 α 2

Problems
1. Find the slope of the tangent line to the circle r = 4 cos θ at the point where θ = π4 .
2. Find the slope of the tangent line to the circle r = 2 sin θ at the point where θ = π6 .
3. Find the slope of the tangent line to the circle r = 4 − 3 sin θ at the point where
θ = π.
4. Find the points on the cardioid r = 1 − cos θ at which there is a horizontal tangent
line, a vertical tangent line, or a singular point.
5. Find the arc length of the spiral r = eθ between θ = 0 and θ = π.
6. Find the total arc length of the cardioid r = 1 + cos θ.
7. Find the total arc length of the cardioid r = 1 − cos θ.
8. Find the total arc length of the cardioid r = e3θ from θ = 0 to θ = 2.
9. Find the area of the region in the first quadrant that is within the cardioid r =
1 − cos θ.

4
10. Find the entire area of the cardioid r = 1 − cos θ.

11. Find the area of the region enclosed by the rose curve r = cos 2θ.

12. Find the area of the region that is inside of the cardioid r = 4 + 4 cos θ and outside
of the circle r = 6.

13. Find the area of the region that is common to the circles r = 2 cos θ and r = 2 sin θ.

5
Conics
Circles, ellipses, parabolas and hyperbolas are called conic sections or conics.

Parabola
Parabola is the set of all points in the plane that are equidistant from a fixed line and
a fixed point not on the line.

1. The line is called the directrix of the parabola, and the point is called the focus.

2. A parabola is symmetric about the line that passes through the focus at right angles
to the directrix.

3. This line, called the axis or the axis of symmetry of the parabola, intersects the
parabola at a point called the vertex.

4. Standard equations of the parabola are y 2 = 4px, x2 = 4py, y 2 = −4px, x2 = −4py.

5. Sketching a Parabola from Its Standard Equation

Step 1. Determine whether the axis of symmetry is along the x-axis or the y-axis. The
axis of symmetry is along the x-axis if the equation has a y 2 term, and it is
along the y-axis if it has an x2 term.
Step 2. Determine which way the parabola opens. If the axis of symmetry is along the
x-axis, then the parabola opens to the right if the coefficient of x is positive,
and it opens to the left if the coefficient is negative. If the axis of symmetry is
along the y-axis, then the parabola opens up if the coefficient of y is positive,
and it opens down if the coefficient is negative.
Step 3. Determine the value of p and drawa box extending p units from the origin
along the axis of symmetry in the direction in which the parabola opens and
extending 2p units on each side of the axis of symmetry.
Step 4. Using the box as a guide, sketch the parabola so that its vertex is at the origin
and it passes through the corners of the box.

6
Problems
1. Derive the standard equation of the parabola y 2 = 4ax.

2. Sketch the graph of the parabola x2 = 12y. Also specify its focus, vertex and
directrix.

3. Sketch the graph of the parabola y 2 + 8x = 0. Also specify its focus, vertex and
directrix.

4. Find an equation of the parabola that is symmetric about the y-axis, has its vertex
at the origin, and passes through the point (5, 2).

5. Find the equation of the parabola with vertex (0, 0) and focus (3,0).
1
6. Find the equation of the parabola with vertex (0, 0) and directrix y = 4
.

7. Find the equation of the parabola with focus (6, 0) and directrix x = −6.

7
Ellipse
An ellipse is the set of all points in the plane, the sum of whose distances from two fixed
points is a given positive constant that is greater than the distance between the fixed
points.

1. The two fixed points are called the foci (plural of “focus”) of the ellipse.

2. The midpoint of the line segment joining the foci is called the center.

3. The line segment through the foci and across the ellipse is called the major axis.

4. The line segment across the ellipse, through the center, and perpendicular to the
major axis is called the minor axis.

5. The endpoints of the major axis are called vertices.

6. Standard equation of an ellipse with center at origin, major axis along x-axis, length
of major axis - 2a, minor axis along y-axis, lenght of minor axis - 2b is

x2 y 2
+ 2 = 1.
a2 b
Here a is known as semi-major axis and b is known as semi-minor axis.

7. Let 2c be the distance between the foci. Then

√
c = a2 − b2

or
a2 = b 2 + c 2

8. The distance from a focus to an end of the minor axis is a.

9. For all points on the ellipse the sum of the distances to the foci is 2a.

10. Standard equation of an ellipse with center at origin, major axis along y-axis, length
of major axis - 2a, minor axis along x-axis, length of minor axis - 2b is

x2 y 2
+ 2 = 1.
b2 a

8
 11. Sketching an Ellipse from Its Standard Equation

Step 1. Determine whether the major axis is on the x-axis or the y-axis. This can be
ascertained from the sizes of the denominators in the equation. The major
axis is along the x-axis if x2 has the larger denominator, and it is along the
y-axis if y 2 has the larger denominator. If the denominators are equal, the
ellipse is a circle.
Step 2. Determine the values of a and b and draw a box extending a units on each
side of the center along the major axis and b units on each side of the center
along the minor axis.
Step 3. Using the box as a guide, sketch the ellipse so that its center is at the origin
and it touches the sides of the box where the sides intersect the coordinate
axes

Problems
1. Derive the standard equation of the ellipse.
x2 y2
2. Sketch the graphs of the ellipse 9
+ 16
= 1. Also specify its foci.

3. Sketch the graphs of the ellipse 2 + 2y 2 = 4. Also specify its foci.

4. Find an equation for the ellipse with foci (0, ±2) and major axis with endpoints
(0, ±4).

5. Find an equation for the ellipse with ends of major axis (±3, 0); ends of minor axis
(0, ±2).

6. Find an equation for the ellipse with length of minor axis 8 and foci (0, ±3).

7. Find an equation for the ellipse with ends of major axis (0, ±6); passes through
(−3, 2).

9
Hyperbola
A hyperbola is the set of all points in the plane, the difference of whose distances from
two fixed distinct points is a given positive constant that is less than the distance between
the fixed points.

1. The two fixed points are called the foci of the hyperbola.
2. The midpoint of the line segment joining the foci is called the center of the
hyperbola.
3. The line through the foci is called the focal axis.
4. The line through the center that is perpendicular to the focal axis is called the
conjugate axis.
5. The hyperbola intersects the focal axis at two points called the vertices.
6. Standard equation of a hyperbola with center at origin, focal axis along x-axis,
length of focal axis - 2a, conjugate axis along y-axis, length of conjugate axis - 2b is
x2 y 2
− 2 = 1.
a2 b
Here a is known as semi-focal axis and b is known as semi-conjugate axis.
7. Let 2c be the distance between the foci. Then
√
b = c 2 − a2
or
c 2 = a2 + b 2

8. If V is one vertex of a hyperbola, then, the distance from V to the farther focus
minus the distance from V to the closer focus is 2a.
9. For all points on a hyperbola, the distance to the farther focus minus the distance
to the closer focus is 2a.
10. Standard equation of a hyperbola with center at origin, focal axis along y-axis,
length of focal axis - 2a, conjugate axis along x-axis, length of conjugate axis - 2b
is
y 2 x2
− 2 = 1.
a2 b
10
 11. Associated with every hyperbola is a pair of lines, called the asymptotes of the
hyperbola. These lines intersect at the center of the hyperbola and have the prop-
erty that as a point P moves along the hyperbola away from the center, the vertical
distance between P and one of the asymptotes approaches zero.
x2 y2
12. Asymptotes of the hyperbola a2
− b2
= 1 is y = ± ab x.

13. Sketching a Hyperbola from Its Standard Equation

Step 1. Determine whether the focal axis is on the x-axis or the y-axis. This can be
ascertained from the location of the minus sign in the equation. The focal axis
is along the x-axis when the minus sign precedes the y 2 -term, and it is along
the y-axis when the minus sign precedes the x2 -term.
Step 2. Determine the values of a and b and draw a box extending a units on either
side of the center along the focal axis and b units on either side of the center
along the conjugate axis. (The squares of a and b can be read directly from
the equation.)
Step 3. Draw the asymptotes along the diagonals of the box.
Step 4. Using the box and the asymptotes as a guide, sketch the graph of the hyperbola

Problems
x2 y2
1. Sketch the graphs of the hyperbolas 4
− 9
= 1. Also specify its vertices, foci and
asymptotes.

2. Sketch the graphs of the hyperbolas y 2 − x2 = 1. Also specify its vertices, foci and
asymptotes.

3. Find the equation of the hyperbola with vertices (0, ±8) and asymptotes y = ± 43 x.

4. Find an equation for a hyperbola with vertices (±2, 0); foci (±3, 0).

5. Find an equation for a hyperbola with vertices (0, ±2); asymptotes y = ± 32 x.

6. Find an equation for a hyperbola with asymptotes y = ± 23 x, b = 4.

7. Find an equation for a hyperbola with foci (0, ±5), asymptotes y = ±2x.

11
Translated Conics
Equations of conics that are translated from their standard positions can be obtained by
replacing x by x − h and y by y − k in their standard equations. For a parabola, this
translates the vertex from the origin to the point (h, k); and for ellipses and hyperbolas,
this translates the center from the origin to the point (h, k).
1. Equation of the parabola with vertex at (h, k) and axis parallel to x−axis are

(y − k)2 = 4p(x − h)

and
(y − k)2 = −4p(x − h)

2. Equation of the parabola with vertex at (h, k) and axis parallel to y−axis are

(x − h)2 = 4p(y − k)

and
(x − h)2 = −4p(y − k)

3. Equation of the ellipse with center (h, k) and major axis parallel to x-axis is

(x − h)2 (y − k)2
+ = 1, a>b
a2 b2

4. Equation of the ellipse with center (h, k) and major axis parallel to y-axis is

(x − h)2 (y − k)2
+ = 1, a>b
b2 a2

5. Equation of the hyperbola with center (h, k) and focal axis parallel to x-axis is

(x − h)2 (y − k)2
− =1
a2 b2

6. Equation of the hyperbola with center (h, k) and focal axis parallel to y-axis is

(y − k)2 (x − h)2
− =1
a2 b2

Problems
1. Find √the equation of the parabola with axis y = 0, passes through (3, 2) and
(2, − 2).

2. Find an equation for the parabola that has its vertex at (1, 2) and its focus at (4,
2).

12
 3. Describe the graph of the equation y 2 − 8x − 6y − 23 = 0.

4. Describe the graph of the equation 16x2 + 9y 2 − 64x − 54y + 1 = 0.

5. Describe the graph of the equation x2 − y 2 − 4x + 8y − 21 = 0.

6. Sketch the graph of the parabola (x − 1)2 = 2(y − 21 ).

7. Sketch the graph of the parabola y 2 − 6y − 2x + 1 = 0.

8. Sketch the graph of the parabola y = 4x2 + 8x + 5.

9. Sketch the graph of the ellipse (x + 3)2 + 4(y − 5)2 = 16.

10. Sketch the graph of the ellipse 9x2 + 4y 2 − 18x + 24y + 9 = 0.

11. Sketch the graph of the ellipse 5x2 + 9y 2 + 20x − 54y = −56.
(y+4)2 (x−2)2
12. Sketch the hyperbola 3
− 5
= 1.

13. Sketch the hyperbola 16(x + 1)2 − 8(y − 3)2 = 16.

14. Sketch the hyperbola x2 − 4y 2 + 2x + 8y − 7 = 0.

15. Sketch the hyperbola 16x2 − y 2 − 32x − 6y = 57.

13
Reflection Properties of the Conic Section
1. Reflection Property of Parabolas : The tangent line at a point P on a parabola
makes equal angles with the line through P parallel to the axis of symmetry and
the line through P and the focus.

2. Reflection Property of Ellipses : A line tangent to an ellipse at a point P

makes equal angles with the lines joining P to the foci.

3. Reflection Property of Hyperbolas : A line tangent to a hyperbola at a point

P makes equal angles with the lines joining P to the foci.

14
Rotation of Axis - Second Degree Equations
1. A general second degree equation is

Ax2 + Bxy + Cy 2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0

where A, B and C are constants and not all zero.

2. This equation is called a quadratic equation in x and y.

3. If B = 0, then the above equation reduces to

Ax2 + Cy 2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0

and it is a conic with its axis or axes parallel to the coordinate axes.

4. If B ̸= 0, then the above equation contains a cross-product term Bxy and is a conic
with some other axis.

Rotation of Co-ordinate Axes

1. The equations
x = x′ cos θ − y ′ sin θ
y = x′ sin θ + y ′ cos θ
are called rotation equations.

2. These equations can also be written as

x′ = x cos θ + y sin θ

y ′ = −x sin θ + y cos θ

3. If the equation

Ax2 + Bxy + Cy 2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0...................(1)

is such that B ̸= 0, and if an x′ y ′ -coordinate system is obtained by rotating the

xy-axes through an angle θ satisfying
A−C
cot 2θ =
B
then, in x′ y ′ - coordinates, Equation (1 ) will have the form

A′ x′2 + C ′ y ′2 + D′ x′ + E ′ y ′ + F ′ = 0.

15
Problems
1. Suppose that the axes of an xy-coordinate system are rotated through an angle
of θ = 45o to obtain an x′ y ′ - coordinate system. Find the equation of the curve
x2 − xy + y 2 − 6 = 0 in x′ y ′ -coordinates.

2. Find the new coordinates of the point (2, 4) if the coordinate axes are rotated
through an angle of θ = 30o .

3. Identify and sketch the curve xy = 1.

4. Identify and sketch the curve

153x2 − 192xy + 97y 2 − 30x − 40y − 200 = 0.

5. Rotate the coordinate axes to remove the xy-term. Then identify the type of conic
and sketch its graph.

(a) xy = −9.
(b) x2 − xy + y 2 − 2 = 0.
(c) x2 + 4xy − 2y 2 − 6 = 0.
√
(d) 31x2 + 10 3xy + 21y 2 − 144 = 0.
(e) 9x2 − 24xy + 16y 2 − 80x − 60y + 100 = 0.

16
Conic Section in Polar Form
1. Focus–Directrix Property of Conics : Suppose that a point P moves in the
plane determined by a fixed point (called the focus) and a fixed line (called the
directrix), where the focus does not lie on the directrix. If the point moves in such
a way that its distance to the focus divided by its distance to the directrix is some
constant e (called the eccentricity), then the curve traced by the point is a conic
section. Moreover, the conic is

(a) a parabola if e = 1.
(b) an ellipse if 0 < e < 1.
(c) a hyperbola if e > 1.

2. Polar equation of a conic section with eccentricity e is positioned in a polar coor-

dinate system so that its focus is at the pole and the corresponding directrix is d
units from the pole is
ed
r= .
1 + e cos θ
ed
3. (a) The equation r = 1+e cos θ
represents a conic with directrix right of pole.
ed
(b) The equation r = 1−e cos θ
represents a conic with directrix left of pole.
ed
(c) The equation r = 1+sin θ
represents a conic with directrix above the pole.
ed
(d) The equation r = 1−sin θ
represents a conic with directrix below the pole.

4. For an Ellipse : Let r0 be the distance from the focus to the closest vertex and
r1 the distance to the farthest vertex. Thus,

r0 = a − c and r1 = a + c

from which it follows that

1 1
a = (r1 + r0 ) and c = (r1 − r0 )
2 2
Moreover, it also follows that

r0 r1 = c2 − a2 = b2 .

Thus,
√
b= r0 r1 .

5. For a Hyperbola : Let r0 be the distance from the focus to the closest vertex
and r1 the distance to the farthest vertex. Thus,

r0 = c − a and r1 = c + a

17
 from which it follows that
1 1
a = (r1 − r0 ) and c = (r1 + r0 )
2 2
Moreover, it also follows that

r0 r1 = a2 − c2 = b2 .

Thus,
√
b= r0 r1 .

6. Kepler’s Laws
(a) First law (Law of Orbits) : Each planet moves in an elliptical orbit with
the Sun at a focus.
(b) Second law (Law of Areas) : The radial line from the center of the Sun to
the center of a planet sweeps out equal areas in equal times.
(c) Third law (Law of Periods) : The square of a planet’s period (the time it
takes the planet to complete one orbit about the Sun) is proportional to the
cube of the semimajor axis of its orbit.
7. In an elliptical orbit, the closest point to the focus is called the perigee and the
farthest point the apogee. The distances from the focus to the perigee and apogee
are called the perigee distance and apogee distance, respectively. For orbits
around the Sun, it is more common to use the terms perihelion and aphelion,
rather than perigee and apogee, and to measure time in Earth years and distances
in astronomical units (AU), where 1 AU is the semimajor axis a of the Earth’s
orbit (approximately 150 × 106 km or 92.9 × 106 mi). With this choice of units, the
constant of proportionality in Kepler’s third law is 1, since a = 1AU produces a
period of T = 1 Earth year. In this case Kepler’s third law can be expressed as
3
T = a2 .

Shapes of elliptical orbits are often specified by giving the eccentricity e and the
semimajor axis a, so it is useful to express the polar equations of an ellipse in
terms of these constants. Then the relationship c = ea, implies that the distance d
between the focus and the directrix is
a a a(1 − e2 )
d= − c = − ea =
e e e
from which it follows that ed = a(1 − e2 ).
Thus, depending on the orientation of the ellipse, the formulas of the ellipse can be
expressed in terms of a and e as
a(1 − e2 )
r=
1 ± e cos θ

18
 if the directrix is right and left of pole and

a(1 − e2 )
r=
1 ± e sin θ
if the directrix is above and below the pole.
Also, the distances from the focus to the closest and farthest vertices can be ex-
pressed in terms of a and e as

r0 = a − ea = a(1 − e) and r1 = a + ea = a(1 + e).

Problems
1. Derive the equation of a conic in polar form.
2
2. Sketch the graph of r = 1−cos θ
in polar coordinates.

3. Find the eccentricity and the distance from the pole to the directrix, and sketch
the graph in polar coordinates.
3
(a) r = 2−2 cos θ
3
(b) r = 2+sin θ
4
(c) r = 2+3 cos θ
5
(d) r = 3+3 sin θ

4. Idenify the conics

8
(a) r = 1−sin θ
16
(b) r = 4+3 sin θ
12
(c) r = 4+cos θ

5. Find the distances from the pole to the vertices and find the equation of the ellipse
in rectangular coordinates.
6
(a) r = 2+sin θ
1
(b) r = 2−cos θ
6
(c) r = 5+2 cos θ

6. Find the distances from the pole to the vertices, and find the equation of the
hyperbola in rectangular coordinates.
3
(a) r = 1+2 sin θ
5
(b) r = 2−3 cos θ

19
 4
(c) r = 1−2 sin θ

6
7. Find the constants a, b and c for the ellipse r = 2+cos θ
.

8. Find a polar equation for the ellipse that has its focus at the pole and directrix to
the right of the pole; a = 8; e = 21 .

9. Find a polar equation for the ellipse that has its focus at the pole and directrix
below the pole; a = 4; e = 53
2
10. Sketch the graph of r = 1+2 sin θ
in polar coordinates.

11. Find the polar equation of an equilateral hyperbola with a focus at the pole and
vertex (5, 0).

12. Halley’s comet (last seen in 1986) has an eccentricity of 0.97 and a semimajor axis
of a = 18.1AU .

(a) Find the equation of its orbit in the polar coordinate system.
(b) Find the period of its orbit.
(c) Find its perihelion and aphelion distances.

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