Metabolism CARBOHYDRATES

- It refers to the chemical - the most important energy-

(metabolic) processes that take producing
place as your body converts foods - compounds in the cell provide
and drinks into energy. most of the energy for living
- It requires a great deal of fuel and things
raw materials (from food)
- All are organic compounds that
Calories (C) consist of the elements carbon,
- A measure of energy content of hydrogen, and oxygen (1:2:1 ratio)
Food
- One Calorie is the amount of Common Sugars
energy needed to raise the - Glucose (C6H12O6)
temperature of one kilogram (1L) - Fructose (fruit and vegetable
of water by one degree Celsius sugar)
- If a person consumes Calories than - Lactose (milk sugar)
he needs, the excess energy- - Maltose (grains)
producing substances are - Sucrose (table sugar)
converted to fat and stored in
adipose cells. Simple Carbohydrates
Monosaccharides
Obesity - (simple sugars)
- Being severely overweight due to Disaccharides
excess body fat. - (two monosaccharides combined)

Increases a person’s risk of Complex Carbohydrates

Diseases: Polysaccharides
- Heart disease - (long chains of Simple
- Diabetes carbohydrates)
- Some forms of cancer Found in: Bread, Cereals, Pasta,
Potatoes, and Rice.
Healthy way to lose weight is to:
- Eat a healthy diet (limiting calorie 2 Main Types of Polysaccharides
intake) and exercise regularly. 1. Starch – a mixture of
polysaccharides manufactured by
- Maintaining healthy weight also plant cells for glucose storage
requires proper eating and regular (starch breaks down into glucose
exercise. for use as fuel)
2. Dietary Fiber – is not digested or
2 CATEGORIES OF incorporated into the body.
NUTRIENTS
1. Macronutrients 2 Types of Dietary Fiber
2. Micronutrients 1. Soluble Fiber – turns into a gel
during digestion, thereby slowing
 MACRONUTRIENTS digestion and helping the stomach
- are the nutrients that your body and intestines absorb nutrients.
needs in large amounts
- the body’s primary source of 2. Insoluble Fiber– helps move
energy and building materials undigested wastes along to keep
the intestines clean and healthy
Compositions:
- Carbohydrates Cellulose – the primary component of
- Proteins plant cell walls...
- Fats
PROTEINS Fatty Acid
- Half of the body’s dry weight. - A molecule made of carbon and
- Complex organic molecules used oxygen atoms attached to a long
to build and maintain living cells. chain of carbon and hydrogen
- Are made of simpler molecules atoms.
called amino acids Saturated Fatty Acids
- A long chain of amino acids, - Every possible bond to hydrogen
usually folded into a three- is occupied.
dimensional shape - They cannot hold any more
hydrogen atoms.
Amino Acids are all quite similar to each Unsaturated Fatty Acids
other, differing only in the type, number - This hydrogen-carbon chain can
and arrangement. form one (monosaccharide) or
more (polysaccharide) additional
Glycine – a single hydrogen atom (-H) pairs of bonds of hydrogen.
Alanine – a group of four atoms (-CH3)
Fats – when fatty acids are combined into
Composition: larger molecules.
- Carbon
- Hydrogen Glycerol (Triglycerides)
- Oxygen - Fats consist of three fatty acid
- Nitrogen molecules attached to a single
- and other elements. molecule.

Serve many vital functions in the cell Animal fats – solid in room temp.,
1. Simple Proteins consist mostly saturated fatty acids.
- (used like cables or modular
building blocks to construct the Oils - fats that are liquid at room temp.
framework of the cell) - hydrogen is often added to
vegetable oils to change from
2. Complex Proteins liquid to solid or semisolid
- (Enzymes-control chemical
reactions in the cells) Hydrogenated Oil
Serve as molecular machines: pumps, - used to make margarine and
actuators, motors, sensors, and molecular shortening
assemblers that allow the cell to carry on - contain “trans fatty acids”
the processes of life.
Cholesterol
LIPIDS - used by our bodies to make bile,
- A varied group of compounds Vitamin D, and important
characterized by their insolubility hormones
in water. - Small amounts are used in cell
- Are used by the body primarily to membranes
store energy and to build cell parts. - Liver manufactures cholesterol
- They carry fat-soluble vitamins to Atherosclerosis – buildup of deposits
all parts of the body inside the blood vessels.
- Some hormones are lipids
- All cell membranes are built  MICRONUTRIENTS
mainly lipids. - they are essential for proper body
- The simplest type of lipid function
molecule is the fatty acids. - are needed in much smaller
amounts

Composition: Vitamins, and Minerals.

VITAMINS Important minerals for building body
- are important organic substances tissues:
found in plants and animals and - Calcium
foods made from them - Phosphorus
- they are needed in small amounts - Iron
for the proper functioning of - Iodine
metabolism
Other important minerals:
Water-Soluble Vitamins - Sodium
- They are easily eliminated from - Potassium
the body - Magnesium
- Vitamin C - Sulfur
- B-complex Vitamins - Chlorine
(Vitamin B1, B2, B3, B6, B12)
- Folate (Folic Acid) Trace Elements:
- Biotin - Iron
- Pantothenic Acid - Iodine
- They are needed in extremely small
Fat-Soluble Vitamins amounts.
- They can accumulate in the body if
ingested in excess Atoms of these minerals are key parts
- Vitamins A, D, E, and K of many proteins that body produces:
- Most vitamins serve as coenzymes - Zinc
- Iron
Coenzymes – molecules that assist a - Magnesium
cell’s enzymes in performing their jobs. - Iodine

Biotin - function as parts of enzymes Iron (Part of Hemoglobin)

Niacin and Vitamin B12 Hemoglobin – the protein that transports
- function independently oxygen through our body

Vitamin C and E Sodium and Potassium

- are antioxidants - used to help regulate the balance
Antioxidants of water in your body fluids, both
- substances that neutralize harmful inside and outside cells
molecules called free radicals,
which would otherwise damage Calcium and Phosphorous
important cell parts - used as raw materials in the
production and repair of bones and
Vitamin C teeth
- neutralizes free radicals dissolved
in water Water
Vitamin E - A person’s body weight
- neutralizes free radicals in fats and - Percentage of water in the body is
other lipids related to the amount of fat in the
Free Radicals body
- are natural byproducts of cell - 60% of the total body water is
processes intracellular fluid (inside the cell)
Extracellular fluid – surrounds the cell
MINERALS - found in blood plasma, lymph,
- an important inorganic nutrients cerebrospinal fluid and joints
- proper growth and repair of body Edema – when the body tissues absorb
tissues extra fluids and cannot maintain proper
water balance
 THE BEGINNING OF THE Digestion is partly mechanical,
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM however, in that food is broken down
- The complex nutrients we ingest into small particles by the chewing action
must be broken down into smaller of the teeth; food is continually mixed by
water-soluble vitamins before they a muscular action called peristalsis.
can be absorbed and used by the
body. Fats are melted by heat and broken
into smaller droplets (emulsified) by the
The digestive system does the job: action of bile (a soaplike substance
- Carbohydrates are converted into formed by the liver)
Simple Sugars
- Proteins into Amino Acids The chemical process begins in the
- Fats into Fatty Acids mouth, where saliva starts to break down
starch, and continues in the stomach,
Alimentary Canal where proteins and starches are broken
- a tube that extends from the mouth down into smaller parts
to the anus includes the oral cavity
(mouth), esophagus, stomach, and Enzymes - are catalysts produced by
the small and large intestines living cells.

Catalyst – is any substance that speeds up

a chemical change but is not consumed in
the process.

Digestive Enzymes
- control digestion, are produced by
tiny secreting bodies called
digestive glands

Digestive glands – located in the mouth,

Purpose the stomach, the small intestine, and the
- To aid the body with the pancreas
processing of food (digestion)
- The intake of nutrients Digestive Juices
(Absorption) - is mostly water, but it contains a
- The elimination of wastes small amount of one or more
digestive enzymes and frequently
Four Layers of Tissues certain other substances
- Mucous Membrane
- Submucosa THE ORAL CAVITY
- Muscular Layer - inside the mouth, where food is
- Serous Layer lubricated and ground and
digestion is begun
DIGESTION
- The changing of food substances Mucous Membrane
with large, complex chemical - Lines the oral cavity, is kept moist
molecules into substances with and lubricated by a slimy
smaller, less complex molecules. substance called mucus.

Chemical Process Mucus - is composed mainly of a

- The changing of complex food compound of protein and sugar and is
molecules into simple food produced by the membrane’s secreting
cells.
molecules by the digestive system
Palate Salivary Amylase
- Separating the mouth from the - the digestive enzyme in saliva
nasal passages which begins the digestion of
- Is the roof of the mouth and works starch before food is even
with the tongue, lips, and teeth to swallowed
form words for speech - breaks down the starch into
simpler molecules of maltose, a
Tongue - pushes food between the teeth sugar
and helps mix the food with mucus and
saliva. TEETH - cut, break or crush food into
smaller pieces so that it is more easily
Bolus - from Latin bolus, "ball" is a ball- digested
like mixture of food and saliva that forms
in the mouth during the process of Adult: 32 teeth (arranged on the upper
chewing and lower jaws)
(which is largely an adaptation for plant- Baby: 20 teeth
eating mammals)
The number and kinds of teeth on each
5 Fundamental Tastes jaw:
- Sweet Incisors
- Sour - the four front cutting teeth
- Bitter Cuspids (canines)
- Salty - the two tearing teeth that flank the
- Umami -means “essence of incisors
deliciousness” in Japanese, and its Bicuspids (premolars)
taste is often described as the - The four light-grinding teeth that
arranged as a pair on each side of
meaty, savory deliciousness that
the jaw next to the cuspids
deepens flavor. Molars
Salivary Glands - the six heavy-grinding teeth that
- digestive glands of the mouth are arranged three to a side at the
- Produced 1 to 1.5b liters (2 to 3 back of the jaw
pints) of sticky digestive juice
called SALIVA

6 Paired Salivary Glands in the Oral

Cavity
- Two in the upper jaw
- Two in the lower jaw
- Two under the tongue

Saliva - moistens food and makes it easy

to shallow Wisdom Tooth
- Foods that smell and taste good - The last molar on each side of the
trigger the salivary glands to jaw
secrete more saliva, attractive, - Usually appear between the ages
delicious foods are aid to good of seventeen and twenty-five
digestion - Some cases, they do not develop

Impacted – they fail to grow up through

the gums.
2 Sets of teeth during our life time: Eustachian tubes
- lead to middle ears; help equalize the
1. Primary Teeth – appear during the pressure on the eardrum
first four or five years of life and
are lost by the age of fourteen Branching off the pharynx is the
esophagus, which carries food to your
2. Permanent Teeth – form on the stomach, and your trachea or windpipe,
jaw beneath the primary teeth, which carries air to your lungs.
prepare to erupt
Esophagus
Mastication - Chewing, breaks the food - a foot-long muscular tube
into small particles, increases the surface connecting the pharynx to the
area of the food and thus aids digestion stomach, lies behind the
trachea(windpipe)
General Parts of Tooth - When you swallow, the esophagus
 Crown – the part exposed above takes over and you lose control of
the gums what happens to the food
 Neck – the part at gum line
 Root – anchors the tooth below the Peristalsis
gum - a rhythmic wave of muscular
contractions that forces food down
Layers of Tooth the esophagus and digestive tract
 Pulp – consists mainly of blood - the method by which the food is
vessels and nerves, is the inner moved through all regions of the
part of the tooth digestive tract
 Dentin – the bonelike layer that
surrounds the pulp and forms the Swallowing - is an automatic reflex
bulk of tooth response that occurs when chewed food
 Enamel – a mineral substance that is pushed into the pharynx by the tongue.
covers the crown, is the hardest
substance in the human body Epiglottis
 Cementum collagen fibers and - a small flap of cartilage in the
bonelike structures fastened the pharynx, closes the top of the
root of the tooth inside the gum windpipe as you swallow to
socket prevent food from entering the
respiratory tract
Fluoride - added to drinking water and
toothpaste to make the teeth more Common Causes of Choking
resistant to decay Ions react chemically - Laughing while eating
with the mineral crystals of the teeth, - Consuming excessive amounts of
causing them to become roughly three alcohol while eating
times more resistant to decay. - Allowing children to play with
candy or small objects in their
PHARYNX (THROAT) mouths
- A funnel-shaped cavity at the (Choking Victim: cannot cough, speak,
back of the oral cavity. or breathe)

Have 6 openings:
- Mouth
- Nasal passage
- Two Eustachian tubes
- The opening of windpipe
- The opening of the esophagus
THE STOMACH AND INTESTINES Hydrochloric Acid
STOMACH - softens foods, kills bacteria and
- is a sac-like, J-shaped storage reacts with certain minerals,
structure that has capacity of about making then soluble so they can be
3 pints (6cups) absorbed through the walls of the
- it lies just below the diaphragm in small intestine
the upper part of the abdominal - Provides an acid medium that
cavity pepsin requires to begin the
digestive proteins
- Of all the sections of the
Pepsin - is the most important gastric
gastrointestinal tract, the stomach enzyme, breaks down protein into amino
is the largest in diameter acids
- As part of the alimentary canal, the
stomach is lined by the mucous Gastric Amylase
membrane - Aids in the digestion of starch

Layers of the Stomach Gastric lipase

- One layer of muscle runs the - Aids in the digestion of certain fats
length of the stomach
- Second layer encircles the Intrinsic Factor - A substance bonds to
stomach Vitamin B12, preparing it for absorption
- Third layer is situated diagonally in the small intestine
across the stomach
Chyme - the pulpy acidic fluid which
Peristaltic Contractions passes from the stomach to the small
– mix the food and digestive juices intestine, consisting of gastric juices and
inside the stomach partly digested food.

Hunger Contractions Cardiac Sphincter

– occur when the stomach has been - an area of thickened circular
empty for several hours muscles a valve which allows food
to pass into the stomach
Major Function: To store food and - Prevents food from returning to
release it to the small intestine at the the stomach
required rate Malfunction: Allows gastric juice to
enter esophagus (Heartburn)
(We usually eat much more quickly than
the intestines can digest and absorb food) Pyloric Sphincter
- located at the lower end of the
Functions: To aid in digestion and stomach, keeps food in the
absorbs water, glucose, and few other stomach until the food has been
substances sufficiently mixed with gastric
juice and ready to enter the small
Gastric juice - is a digestive fluid formed intestine
within the stomach lining.
Composed:
- Hydrochloric acid, potassium
chloride, and sodium chloride,
gastric acid plays a key role in
digestion of proteins by activating
digestive enzymes.
 TWO ORGANS THAT ARE NOT
PART OF THE DIGESTIVE TRACT:
1. Liver
2. Pancreas

LIVER - produces a greenish-colored

substance called BILE, which secreted
from the liver and stored in the saclike
gallbladder beneath the liver

Bile Salts - the most important

components of bile help with the
digestion of fats in the small intestine

Emulsification
- The process of increasing the
surface area of fats in the small
intestine by grouping them into
small clusters. This is the
responsibility of bile, a liquid
created by the liver and stored in
the gallbladder.

Common Bile Duct

- a tube that carries bile from the
liver and the gallbladder through
the pancreas and into the
duodenum (the upper part of the
small intestine)

PANCREAS
- produces pancreatic juice and
secretes this juice into small
intestine through pancreatic duct

Pancreatic Juice
- contains several important
enzymes, including:
- pancreatic lipase (digest fats)
- pancreatic amylase
(Digest carbohydrates)
- trypsin, chymotrypsin and
carboxypeptidase (act on proteins)

Sodium Bicarbonate
- produced by Pancreas same as
chemical as household baking soda
neutralizes the hydrochloric acid
secreted by the gastric glands