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PRACTICAL
RESEARCH 2

Q2- MODULE 5 (Week 5)

Statistical Techniques
Compiler/Contextualizer
Reynaldo V. Moral, PhD
MT-1, Don Sergio Osmeňa Sr. MNHS

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 QUARTER 2
MODULE 5- (WEEK 5)
STATISTICAL TECHNIQUES

Content Standard : The learner demonstrates an understanding of

data processing, organizing, and analysis
Performance Standard : The learner shall be able to analyze data with
intellectual honesty using statistical techniques.
Competencies : Plans data collection procedure.
CS_RS12-IIa-g-3
Learning Outcome : 1. Justify the relevance of statistics to research; and
2. Tally or encode research data in preparation for the
statistical treatment.

What I Know

Instructions: Select the letter of the best answer. Use a separate sheet of paper for
your answers.

1. What makes quantitative research different from a qualitative one?

A. Its use of statistics in the treatment of data
B. Its deductive method analysis
C. The establishment of facts and make predictions
D. All of the above

2. What characteristics do quantitative data show?

A. The researcher accumulates because of their quantity
B. They are numerical in nature and have the
property of measurability
C. They possess the element of quantity
D. All of the above

3. What research design in which t-test is used?

A. Case study C. Experimental
B. Descriptive D. Historical

4. Which refers to the tallying and counting of raw data to arrive

at a frequency?
A. Data matrix C. Categorization data
B. Dummy tables D. Tabulation of data

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5. What data matrix which involves three or more variables in a tabular
statistical form?
A. Bivariate C. Trivariate
B. Multivariate D. Univariate

6. Which of the following statistical tools is appropriate to this problem,

“How effective is the teaching of Mr. Suave in Practical Research 2 subject
as perceived by Grade 12 senior high school students?”
A. Percentage C. Variance
B. Standard Deviation D. Weighted Mean

7. What refers to the center most score in the distribution?

A. Mean C. Mode
B. Median D. Weighted mean

8. What will be the median of the following data?

4, 7, 9, 11, 17, 23, 25, 29, 30, 34
A. 19 C. 23
B. 20 D. 25

9. Which statistical tool that shows the extent and manner in which the scores in a
distribution differ from each other?
A. Descriptive Statistics C. Inferential Statistics
B. Correlational D. Variability

10. Which of the following DOES NOT belong to the group if you would like to
determine the significant relationship between two ordinal variables?
A. Chi-square Test of Goodness Fit
B. Chi-square Test of Independence
C. Pearson-Product Moment Correlation
D. Spearman Rank Order Correlation

11. What is the mode of the following scores?

8, 8, 10, 10, 10, 13, 14, 14, 17, 17, 17, 17, 19, 19
A. 15 C. 17
B. 16 D. 19

12. Which analysis is related with descriptive analysis?

A. Bivariate
B. Multivariate
C. Univariate
D. All of the above

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 13. Which analysis is the simultaneous analysis of two variables?
A. Bivariate
B. Multivariate
C. Univariate
D. All of the above

14. What is the correlation coefficient of the Pearson’s r test if there were a
perfect positive correlation between two interval/ratio variables?
A. -0.328 C. +0.328
B. +1 D. -1

15. What is the name of the test that is used to assess the
relationship between two ordinal variables?
A. Chi square
B. Cramer’s V
C. Phi Correlation Coefficient
D. Spearman Rank Order Correlation Coefficient

What I Need to Know

At the end of this lesson, you are expected to:
1. Discuss the commonly used statistical tools in quantitative research;
2. Calculate the measures of central tendency; and
3. Familiarize yourselves with bivariate statistical methods.

What’s In

Instructions: Look at these figures. Do you know what these symbols mean? What
is running through your mind as you examine the things inside the box?

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 What’s New
Statistical Tools
The choice of appropriate statistical tools to be employed is very technical in nature.
You need to carefully examine the statement of the problem and the instruments used
in data-gathering particularly, the measuring scales.

What is statistics? Statistics is a term that pertains to your acts of collecting and
analyzing numerical data. Doing statistics then means performing some arithmetic
procedures like addition, division, subtraction, multiplication, and other
mathematical calculations.

According to Vizcarra (2003), it is a science which deals with the systematic process
of collecting, organizing, classifying, presenting, interpreting and analyzing
qualitative and quantitative data. These processes are useful in coming up with
appropriate conclusions and generalizations on a given problem.

Data collected, organized, classified, tabulated, presented, interpreted, and analysed

is drawn through instruments like tests, questionnaires, checklists, observations, and
interviews. In research undertakings, these instruments are commonly used in data-
gathering.

Branches of Statistics
1) Descriptive Statistics is used to determine the nature of variables without any
attempt to critically compare the extent of relationships or differences with
other variables. The common statistical tools under descriptive statistics are
frequency counting, percentages, ranking, measures of centralities (mean,
median and mode) and measures of variability.

2) Correlational Statistics is used to determine the degree or magnitude of

association between two variables, say, variables X and Y. What is the
association of X with Y; or if the X value exists, what would be the value of Y ?
These are some of the common problems that correlational analysis will
answer.

3) Inferential Statistics is used when an individual is interested in making

inferences on the magnitude of differences of the samples obtained from a large
universe. Usually, the data obtained from the population and treated
accordingly with the use of descriptive statistics is the input data in inferential
statistics like the mean scores of students who take entrance examinations.
According to Pagoso & Garcia in Vizcarra (2003), inferential statistics demands
a higher order of critical judgment and mathematical methods.

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Types of Statistical Data Analysis
1) Univariate Analysis- analysis of one variable
2) Bivariate Analysis- analysis of two variables (independent and dependent)
3) Multivariate Analysis- analysis of multiple relations between multiple
variables

Descriptive Statistics Applied to Practical Research

1) Frequency Distribution. As applied in research is the response of respondents
on a given research problem. It is unorganized information, which the
researcher needs to classify and organize.
2) Percentage. The percentage of a given frequency is obtained by dividing the
frequency with the total number of frequencies or number of populations then
multiplies the quotient by 100. The formula is:

P = f /N x 100

Where: P= percentage
f= frequency
N= total number of frequency/populations

Example: The frequency of age bracket 31-45 of senior high school teachers in a
certain public school out of a total population of 110 is 10. The faculty members
are 9.091% of the total population.
The computation is:
10/110 x 100 = .091 x 100= 9.091%

3) Ranking is used to describe the order of data obtained in a research study. It is

usually arranged from highest to lowest or vice versa. Ranking is simple when
there is no tied data. However, when ties occur, you need to determine their
positions depending on the number of tied data or scores. The ranking is done
this way as shown in Table 7.1 regarding on the type of radio soap operas
listened on human dignity”.
Table 7.1
Frequency Distribition on the Type of Radio Soap Operas
on Human Dignity Being Listened To
Title of Radio Soap Opera Barangay Barangay Frequency Rank
Sirao Guba
Kini Ang Akong Suliran 3 3 6 2
Handuman Sa Usa Ka Awit 3 3 6 2
Kung Ako Ang Pasulti-on 2 4 6 2
What’s The Style? 3 2 5 4.5
Pangkoy Ug Si Estoy 2 3 5 4.5
Diskarte Pre 1 3 4 6
The Ugly, The Uglier, The Ugliest 1 3 3 7
Kasingkasing Samaran 1 1 2 8.5
Ugat ng Kahapon 1 1 2 8.5
Mapaglarong Tadhana 0 1 1 10
Adapted from Moral (2012)

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4) Measures of Central Tendency- indicates the different positions or values of
the items, such that in a category of data, you find an item serving as the:
a. Mean- average of all the items or scores
Example: 3 + 8 + 9 + 2 + 3 + 10 + 3 = 38
38/7= 5.43 (Mean)

b. Median- the score in the middle of the set of items that cuts or divides the
set into two groups.
Example: The numbers in the example for the Mean has 2 as the Median.

c. Mode- refers to the item or score in the data set that has the most
repeated appearance in the set.
Example: Again, in the given example above for the Mean, 3 is the Mode.

5) Measures of Variability. It refers to the extent and way the scores in a

distribution differ from each other.
a. Range. It is the difference between the highest value and the lowest value
in the given distribution.

b. Average deviation. It is the measure of variation that takes into

consideration the deviations of the individual scores from the mean.

c. Variance. It is the square of the standard deviation.

d. Standard Deviation- shows the extent of the difference of the data from the
mean. An examination of this gap between the mean and the data gives you
an idea about the extent of the similarities and differences between the
respondents. There are mathematical operations that you have to do to
determine the standard deviation. Here they are:

Step 1: Compute the mean

Step 2: Compute the deviation (difference) between each respondent’s

answer (data item) and the mean. The plus sign (+) appears before the
number if the difference is higher; negative sign (-), if the
difference is lower.

Step 3: Compute the square of each deviation.

Step 4: Compute the sum of squares by adding the squared figures.

Step 5: Divide the sum of squares by the number of data items to get the
variance.

Step 6: Compute the square root of variance figure to get standard deviation.

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 Example:
Table 7.2
Standard Deviation of the category of the data collected from selected
faculty members of one integrated school.
Data Item (Step 2) (Step 3)
Deviation Square of Deviation
1 -6 36
2 -5 25
6 -1 1
6 -1 1
8 +1 1
6 -1 1
6 -1 1
14 +7 49
16 +9 81
(Step 1) Mean= 7 Total= 196
(Step 4) Sum of Squares= 196
(Step 5) Variance= 196/9= 21.8
(Step 6) Standard Deviation= 4.7

Measures of Correlation Applied to Practical Research

To understand and interpret the results of correlation, the Table 7.3 below
illustrates numerical and descriptive ratings:

Table 7.3
Numerical and Descriptive Meaning of Measures of Correlation
r- value Descriptive Meaning
± 1.00 Perfect Positive or Negative Correlation
± .81- ± .99 Very High Positive or Negative Correlation
± .61- ± .80 Substantial Positive or Negative Correlation
± .41- ± .60 Moderately Positive or Negative Correlation
± .21- ± .40 Low Positive or Negative Correlation
± .01- ± .20 Negligible Correlation
±.0 No Correlation

1) Pearson Product Moment Coefficient of Correlation (Pearson r). This is the

most frequently used test of association or relationship between two variables.
When the data is measured or expressed in ordinal, interval or ratio scales,
this test is appropriate.
Sample Statement of the Problem:
Is there a significant relationship between the grades of senior high school
students in Practical Research 2 and their exit test ratings?

Where:
r – coefficient of correlation
x and y- scores
N- Size of samples

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 Testing the Significance of r when the N or sample is small, the formula is:

t= r /√1- r2 √N-2

Where: t- t-test
N- number of respondents/cases
r- computed r
r2- squared r

2) Phi Coefficient of Correlation. This is used when the variable X and Y are
measured in nominal dichotomous.
Sample Statement of the Problem:
Is there a significant relationship between gender (male or female) and the
choice of professions (white or blue)?

Table 7.4
Contingency Table
Gender
Profession Male Female Total
White 2 (a) 6 (b) 8 (a+b)
Blue 4 (c) 3 (d) 7 (c+d)
Total 6 (a+c) 9 (b+d) 15

ad-bc
=√ (a+b)(c+d)(a+c)(b+d)

Testing the significance of the Phi Coefficient if the sample size is lower than 30, the
can be converted to X2 (Chi Square) by the formula:
X2 = N
Where:
N- Total Population
Phi Coefficient
X2 – Chi Square

If the sample size is greater than 20, Deauna & Reyes in Vizcarra (2003) says that
it may be computed using the formula of z test.

z= √n
3) Spearman’s Rank Order Correlation Coefficient. It is also a special case of
Pearson r and is used when variable X and Y are both measures in an ordinal
scale. It is well suited to situations when the number of cases or population is
25 to 30 or less. This test is also called as non-parametric test.

Sample Statement of the Problem.

How does the number of hours spent for reviewing significantly relate to the
licensure performance?

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 Where: D- difference between ranks and each pair
N- number of population/respondents

Testing the significance of Spearman rank of correlation (r s) by using the t-

test of Spearman with n-2 degrees of freedom.

t= rs √n-2
1- rs 2

Inferential Statistics Applied in Practical Research 2

1. Parametric tests. These tests require a normal distribution. The level of
measurements must either be interval and ratio.
1.1 t-test. This test used to compare two means: the means of two independent
groups or the means of two correlated samples before and after treatment.
It can be used for samples composed of at least 30 elements. For example,
in one group of pretest-post- test design, the researcher administers
pretest before the treatment. After the treatment, the post-test is given.
The results of the pre-test and post- test are compared using the t-test for
correlated means because it involves only one group with two sets of
variables being compared. The formula is as follows:

∑D
t= √ N∑D2 – (∑D)2
N-1
Where:
D = difference from the mean
N = total population
D2 = squared difference from the mean

1.2 Simple linear regression analysis. It is used when there is a significant

relationship between the x and y variables. It is used in predicting the
value of y, given the value of x.

A linear regression line has an equation of the form Y = a + bX, where X

is the explanatory variable and Y is the dependent variable. The slope of
the line is b, and a is the intercept (the value of y when x = 0).

A scatterplot can be a helpful tool in determining the strength of the

relationship between two variables. If there appears to be no association
between the proposed explanatory and dependent variables (i.e., the
scatterplot does not indicate any increasing or decreasing trends), then
fitting a linear regression model to the data probably will not provide a
useful model. A valuable numerical measure of association between two
variables is the correlation coefficient, which is a value between -1 and 1
indicating the strength of the association of the observed data for the
two variables.

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 Source: gopher://jse.stat.ncsu.edu:70/11/jse/data

2. Non-parametric tests. It does not require the normal distribution of scores.

It can be utilized when the data are nominal and ordinal.
2.1 Chi-square test. This is a test of difference between the observed and the
expected frequencies. The chi-square test has three functions:
i. Test of goodness fit. It is a test of difference between the observed
and expected frequencies. Let’s take an example the theory of
Mendel regarding crossing of peas. According to Mendel’s theory,
the yellow color is dominant over green and in terms of skin, smooth
skin is dominant over wrinkled skin. In this case, the theory, the
theory (expected) is compared with the actual experiment
(observed). We use the test of goodness fit by using this formula:

Where: X2 = Chi-square test

Oi = Observed frequencies
Ei = Expected frequencies

ii. Test of homogeneity. It is concerned with two or more samples with

only one criterion variable. This test is used to determine if two or
more populations are homogenous. To illustrate this, we can
evaluate the attitude of Lakas and Laban parties on the issue of
peace and order in Mindanao. To carry out such study, a separate
random sample of members of each party is drawn from the
nationwide population of Lakas and Laban and everyone in both
samples responds to the scale. Scores are the

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 classified into “Favorable” or “Unfavorable” categories. Use the following
formula for a 2X2 contingency table.

X2 = N (ad-bc)2
klmn

Where: X2 = Chi-square test

N = Grand total
klmn = the product of the rows and columns

How to solve the Chi-square test of homogeneity using scientific pocket calculator?

Table 7.5
Party Favorable Unfavorable Total
Lakas 65 (a) 35 (b) 100 (k)
Laban 50 (c) 50 (d) 100 (l)
Total 115 (m) 85 (n) 200 (N)

X2 = N (ad-bc)2
klmn

= 200[(65) (50) – (35) (50)2

(100) (100) (115) (85)

= 200 [3250 – 1750]2

97750000

= 200 (1500) 2
97750000

= 450000000
97750000

X2 = 4.604

iii. Test of independence. The sample used in this test consists of

members randomly drawn from population. This test is used to
investigate which measures are taken or if two criterion variables are
either independent or associated with one in a given population
(Cristobal & Cristobal, 2017).

According to Vizcarra (2003), the chi square test is used to

compare the frequencies obtained in categorized variables, for
instance, occupation of parents and academic performance of their
children. In comparing two or more variables involved in the

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 study, determine the observed or actual frequency and expected
frequency. The differences of all the frequencies in the cells of the
contingency table are equal to zero. This means that there are no
significant relationships or differences. If difference exists, find the
difference between observed and expected frequency and the results
is the chi square value. The formula is:

X2 = ∑ (fo – fe)2
fe
Where:
X2 = Chi square
fo = Observed frequency
fe = Expected frequency
Example:

Ho: There is no significant relationship between the occupation of parents

and the academic performance of their children.

If the computed X2 = 42.94

Locate the degree of freedom (df) using the formula:
df= (k-1) (r-1)
Where: k= columns
r= rows
(4-1) (4-1)
= (3) (3)
df = 9
Compare the obtained chi square value with the critical value
Computed X 2 = 42.94
Critical value at 0.05 level of significance = 16.919 (Refer to Table 7.6)

Interpretation: There is a significant relationship because the computed X 2 value is

higher than the critical value at 0.05 level of significance.
Decision: Reject Ho
Table 7.6
Critical Values of X2 Distribution

Source: https://tinyurl.com/yycc6ybd

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 What’s More

Activity #1
Instructions: Answer the following questions intelligently and concisely. Write your
answer on a separate sheet of paper.
1. Describe a research study that uses statistics.
2. Do non-experimental research methods use statistics, too? Why? Why not?
3. How does bivariate analysis take place?
4. Which research method fits inferential statistics? Give reasons for your
answer.
5. What is the role of hypothesis in statistics?

Activity #2
Instructions: Following the procedure in calculating standard deviation, compute
the standard deviation of the data set in the box. Likewise, give the median and the
mode of the data set. Write your answer on a separate sheet of paper.

Mean:
Sum of Squares:
Variance:
Standard Deviation:

Data Item Deviation Square Deviation

0
0

Median:
Mode:

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 What I Have Learned
Instructions: Rate yourself from 50% to 100% based on the extent of your
understanding of the concepts behind each given topic. Justify your answers based on the
contents from the “What’s New” item of this module. Write your answer on a separate
sheet of paper.

Topic Rating
1. Meaning of Statistics
2. Types of Statistical Data Analysis
3. Descriptive Statistics
4. Measures of Correlation
5. Inferential Statistics

What I Can Do
Instructions: Recall one significant event participated in by you and a big number
of people. Using a bivariate table, categorize the variables in this affair. Remember
that a dependent variable is a variable that changes as a result of the change in the
independent variable. Write your answer on a separate sheet of paper.

Independent Variable Dependent Variable

Assessment
Instructions: Select the letter of the correct answer. Use a separate sheet of paper

1. What is a branch of mathematics dealing with the collection, analysis,

interpretation, and presentation of masses of numerical data?
A. Algebra C. Geometry
B. Calculus D. Statistics

2. What method of research where an investigator manipulates one or more factors

(independent variables) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process
(the dependent variable)?
A. Case Study C. Experiments
B. Correlational D. Observational

3. Which type of Chi Square that is concerned with two or more samples
with only one criterion variable?
A. Test of Good Fit C. Test of Independence

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 B. Test of Homogeneity D. Test of Variability

4. Which type of correlation is used when the variable X and Y are measured
in nominal dichotomous?
A. Chi square C. Phi Coefficient Correlation
B. Pearson r D. t-test

5. Which is refers to the input variable?

A. Dependent variable
B. Independent variable
C. Moderating variable
D. All of the above

6. What statistical treatment will be used to determine the extent of difference

between the performances of senior high school students in Practical Research 2
when classified as to gender?
A. Correlational C. Inferential
B. Descriptive D. Ranking

7. What is the best research design to be used in this study “Attitudes of Mango
Farmers towards Organic Fertilizers”?
A. Descriptive C. Experimental
B. Ethnographic D. Historical

8. What appropriate measures of correlation to be used in comparing

between Social Science and Mathematics Achievements of Senior
High School Students?
A. Pearson r C. Point Biserial
B. Phi Coefficient D. Spearman rho

9. Which correlation is the strongest?

A. -1.00 C. +80
B. -60 D. +05

10. What is the purpose of descriptive statistics?

A. To draw conclusions from the data
B. To identify the significant trend of the variables
C. To summarize the characteristics of a data set
D. None of the above

11. What are numerical data?

A. Categorical data that has no order
B. Data that are numbers
C. Numerical data that take any value in a given range
D. Numerical data that take on a limited number of values

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 12. What is the information about individuals in a population?
A. Census C. Parameter
B. Data D. Statistics

13. What type of measurement of central location wherein the data set is the sum of the data
entries divided by the number of entries?
A. Mean C. Mode
B. Median D. Range

14. Which word means the middle of the data?

A. Mean C. Mode
B. Median D. Range

15. How do you find range?

A. Add all the numbers and divide
B. Find the middle
C. It is the highest number
D. Subtract the highest and lowest value

Additional Activity
Instructions: Use X2 test at 0.05 level of significance to test the null hypothesis
that there is no significant difference between the opinion of male and female adults
on the issue of ceasefire between the government and the NPA. Write your answer
on a separate sheet of paper.

Ceasefire
Gender Yes No Total
Male 18 7 25
Female 20 5 25
Total 38 12 50

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 References

Books

Baraceros, E.L. (2016). Practical Research 2 (First Edition). Quezon City: Rex
Bookstore.

Broto, A.S. (2008). Nonparametric Statistics (With Computer-Aided Solutions).

Mandaluyong City: National Book Store.

Calmorin, L.P. & Calmorin, M.A. (2007). Research Methods and Thesis Writing
(Second Edition. Manila: Rex Book Store.

Canlapan, R.B. (2016). Statistics and Probability. Makati City: Diwa Learning
Systems Inc.

Chico, A.M. & Matira, M.D. (2016). Practical Research for the 21st Century Learners
(Quantitative Research). Sampaloc, Manila: St. Augustine Publications, Inc.

Cristobal, A.P. & Cristobal, M.C. (2017). Practical Research for Senior High School 2.
Quezon City: C&E Publishing, Inc.

Moral, R.V. (2012). Cultural Diversity, Attitudes, and Values of Radio Soap Opera
Listeners. Unpublished Master’s Thesis. Cebu Normal University.

Vizcarra, F.O. (2003). Introduction to Educational Research. Quezon City: Great

Books Trading.

Websites

http://www.stat.yale.edu/Courses/1997-
98/101/linreg.htm#:~:text=A%20linear%20regression%20line%20has,y%20when%
20x%20%3D%200).

https://www.google.com/search?q=critical+values+of+chi+square+distribution&tb
m=isch&ved=2ahUKEwioyKiI5rvtAhVDU5QKHVDVCdMQ2-

https://quizizz.com/admin/quiz/5d9cd47ce3abcf001a90b03b/psychology-
research-methods-and-statistics

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