Cerema's "Connaissances" series

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CLIMAT & TERRITOIRES DE DEMAIN
Cerema
CLIMAT & TERRITOIRES DE DEMAIN

This series presents the state of knowledge at a given time and provides information on a subject, without
being exhaustive. It provides an update on professional knowledge and practices, including new technical or
methodological approaches. It is designed for professionals wishing to maintain and further their knowledge
of constantly changing technical fields. The information presented may be considered recommendations but
The Resilience of the Indonesian Coastline
does not have the status of validated references. to Natural Hazards
Semarang and subsidence
The Resilience of the Indonesian Coastline to Natural Hazards
Semarang and subsidence
Coastlines are fragile areas exposed to natural hazards. They may be intensely disrupted by both rapidly
developing urbanisation and the effects of climate change. This publication presents the case of the Indonesian
urban area of Semarang, located on the shores of the Java Sea.
The Semarang coastline is unusual in that it is exposed to very active subsidence which can cause the ground
to sink by up to 13 cm per year.
Cerema has carried out an analysis in collaboration with Diponegoro University - Undip (Indonesia) to identify
the processes at work. The work produced was supported by the French Embassy in Indonesia and the
ministries of research and foreign affairs of both countries. By applying the concept of resilience, a path is
opening up in the search for appropriate responses.
The publication is fully illustrated, and contains contributions from scientists and experts who have engaged in
practical work in Semarang in different contexts, thus bringing their own vision to the analysis of the situation.

On the same subject:

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Crises redoutées, résiliences escomptées et étapes à franchir (2018)
En téléchargement gratuit sur www.cerema.fr

Territoires résilients
Six leviers d’actions pour bâtir votre stratégie (2018)
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Country planning for regional cohesion - Town planning and urban strategies - Energy transition and climate - Environment and natural
resources - Risk mitigation - Well-being and pollution mitigation - Mobility and transport - Transport infrastructure - Sustainable buildings.

ISSN: 2417-9701
ISBN: 978-2-37180-475-3

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Connaissances | Series
The Resilience of the Indonesian
Coastline to Natural Hazards
Semarang and subsidence
Connaissances Series

This collection presents the state of knowledge at a given time and provides information on a subject,
without being exhaustive. It provides an update on professional knowledge and practices including
new technical or methodological approaches. It is designed for professionals wishing to maintain
and deepen their knowledge of constantly changing technical fields. The information presented may be
considered as recommendations but does not have the status of validated references.

This work, a collective work by Cerema, is the fruit of scientific and technical collaboration between
Cerema (France) and the Diponegoro University of Semarang (Indonesia) conducted from 2013 to 2018.

Editing was provided by:

Bernard Guézo, Agnès Foultier, Geneviève Rul - Cerema, France;
in collaboration with: Dr Ita Widowati, Dr Jusup Suprijanto, Dr Muhammad Helmi - UNDIP Diponegoro
University, Indonesia.
This work has also benefitted from the contributions of: Richard Cantin, teacher-researcher at the
National School for State Public Works (ENTPE, École Nationale des Travaux Publics de l'État)
Gilles Hubert, professor at the University of Paris-Est Marne-la-Vallée, Julien Birgi, project director at
Bordeaux Métropole, Anne Urdiroz, commercial manager at TRE Altamira, Fifame Koudogbo, Project
engineer at TRE Altamira, Clara Villar, engineer at Cerema.

The project partners were:

– Joël Le Bail, the French Institute in Indonesia’s attaché for university, scientific and technical cooperation,
French Embassy in Indonesia (until 2014);
– Nicolas Gascoin, attaché for scientific and technological cooperation in Indonesia, French Embassy in
Indonesia (since 2014).

French participants in the missions to Semarang, Indonesia were:

– Bernard Guézo, Clara Villar, Geneviève Rul, Agnès Foultier – Cerema, (2013 à 2017);
– Laurent Guerry, Somme Basin Reclaiming and Development Mixed Syndicate (AMEVA, Aménagement
et Valorisation du Bassin de la Somme), Nicolas Farges and Richard Cantin, ENTPE, (2015).

The Rector of Diponegoro University, Dr Yos Johan Utama, SH., M. Hum, and the French Ambassador
for the Climate, Philippe Lacoste, deputy special representative for the 2015 Paris Climate Conference,
co-chaired the seminar on the city of Semarang resilience, as part of the Cerema mission in October 2015.

The editors would like to thank the reviewers:

Julien Birgi, project director, Bordeaux Métropole;
Christine Cabasset, researcher, Institute for Research on Contemporary Southeast Asia (IRASEC, Institut
de recherche sur l'Asie du Sud-Est contemporaine);
Sébastien Froment, research officer for technical innovations in building, Cerema;
Arnaud Ganaye, director of development and territorial resilience research, Cerema;
Laurent Guerry, head of the Floods Cluster at the AMEVA Mixed Syndicate;
Boris Leclerc, deputy departmental head for hydraulic hazards and development, Cerema;
Michel Pieyre, director of sustainable development, research and long-term forecasting project at
theHérault Departmental Council;
Benoît Ronez, Europe project officer, Cerema;
Clara Villar, head of the Plan Rhône cluster, Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes Regional Directorate for
Environment, Development and Housing (DREAL, Direction régionale de l'environnement, de
l'aménagement et du logement);
Dr Ita Widowadi, head of the Diponegoro University International Office.

How to cite this work:

Cerema. Résilience du littoral indonésien aux risques naturels. Semarang et la subsidence. Bron:
Cerema, 2019. Collection: knowledge. ISBN: 978-2-37180-475-3 (pdf)

Unless otherwise stated, the photographic, diagram, illustration credits belong to Cerema.
 3

Prefaces

According to the latest IPCC report, climate change will have a very significant impact on coastal systems, with a
multiplication of submersion, flooding and coastal erosion phenomena. In a context of demographic growth,
economic development and coastal urbanisation, the question of the resilience of these territories to natural risks
becomes acute.

Cerema’s cooperation with Diponegoro University (Faculty of Marine Sciences) in Indonesia highlights the challenge
of climate change in the specific case of the municipality of Semarang’s coastline which is particularly vulnerable to
subsidence. This work has enabled significant progress to be made in understanding the harmful interactions that occur
on coasts between urbanisation processes and the physical phenomena which cause the natural hazards to happen.
Beyond the specific case of Semarang, which justifies the implementation of a resilience approach, other Indonesian
and also French urban contexts can then benefit from these reflections in order to anticipate the challenges posed by
the development of coastal cities confronted with effects of climate change, for example in terms of rising sea levels.

This scientific cooperation forms part of the more institutional one between the Ministry for an Ecological and
Inclusive Transition (MTES, Ministère de la Transition écologique et solidaire) and the Indonesian Ministry of Public
Works and Housing (MPWH). The work done by Cerema and Diponegoro University was presented at Cerema, in Lyon
on 22 February 2019, during the session of the joint Franco-Indonesian working group on sustainable urban
development. They were received favourably by the Indonesian delegation chaired by Mrs Anita Firmanti Eko Susetyowati,
Secretary General of the MPWH.

Furthermore, this work, I hope, will provide useful input for the feasibility study piloted by the French Development
Agency (AFD, Agence française de développement) on Semarang, pilot city appearing in the Indonesian "Ecodistrict"
programme. The first conclusions should have been made by the end of 2019.

I express the wish that a Franco-Indonesian dynamic might be engaged to bring together the necessary conditions
for putting a subsidence observatory in place on the coastal strip of Semarang as the first stage of a more global
territorial resilience approach. This observatory is a pragmatic step that enables bringing together public and private
players in order to give strategic direction to urban development and produce actions contributing to the resilience
of the Semarang territory.

Virginie Dumoulin-Wieczorkiewicz,
Director of the European and International Affairs Delegation
(DAEI, Délégation aux affaires européennes et internationales)
Ministry for an Ecological and Solidary Transition
 4 prEfaces

Cerema's file on the Indonesian coastline’s resilience to natural hazards, applied here to the case of Semarang,
illustrates the dynamism of the scientific and technical cooperation between France and Indonesia. It summarises
several years of work carried out jointly between the Centre for Studies and Expertise on Hazards, the Environment,
Mobility and Planning (CEREMA, Centre d’études et d’expertise sur les risques, l’environnement, la mobilité et
l’aménagement) and Semarang’s Diponegoro University (UNDIP).

The subject of the Indonesian coastline’s vulnerability to natural hazards is a complex and sensitive one in the
particular context of climate change. It justifies the support provided by the French Institute in Indonesia to the
partnership put in place between the two organisations, and also the support for the work done coming from the
French Hubert Curien Programme for International Cooperation (PHC, Partenariats Hubert Curien) in its Indonesian
Nusantara component. This programme is carried out by the Ministry for Foreign Affairs and by the Ministry for
Higher Education, Research and Innovation (MEsRI, Ministère de l’Enseignement supérieur, de la Recherche et
de l’Innovation) to promote the mobility of scientists engaged in bilateral research. It is implemented in Indonesia
by the Ministry of Higher Education, Research and Technology (RISTEKDIKTI).

The work done at Semarang has brought to light the direct links which exist between urban development and natural
physical phenomena with harmful effects. These relationships justify a broader overall approach to development
than at the level of the individual project. The results of the analyses and proposals made were shared with local
players, chiefly as part of the seminar held on 7 October 2015 at UNDIP under the aegis of the rector and the French
Climate ambassador, in the context of the preparations for COP 21.

The work presented here does not constitute an end in itself. It puts forward an initiative to be taken which can unite
Indonesian players, at different territorial levels, on taking coastal issues into account in urban development. This
can be done by collective action, by mobilising expertise which is primarily local, while supplementing it where
necessary with the support of experts who could come from other geographical locations.

In any case, France is capable of supporting initiatives for Indonesian territorial resilience to natural hazards, whether
on the coast of Semarang and neighbouring municipalities within the Province of Central Java, or on other Indonesian
coasts also facing development issues.

Hopefully, as a first step, Cerema and UNDIP's proposal to create a subsidence observatory on the urbanised coastal
strip of Semarang will get a favourable response from our Indonesian friends and the financial support necessary
also to put it into action.

Nicolas Gascoin,
Attaché for scientific and technological cooperation,
French Embassy in Indonesia
 PR E FAC E S 5

The scientific and technical collaboration between Diponegoro University and Cerema is a fruitful one. It extends
the more conventional scientific collaboration that Diponegoro University has been rolling out over many years
with French universities and top colleges, with the constant support of the French Institute in Indonesia.

The subject of study here is important since it involves analysing and understanding the physical and anthropogenic
phenomena that affect the coast of the Province of Central-Java in its highly urbanised part, within the sensitive
context of climate change. Cerema, vocationally more technical than scientific, brings its skills to spotlight modes
of action that can help resolve the questions raised. The Diponegoro University mobilised mainly the scientific skills
of the Faculty of Fisheries and Marine Sciences which is working on the subject of subsidence.

Within the important context of preparations for COP 21, a significant stage in the work done with Cerema was
the seminar organised at UNDIP on 7 October 2015, in the presence of the French Ambassador for the Climate.
This seminar brought together French and Indonesian partners on this coastal issue. This collaboration with Cerema
also enabled the creation in 2016, within Undip, of a centre dedicated to the study of hazards on the coastal strip.
The aim of this university study centre is to develop prevention and protection actions against all-natural hazards
on the coast.

The resilience approach recommended by Cerema is in line with the guidelines set out by international frameworks
(Climate COP, Habitat III, Sendai Framework). We are collaborating on this subject with Indonesian players and,
in particular, the city of Semarang.

The first stage proposed by Cerema, the creation of an observatory for subsidence and its effects, is a good
way to bring together public and private players around scientific and technical knowledge and to search hard for
satisfactory solutions. It would be useful for the observatory to also be open to the municipalities neighbouring
Semarang which can bring their own experience and have the same needs for a collective response.

Prof. Dr. Yos Johan Utama, SH., M.Hum,

Rector of Diponegoro University
Semarang, Indonesia
6

Foreword for publications translated into foreign languages

The purpose of translated documents and publications is to pass on to non-French speaking readers the
French know-how set out in the original publication, whether this concerns methodologies, tools or best
pratices. Original publications in French are subject to a checking process, which leads to a Cerema
commitment regarding their content. English versions do not undergo the same process, and consequently
carry no Cerema commitment. In the event of differences between the English and the original French
text, the French text serves at the reference.
 7

Table of Contents

Prefaces 3
Foreword 9
General Introduction 11

PART 1
The coast, a space in the process of becoming fragile 12
1. An area distressed by climate change 15
2. An area particularly at risk from urbanisation 17
3. The Indonesian coastline 20
4. Cerema's intervention in Semarang 23

PART 2
Semarang: the challenge of the coastal strip 26
1. A geographical context became a constraint 29
2. Worrying urbanisation dynamics 32
3. Subsidence, a major phenomenon in Semarang 34
4. Other natural phenomena 43
5. From individual action to the mobilisation of players 47

PART 3
Semarang:
towards a territorial resilience methodology 52
1. Resilience: what is it? 55
2. Resilience: responses at different levels 58
3. A territorial resilience project for Semarang 62
4. The coastal strip observatory: a foundation stage 65
5. Different viewpoints from scientists 71

General conclusion 77
Technical annex by Tre Altamira 81
Bibliography 87
Glossary 91
Index of illustrations 93
 9

Foreword

This work deals with the resilience of coastal areas to It is only by mobilising the concept of territorial
natural hazards, drawing on the case of the Indonesian resilience that we can hope to prevent disasters
urban district of Semarang. The intervention of Cerema that are in progress and future ones, as well as limit
in collaboration with Diponegoro University (UNDIP) their negative impacts on communities and activities.
in Semarang in Indonesia over a five year period Resilience must make it possible to provide
(2013-2017) made it possible to grasp – in a specific development of the territory under acceptable
case – the challenges facing coasts, fragile areas by conditions by collectively meeting the challenges
nature, in the context of their urbanisation and it faces, in particular the impact of climate change.
the effects of climate change.
The installation of an observatory of the Semarang
The individual case of the Semarang coastline concerns coastal strip could be a first step towards this
having a subsidence phenomenon, that is to say soil resilience and constitute a precious tool for giving
subsidence, that is particularly active. The urbanisation direction to urban development and taking
dynamics that can be observed on this coast interfere coordinated measures.
with the subsidence and is faced by other natural
hazards (such as submersion, erosion). The project would also bring together local authorities
and all stakeholders, public and private, around
These processes interact with each other and generate the issue of future changes to the coastline.
harmful effects on the quality of life and economic
activities of communities. Cerema is a player able to contribute its support to
Indonesian partners. It can do this by mobilising
The analysis conducted by Cerema and UNDIP its own expertise and by bringing on board, side
shows that sector-specific actions are not enough by side, high-level French expertise meeting the
to halt processes that are harmful to building work. different requirements.

Pascal Berteaud,
Director-General at Cerema
 11

General Introduction

This work by Cerema presents a resilience approach mobilises collective action, that a path can open up
to natural hazards in the Semarang urban district towards the search for appropriate responses.
in Indonesia. Located at the edge of the Java Sea,
this expanding city is exposed to major natural International frameworks (Climate COP, Habitat III
hazards and is faced with developmental issues on Conference, Sendai Framework) recommend
its coastal strip. employing territorial resilience approaches, which
are more efficient than conventional approaches.
The work produced is the fruit of the Franco- Such approaches are ambitious and require major
Indonesian scientific and technical collaboration investment on the part of the various players. For
between Cerema (France) and Diponegoro University Semarang, a first pragmatic step has been proposed
(UNDIP, Indonesia) over five years, between 2013 – the creation of an observatory for the subsidence
and 2017. This collaboration has benefited from and its effects on the urbanised coastal strip. This
the support of the French Embassy in Indonesia observatory has appeared to be a necessary tool for
and from the ministries responsible for Research bringing together public and private players, for
and Foreign Affairs of both countries. giving strategic direction to urban development and
produce actions contributing to territorial resilience.
Generally, the coasts exposed to different human It would be useful for it to also cover the municipalities
and natural influences are fragile spaces. Today, neighbouring Semarang.
they can be greatly disturbed by rapid urban
development and by the effects of climate change. Semarang's case is emblematic of the intensity of
Beyond these common features, each coast presents the subsidence and of its impacts. However, other
specific features requiring individual analysis, coastal territories in south-east Asia and Indonesia
therefore, and is full of lessons for other coasts. are configured in similar ways.

The particular case of the Semarang coast results The first part of the work recalls the general
from its exposure to very active subsidence. This challenges for coastlines as fragile urbanised
phenomenon results in soil subsidence which can spaces, before describing Cerema's on site
reach up to 13 cm per year in certain sectors. It procedural methods, in Semarang, in partnership
interacts with other natural hazards, as well as with Diponegoro University and in connection with
with anthropogenic activity. Subsidence and the the municipality of Semarang. The second part
associated processes generate effects harmful both presents an analysis of the territory highlighting
to economic activities and to the living conditions the challenges that relate to the future of the
of communities. coastal strip. Finally, the third part puts forward
the territorial resilience approach and the principles
Targeted on the coastal strip of Semarang, of a subsidence observatory.
without necessarily being limited to this sector,
the analysis done by Cerema and UNDIP made it The work also benefits from contributions by
possible to identify the processes at work. scientists and experts who have been specifically
Sector-specific actions are not enough to stop involved in different contexts in the territory of
them. It's by applying the concept of resilience, Semarang, thus bringing their own vision to the
which takes into account systemic effects and analysis of the situation.
P A R T 1
 The coast, a space
in the process of becoming fragile

1. An area distressed by climate change

2. An area particularly at risk from urbanisation
3. The Indonesian coastline
4. Cerema's intervention in Semarang
 14 T h e c o a s t, a s pa c e i n t h e p r o c e s s o f b e c o m i n g f r a g i l e

Human societies have always established very • the fitness for habitation of living spaces
close ties with the biophysical components of threatened by the accelerated urbanisation of
their territory. Relationships between societies and the planet: the deterioration of water, air and
their environment can become extremely distressed soil quality…
when transformations occur too rapidly. These
transformations can occur at the very heart of The disasters that occur may be more intense or more
society: demographic changes, changing lifestyles... frequent than in the past. They sometimes take new
They can also affect natural components such as forms or locations. They are violent, causing
the climate, physical environment or ecosystems. immediately observable or progressive damage,
All of these components are subject to changes often with insidious effects.
that are that much stronger because they interact
with each other. It is necessary to pay particular attention to the
territories affected by these global changes. This is
At this start of the third millennium, demographic the case for certain coastlines confronted
growth and the effects of human activity are simultaneously with intense urbanisation and the
causing changes at the planetary level. The effects effects of climate change. The imbalances observed
which are observed at the global and local levels are constitute a challenge for the safety of the public
at least of two orders1 : and human activities. It is, therefore, appropriate to
1 Michel Lussault, • biophysical transformations: the collapse of raise questions about the modalities of these
L’avènement du monde.
Essai sur l’habitation biodiversity, global warming, the exhaustion of imbalances and to inquire into the resilience of
humaine de la Terre,
éd. Seuil, 2013. natural resources, etc.; these territories.
 T h e c o a s t, a s pa c e i n t h e p r o c e s s o f b e c o m i n g f r a g i l e 15

An area 1
distressed by climate change
The coast is a space which is both particularly 1.2. Specific physical phenomena
exposed to natural phenomena and attractive to
people. Nowadays, this type of space is among the There are several different physical phenomena
most at risk from the effects of climate change. which affect the coast, sometimes to the detriment
It is also subject to the spread of urbanisation in of its fitness for habitation. They can be of global
the context of increasing international trade and or local origin, of vast or restricted extent,
globalisation. These changes may lead to situations permanent or temporary. The main physical
of local concern in terms of fitness for habitation phenomena interacting with urbanisation should
and exposure to natural disasters. be presented here.

Marine transgression is defined as the lasting

1.1. The coast: invasion of coastal areas by the sea, due to land
an area fragile by nature mass subsidence or a general rise in sea levels.
Depending on the geomorphological configuration,
The coast is a natural area that is both rich and fragile. the sea can invade the earth for kilometres. Marine
It is defined at the fluctuating interface of three transgression then affects vast stretches of natural,
environments – the terrestrial, the maritime and the agricultural or potential urban land.
atmospheric – which are in a state of interaction with
each other. It is influenced in particular by geology, The retreat of the coastline occurs when the
geomorphology, hydrology, hydro-geology, ecosystems, coast is made up of geological formations subject
climatology. The areas of land which constitute it are to erosion. It particularly affects infrastructure or
more or less subject to erosion, more or less stabilised. buildings in the immediate vicinity of the sea
constructed at a time when the possibility of
Bodies of water from the ocean finish their course coastline retreat was not envisaged.
there. These are dynamic. They can respond to different
cycles like the cycle of the tides whose amplitude varies Marine submersion corresponds to the temporary
periodically. They can experience brutal fluctuations invasion of land by the sea during storms or
during storm episodes with greater or lesser intensities hurricanes. It is particularly marked when these
and progressive changes like, for example, rising sea climatic events occur during periods of high sea
levels and changes in direction of the currents. level. Marine submersion affects low-lying areas
and particularly the polders, that is to say land
The coast is also wrestling with atmospheric air developed below sea level, protected from attack
masses which alter marine phenomena, shape by the sea by dikes which are at risk of being
landforms and influence sediment mobility. submerged or breaking.
 16 T h e c o a s t, a s pa c e i n t h e p r o c e s s o f b e c o m i n g f r a g i l e

Subsidence is a phenomenon of compaction of at 1.7 mm per year. The scenarios put forward by
loose water-saturated sedimentary ground, which the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
is particularly compressible. It results in a gradual (GIEC, Groupe d'experts intergouvernemental sur
lowering of the ground level and particularly affects l'évolution du climat) forecast a rise in sea levels at
the alluvial deltas. This slow natural process is the end of the century going from 0.55 m to 0.82 m,
sometimes greatly accelerated by human actions. depending on the measures taken to reduce
greenhouse gas emissions. However, researcher
2 A study which came out Coastal ecosystems, arable land and inland Christine Cabasset (Irasec) is working on more
in May 2019, confirming
the results of other freshwater can be contaminated with sea-salt. pessimistic scenarios with regard to the rise in
previous studies, revises
the forecasts upwards The soils become unusable for agricultural sea levels2.
in light of the Greenland
and Antarctic ice sheets purposes and the water table unfit for consumption.
melting faster, which
has combined with Excess sedimentation also impacts the quality of This phenomenon modifies sea currents, the
the effects of global
warming in the strict sense. natural environments and how hydro-systems direction of swell as well as sedimentary exchange.
In a global warming
business-as-usual function. The mangrove, a natural barrier, is then These progressive changes reshape the coastlines
scenario, "it is plausible
that sea levels could impaired and no longer plays its protective role and produce marine transgression. Nearly two thirds
exceed two meters
by 2100. That could against ocean currents. of the sandy coasts worldwide are eroding, whilst
lead to land loss of
1.79 million km2,
most estuaries are filling up. The frequency of
including land important
for agricultural production,
Finally, the interactions between marine and storms or their intensities are destined to increase,
and the displacement
of 187 million people",
inland waters should be noted. In fact, strong exposing coasts to greater climatic instabilities
in Bamber et al.,
Ice sheet contributions
tides aggravate inland flooding by hampering than in the past.
to future sea-level rise the evacuation of river water.
from structured expert
judgment, Proceedings Climate change acting on a global scale is thus a
of the National Academy
of Sciences, 2019, p. 5. Climate change causes the above-mentioned powerful vector for coastal transformation. It poses
Source: Christine Cabasset,
"Le tourisme en Indonésie, physical phenomena or amplifies them. Thus, the a major challenge to which human beings must
un enjeu local et national
en quête de gouvernance", physical expansion of water bodies and the respond without delay. Simultaneously, growing
in R. Madinier (dir.),
Indonésie contemporaine, melting of mountain glaciers or polar ice sheets urbanisation is another powerful factor in coastal
Irasec - Les Indes Savantes,
Bangkok-Paris, 2016. produce an overall rise in mean sea level estimated transformation which should be considered carefully.
 T h e c o a s t, a s pa c e i n t h e p r o c e s s o f b e c o m i n g f r a g i l e 17

An area 2
particularly at risk from urbanisation
The maritime environment has always been Seoul (25.4 million), Bombay (24.3 million), Shanghai
conducive to human activities. The sea is a source (24.2 million), Manila (24.2 million), New York
of economic wealth for coastal populations. It (23.7 million) and Lagos (21.7 million). Only Delhi
harbours food supplies. In addition, low-lying coasts (26.5 million inhabitants) and Cairo (22.9 million)
are favourable to the construction of habitats and are truly inland cities.
roads, provided that they are protected by defensive
works and are located at sufficient distance from Beyond big global metropolises, the population is
the shore exposed to the effects of swells. concentrated on the coastal areas already
impacted by climate change. Today 15 to 20%
of the world's population lives less than 15 km
2.1. Coastal urbanisation from a sea shore. This urban pressure causes an
and its effects artificialisation of the coastline to the detriment
of natural environments which affects the rich
Ever since Antiquity, economic exchanges have biodiversity in particular. By developing in areas
developed in particular by maritime or river routes subject to disturbing physical phenomena
over greater and greater distances. Maritime accentuated by the effects of climate change,
exchanges require structured human settlements urbanisation is exposed to major risks.
near the shoreline, ensuring:
• the concentration and export of local products; More or less virtuous co-evolutions have been
• the import and distribution of materials or constructed over time between human settlements
goods that cannot be produced locally. and coastal areas. Today, however, global population
growth and a rapid urbanisation process are
The coasts are also places of transit and residence producing imbalances which are putting these
for communities. coastal territories under stress.

Port cities are among the most developed cities in

the history of civilisations. Admittedly, the recent 2.2. Fitness for habitation
rise of land transport infrastructure has enabled the threatened by slow
emergence of active metropolises inland, not limited and continuous processes
by fluvial and maritime geography. However, today
as yesterday, a country without a coastal seaboard In the world, certain coastal territories are
is then in a landlocked situation which is debilitating affected by slow kinetic processes which point to
for its development. a disastrous evolution for communities. Island
regions such as the Fiji Islands, north of New
Nowadays, therefore, the vast majority of the most Zealand, or the Pacific atolls are threatened,
populated urban areas in the world have a seafront: therefore, with partial or even total disappearance
Tokyo (42.8 million inhabitants), Jakarta (31.7 million), due to rising sea levels.
 18 T h e c o a s t, a s pa c e i n t h e p r o c e s s o f b e c o m i n g f r a g i l e

In Senegal, the Barbary Tongue which separates In mainland France, Aquitaine is one of the regions
the Senegal river from the ocean is also threatened most vulnerable to coastal erosion. Depending on
with disappearance. The city of Saint-Louis in the place, a decline in the coastline of around 100
Senegal is exposed to episodes of submersion while to 300 metres has been recorded over a century.
agricultural land is affected by salinisation. And as for the rocky Normandy coasts, they are
subject to strong erosion accentuated by landslides
of swathes of the cliff face.

The subsidence phenomenon affects more than

150 sites around the world. Most of them are
located in coastal areas3. Large cities such as
Shanghai in China, Jakarta in Indonesia or
Bangkok in Thailand are affected by this natural
phenomenon, amplified by full-speed ahead
urban development. Thus, Bangkok’s urbanisation is
intensifying, while the city is located on the
1. Barbary Tongue threatened by rising sea levels (Senegal).
Chao Praya river delta below sea level. In some
Located in the Thames estuary, London is asking sectors, land is sinking by 5 cm per year leading
itself about the medium-term consequences of to fears in the medium term for the immersion of
rising sea levels. The Thames Barrier, the second part of the city. Bangkok was very badly impacted
largest marine protection barrier in the world, by the 2011 floods as the flow of water coming
originally designed to give a level of protection from the north had difficulty draining towards
that would only be exceeded every thousand years, the sea, even though the economic and financial
even with constant adjustment, will have to accept centre was spared by the protective dikes that
breaches far more frequently. were erected for kilometres.

3 Source: DWI Sarah Dwi

et al., “A Physical Study
of the Effect of
Groundwater Salinity
on the Compressibility
of the Semarang-Demak
Aquitard, Java Island”,
Géosciences, 2018, 8, 130;
doi:10.3390/
geosciences8040130. 2. Bangkok (Thailand), 2011. An international metropolis which is sinking into the sea. Source: B. Guézo.
 T h e c o a s t, a s pa c e i n t h e p r o c e s s o f b e c o m i n g f r a g i l e 19

The environmental organisation Climate Central has local populations and western tourists, especially
established a list of 90 cities that will be badly in Thailand.
impacted by an increase in the number and
severity of floods. Among them is, for example, A few months later, on 28 August 2005, Hurricane
the small North American town of Atlantic City Katrina ravaged the coasts of New Orleans in
(40,000 inhabitants), located in an island setting the United States. Urbanisation is developed
on New Jersey's Atlantic coast. This city is there as a polder, at a level of 6 metres below
already experiencing recurrent marine flooding. sea level. The levees had broken. The number of
The distress of the inhabitants faced with these victims was estimated at 2,000 people, while
phenomena is further accentuated by the town’s 140,000 were displaced. The disaster mainly
economic difficulties. affected the poor.

On the other hand, some countries which have In the south of Bangladesh, living between the arms
had large-scale disasters have learnt to deal with of the sea, rivers and streams, the population suffers
coastal dynamics and their dangers. This is the from tidal waves and floods during the hurricane
case in the Netherlands, which has developed seasons. Following the cyclone of 29 April 1991,
a global policy of protection against marine which claimed more than 138,000 victims and
floods following the trauma of the storm of created 10 million refugees, measures were taken
1 February 1953 which resulted in more than such as the construction of shelters in order to protect
1,800 victims. Developments due to climate change the people. They have shown their effectiveness
are pushing the country to completely revisit its during the latest cyclones.
development policy.
On the night of 27-28 February 2010, storm
Xynthia swept across Europe. In France, the
2.3. The most recent disasters storm particularly impacted the Atlantic coastline.
This event claimed 53 victims, of whom 47 were on
In recent years, several major disasters have the coastal strip, with a lot of property damage.
marked coastal populations and caused significant
damage to property and activities. They reflect On 11 March 2011, a tsunami occurred along the
the sensitivity of coastlines in the context of their Pacific coast of Tohoku in Japan. This earthquake,
growing urbanisation and climate change. which was felt over 600 km of coastline, claimed
more than 18,000 victims and caused a large-scale
The most emblematic disaster is the Indian nuclear disaster. It deeply impacted the local
Ocean tsunami of 26 December 2004. It struck population and also the world economy.
mainly the north of the island of Sumatra in
Indonesia, the coasts of Sri Lanka, the south of In September 2017 in the Caribbean, storm Irma
India and the west of Thailand. This tsunami followed a trajectory touching a string of coastal
claimed more than 200,000 lives, most of whom territories in the Antilles until it hit the coast of
were in the province of Aceh, in the north of Florida. The death toll came to nearly 130 with
the island of Sumatra, Indonesia. It impacted more than a thousand displaced people.
 20 T h e c o a s t, a s pa c e i n t h e p r o c e s s o f b e c o m i n g f r a g i l e

3 The Indonesian coastline

Located on the "Ring of fire" in Southeast Asia, Bounded by the Indian Ocean in its southern
on both sides of the equator, Indonesia is a and southwestern part and by the Pacific Ocean
country particularly touched by coasts becoming in its northern and northeastern part, this vast
fragile in a context of population growth and archipelago includes many inland seas such as
climate change. The most recent disasters, the the Java Sea, the Banda Sea, the Celebes Sea
tsunami of 28 September 2018 that devastated and the Molucca Sea.
Palu area on Sulawesi, and the Sunda Strait one
on 23 December 2018, demonstrate how acute Indonesia's relief is determined by its location at
the problem is. the convergence of three tectonic plates in
subduction: the Pacific plate, the Eurasian plate
and the Australian plate. This results in high
3.1. The geographical context levels of volcanic activity, which is the cause of
many of the landforms. The country has about
Indonesia is an archipelago made up of more 150 still active volcanoes, located along the
than 17,000 islands of which around 6,000 are Pacific Ring of Fire and with higher terrain that
inhabited. Stretching over more than 5,000 km, it can exceed 3,000 metres. The highest point, of
totals more than 50,000 km of different types of non-volcanic origin, is Puncak Jaya in Papua at
coastline: sandy beaches or rocky coast, with or 4,884 meters, which is higher than Mont Blanc in
without mangroves. It is structured around the Europe. The volcanic landforms are interspersed
large islands of Sumatra, Java, Borneo with deep valleys carved out by waterways, leading
(Kalimantan for the Indonesian part), Sulawesi to vast plains by the sea, the biggest being located
and New Guinea (Papua for the Indonesian part). in Java, Sumatra and Kalimantan.

3. Geographical location of Indonesia. From http://www.cartograf.fr

 T h e c o a s t, a s pa c e i n t h e p r o c e s s o f b e c o m i n g f r a g i l e 21

Indonesia has two types of climates with big Because of its geographical, physical and human
contrasts between the islands: characteristics, Indonesia is exposed to many natural
• a tropical climate, with an alternating wet hazards: volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, landslides,
season from October to April characterised by floods and tsunamis.
heavy precipitation (winter monsoon) and dry
season from May to October;
• an equatorial climate with no variation in 3.2. The vulnerability
temperature or rainfall, humid all year round. of the Indonesian coast
Annual precipitation varies between 2,000 and The Indonesian coast is locally very urbanised. The
3,000 millimetres at low altitude. The highest main economic cities are located on the coast, like
rainfall is located in the mountainous regions Jakarta or Surabaya. The coastlines are made fragile
near the equator and on the landforms on the west by demographic growth and the development of
coast of Sumatra, to the west of Java, Kalimantan, activities which are concentrated there, furthermore
Sulawesi and Papua. They can reach values of in the context of climate change.
6,000 millimetres. Humidity is often very high, in
the region of 80%. The average annual temperature The extended length of urbanised coast makes
does not vary much, while the temperature Indonesia very sensitive to the effects of climate
gradient between the plain and the mountain is change. Coastal areas are particularly at risk from a
high. In Jakarta, on the island of Java, the daily rise in sea levels, but also to rapid variations in
average is between 26°C and 30°C. meteorological phenomena such as storms which
can change course and precipitation which can
Agriculture benefits from favourable overall soil intensify or, conversely, become scarce.
conditions. Volcanic eruptions have fertilised the
soil with large deposits of ash in the lowlands. Coastlines are particularly sensitive to natural hazards.
The immense green plains and plateaus and Inland flooding is particularly common there. Greater
the terraced hills have allowed agriculture to magnitude earthquakes occur on the Indian Ocean
develop which enables food provision to the seaboard. This sea board is also the most exposed to the
people on the densely populated islands, such as tsunamis which can result from such earthquakes.
Java and Bali. The December 2004 tsunami off the north coast of
Sumatra remains in the collective memory.
Indonesia is the 4th most populous country in the
world with more than 260 million inhabitants In 2006, on Java, another tsunami caused
(according to 2017 data). This big and rapidly 343 deaths on the south coast. In August 2018,
increasing population gives it very high urban a deadly earthquake on the island of Lombok led
growth, among the highest in the world. Located in to the evacuation of tourists from the little Gili
the far north-west of the island of Java, the capital Islands. The earthquake of 28 September 2018
Jakarta has thus become, in a few decades, the third followed by a tsunami devastated Palu, a town on
largest urban area on the planet, with 31.7 million Sulawesi, resulting in more than 2,000 deaths and
inhabitants. Other urban areas are following this 5,000 missing.
progression like Surabaya, located on the east coast
of the island of Java, which has exceeded 10 million Recently, an eruption of the Krakatoa (or Krakatau)
inhabitants, or Bandung (8.5 million inhabitants), volcano occurred in the Sunda Strait, a few
in the west of Java. kilometres from the west coast of the island of Java.
 22 T h e c o a s t, a s pa c e i n t h e p r o c e s s o f b e c o m i n g f r a g i l e

It was followed by a tsunami on 23 December 2018 According to 2015 data, Java is even the most
that struck the coastal area of the Sunda Strait, populated island in the world with 145 million
killing 430 people and causing serious damage to inhabitants. Its population density is high, with
buildings and infrastructure. This tsunami reminds nearly 1,000 inhabitants per square kilometre. It is
us once again of how acute the problem posed by composed of six provinces: Banten, West Java,
urbanised coastlines is. Central Java, East Java, along with Jakarta, the
capital of Indonesia, and Yogyakarta which have
Other slower coastal phenomena, like the rise in the status of special territory.
sea levels and subsidence, that is to say the
gradual drop in the ground level, greatly impact West Java and East Java are dominated by big
people’s quality of life and the economies of the metropolises: Jakarta and, to a lesser extent,
coastal areas. Even without causing deaths, the Bandung on one side and Surabaya on the
manifestations of these phenomena can prove to other. Central Java is distinguished by an urban
be damaging, as the case of Semarang shows. structure made of a triangle of secondary cities,
of comparable power: Semarang, Yogyakarta and
Surakarta.
3.3. Semarang's coast
exposed to natural hazards Semarang, capital of the province of Central
Java, is included in the urban area of Kedungsepur
The urban district of Semarang is located on (Kendal-Demak-Ungaran-Semarang-Purwodadi)
the island of Java below the equator, between totalling 7.1 million inhabitants. Covering an area
the 6 th and the 8th parallels. It is the seat of of 374 km², the city is located on the north coast
government of the Province of Central Java. It overlooking the Java Sea. With a very old port
is a densely populated residential area and an infrastructure and structured into districts, this
economic centre, with many industrial and administrative and economic centre which has
service centres. 1.76 million inhabitants (2017) is experiencing major
urban sprawl, a consequence of the demographic
expansion which it has had in recent years.

The Semarang urban district opens onto a coastal

strip that is particularly exposed to natural
hazards. This illustrates the critical situation of
4. Java’s different provinces after X.
From Wikimedia: https://upload.wikimedia.org some highly urbanised coasts in Indonesia and
other parts of the world. The exposure of this
Stretching from east to west over more than coastline to different harmful natural phenomena,
1,000 km, with an area of 128,300 km², the island therefore, calls for research into collective solutions,
of Java is one of Indonesia's main islands for its to limit the impact of these phenomena on the
economic activity and its demographic weight. public and on the area's economy.

5. The city of Semarang (province of Central Java).

 T h e c o a s t, a s pa c e i n t h e p r o c e s s o f b e c o m i n g f r a g i l e 23

Cerema's intervention in Semarang 4

Conducted in partnership with Diponegoro In 2015, in the context of preparations for COP 21
University and in conjunction with the municipality (cf. part 3, Chapter 2.1), UNDIP, the French Embassy
of Semarang (Bappeda), Cerema's intervention in and Cerema organised a seminar in Semarang on
Semarang took place from 2013 to 2017. the problem of the coastal strip, by associating
French partners.
It made it possible to analyse the interactions
between natural phenomena and operating methods Chaired by the rector of UNDIP, Professor Dr Yos
in the area, then to propose a territorial resilience Johan Utama, SH., M. Hum, and by the French
project with the setting up of an observatory. ambassador for the Climate, Philippe Lacoste, this
These five years of collaboration have enabled the seminar was held on 7 October 2015 and validated
territory to adapt, to make the authorities, the principle of a territorial resilience project and
infrastructure managers and developers aware of setting up an observatory.
the effects of their activities and their projects
on their immediate environment.

4.1. Chronology of the interventions

In 2013, the French Institute in Indonesia asked

Cerema for a scientific collaboration with Diponegoro
university, on the phenomenon of subsidence having
an intense impact on the highly urbanised coastal
strip. Cerema then proposed to target its contribution
on understanding the processes at play from physical 6. Professor Dr Yos Johan Utama, SH., M.Hum, rector
of the Diponegoro University and Philippe Lacoste,
analyses of the subsidence phenomenon by UNDIP, French ambassador for the Climate.
both in its extent and in its intensity.
In 2016, as a result of this seminar, UNDIP established
At the time of the Franco-Indonesian collaboration, a center dedicated to the study of hazards on the
the City of Semarang was involved in the global coastal strip called CoREM "Center for coastal
program for 100 resilient cities, provided by the disaster mitigation and rehabilitation studies". This
Rockefeller foundation. This project was more university studies center aims to develop prevention
interested in urban functions and the development and protection actions against all-natural hazards
challenges for the urban district. on the coast and to make them visible.

In 2014, the work done by Cerema and UNDIP had To clarify the resilience project on its coastal strip
the aim of understanding the territory’s systemic observatory component, a Hubert Curien Partnership
functioning, in connection with the disruption was set up between Cerema and UNDIP as part
happening there, of characterising the physical of the Franco-Indonesian Nusantara 2016-2017
phenomena present, of identifying possibilities programme. In France, this programme is carried out by
for limiting them by technical systems. The the Ministry for Foreign Affairs and by the Ministry
professionals concerned and UNDIP students had for Higher Education and Research to promote the
adapted a systemic approach for this. mobility of scientists engaged in bilateral research.
 24 T h e c o a s t, a s pa c e i n t h e p r o c e s s o f b e c o m i n g f r a g i l e

In Indonesia, it is implemented by the Ministry The UNDIP and Cerema partners made technical
of Higher Education, Research and Technology departments and managers associates of their
(Ristekdikti). work during participatory workshops (June 2014).
The meetings established trust-based connections
This Cerema-UNDIP project entitled “Coastal between the different participants. This unprece-
Disaster Mitigation and Rehabilitation Strategy to dented connectivity around the question of the
Strengthen Semarang Urban Resilience” aimed to coastline was the first step towards envisaging
define the observatory specifications, confirming later collaborative work.
the territorial resilience approach.
The aim was to build bridges between UNDIP
In 2018 and 2019, Cerema worked on all of the and local decision-makers in order to move
work done to produce the present summary. from scientific knowledge of natural and
anthropogenic hazards to operational action of
During each mission, Cerema and UNDIP presented necessity collective.
the progress of their reflections on the Semarang
problem together to the city's technical departments, This work enabled identifying the players who
in particular to the office responsible for urban constituted potential resources for action on the
development and planning (Bappeda). future of the coastal strip. They shed light on the
need to articulate the levels of the work: that of
the district, the city and the region (province). They
4.2. Working method also initiated examining the time scales. Scientific
knowledge of the phenomena and modelling
Cerema and UNDIP’s joint approach was very developments do indeed call us to reflect on ways
specific since it aimed to develop resilience of combining short term actions and long-term
dynamics to natural hazards for Semarang actions. This involves setting up tools and places
centred on the challenge to be met on the coast. for sharing knowledge and projects.
It focused on:
• creating a link between scientific knowledge and The workshops have involved local technical
practitioners (sending out and sharing knowledge); departments. The goal of these workshops was
• improving understanding of the phenomena to interconnect the scientific knowledge built up
currently happening on the coastal strip and their by UNDIP, Cerema’s expertise and the knowledge
urban impacts; of local departments. They made it possible to
• identifying the needs of the people impacted: share a more global vision of the questions raised
inhabitants, businesses, functionaries; by the vulnerability of the coastal strip, by
• proposing a project in the sense of a collective completing the partial visions held previously
action involving decision-makers. by the various players.

7. Cerema-UNDIP workshop.
 T h e c o a s t, a s pa c e i n t h e p r o c e s s o f b e c o m i n g f r a g i l e 25

8. First approach to systemic functioning.

This collaboration, then, allowed firstly for offered to the relevant inhabitants. This inquiry
observing and understanding the factors behind confirmed the fear of these coastal inhabitants of
the disruption and their interactions, building the one day having to leave their village, even though
first model of Semarang’s systemic functioning they make a living from fishing and seafood.
with regard to natural hazards and identifying
types of actions that could be undertaken. This first phase of work transcribed again in part 2
of the document, below, served as the basis for
Work in the workshops enabled: organising the seminar on 7 October 2015 which
1. Identifying and characterising the factors involved the decision-makers.
behind the disruption;
2. Qualifying the main issues at stake, in relation to It led to the construction of a territorial resilience
these disturbances; project, one of the first steps of which was the
3. Initiating a frame of reference for the technical creation of a subsidence observatory on the
measures or initiatives already taken; coastal strip. This project is described in part 3
4. Constructing a proposal for a roadmap with of this document.
interconnecting the players as a priority.
The objective was to help local authorities to
A field trip enabled taking the situations of the think about the progression of the physical
fishing villages located beside the Java Sea into phenomenon and the impact on projects
account. At risk from the phenomenon of subsidence, underway on this coastal strip, to take a step
flooding and pollution, their communities, back from the various possible remedial actions
whose activity is linked to the sea, want to stay put. and to integrate them into the framework of a
A questionnaire created by Cerema and UNDIP was global and systemic vision.
P A R T 2
 Semarang :
the challenge of the coastal strip

1. A geographical context became a constraint

2. Worrying urbanisation dynamics
3. Subsidence, a major phenomenon in Semarang
4. Other natural phenomena
5. From individual action to the mobilisation of players
 28 S e m a r a n g : t h e c h a l l e n g e o f t h e c o a s ta l s t r i p

4 Nur Miladan, Communities’ One of Indonesia’s most populous metropolises, Its geography is, however, emblematic of a vulnerable
contributions to urban
resilience process : a case the territory of Semarang is a major administrative coastline with big issues. Targeting the issue of
study of Semarang city
(Indonesia) toward coastal and economic centre on the island of Java. Its natural hazards in relation to this coastal location is
hydrological risk,
architecture, space role was designated as one of supporting therefore necessary if sustainable development is to be
management, doctoral
thesis, Spatial development national development, in particular industrialisation ensured. This is the purpose of the territorial analysis
and town planning,
University of Paris-Est, 2016. and service provision, between 2011 and 2025 4. done by Cerema in connection with local players.
 S e m a r a n g : t h e c h a l l e n g e o f t h e c o a s ta l s t r i p 29

A geographical context became a constraint 1

The Semarang urban district developed in the Bergota, several kilometres back from the current
sedimentary plain between a volcanic landform in coastline. During the Dutch era, the construction of
the south and the Java Sea in the north. canals made it possible to clean up the plain and
develop the city towards the coast. The development
of economic activities and population growth in
recent decades have emphasised urbanisation
dynamics heading towards the coast to the detriment
of mangrove conservation. The urban pressure
exerted on the natural setting, therefore, brings to
light the need to take into account the physical
limits imposed by the geographical setting.

Semarang's territory can be characterised by

three geographical areas that can be distinguished
by their reliefs, their geological formations and
9. Semarang.
associated natural phenomena. From south to north,
It is within this favourable geographical context as shown below, there is a "high part", then a
that a port was established in the XVIIth century in "middle part", and finally, a "coastal strip".

10. Geology and dividing up the three areas of Semarang.

30 S e m a r a n g : t h e c h a l l e n g e o f t h e c o a s ta l s t r i p

South North

A B
Upper area Middle area Coastal margin
1750 m

1500 m

1250 m

1000 m

750 m

500 m

250 m

25 km 20 km 15 km 10 km 5 km

11. Morphological section of Semarang.

Section A-B above represents the topographic Made of weathered formations of volcanic origin
profile of the city of Semarang from south to north. over a great depth, this upper part is subject to
This profile shows a volcanic relief on the foothills landslide phenomena. These impact homes and
of Mount Ungaran which rises to 2,050 metres roads as for example in recent years in Sekaran,
above sea level. In the central part, an uneven Sadeng and Bedan Duwur. Some residents are
topography made up of deep valleys goes before forced to abandon badly damaged houses, others
a very flat alluvial plain to the north as it occupy them in spite of the chaos and the risk
approaches the coast. The city of Semarang involved. The roads impacted by landslides remain
occupies this coastal plain over a width of about open to traffic, for lack of an alternative solution.
10 km. The section shows a relatively short
distance, about 25 km, from the top of the 2 - The middle part
watershed to the city, for a significant drop,
close to 2,000 m. This very uneven and steep Located between the high volcanic reliefs and
topography has a direct impact on the intensity the coastal strip, this part presents a hilly
of the flooding in the city. topography notched by talwegs with relatively
steep slopes. It is occupied by the historic city
1 – The high part and its more recent developments. Important
arteries, densely built residential blocks and
The upper part of Semarang, with hilly reliefs up hydraulic structures inherited for the most part
to an altitude of 425 m and plateaus intersected from the Dutch colonial period give a high degree
by deep talwegs, was historically occupied by the of structure to this area.
primary equatorial forest and by agricultural
activities distributed according to altitude. Made up of recent unconsolidated sedimentary
depositions, this middle part is also subject to the
This geographic area has recently been experiencing phenomenon of subsidence, albeit with less intensity
urbanisation due to demographic expansion than on the coastal strip. It is also particularly
and land limitations in previously urbanised exposed to inland flooding from canals overflowing,
areas. It also supports the migration of the combined with high tides in particular.
population leaving the coastal strip and its
problems. It includes recently built opulent In this area urbanisation is rapid and intense,
structures that are dwellings often located in which causes a lot of soil erosion, big earthworks
modern housing estates. and landslides.
 S e m a r a n g : t h e c h a l l e n g e o f t h e c o a s ta l s t r i p 31

3 - The coastal strip The coastal strip has been under strong urban
pressure for several decades, while being exposed
The coastal strip is located at altimetric sea level to intense physical phenomena clearly visible across
over a breadth of 4 to 7 km. Its 13,000 ha surface the territory, such as:
area represents about 34% of the territory of 1. Subsidence;
Semarang. This low-lying area supports economic 2. Marine transgression;
activities: industries, commercial port, fishing, as 3. Inland flooding.
well as road and rail infrastructure. Traditional
housing consisting of lightly-structured individual It is also exposed to the effects of climate change and
houses is widespread, alongside buildings housing rising sea levels, in particular. These phenomena greatly
office activities. impact the whole urban district and its development.
 32 S e m a r a n g : t h e c h a l l e n g e o f t h e c o a s ta l s t r i p

2 Worrying urbanisation dynamics

Semarang has been a busy city since the time of the The gradual saturation of the coastal strip and
Dutch government (1800-1942) which stimulated the middle part, including the historic city centre,
the development of the port area. Having become generates massive urbanisation of the upper
a nodal point for trade and industry, Semarang part, to the south on the strong reliefs, as well as
strengthens the economic development of the to the west and east of the territory, as can be
two provinces of Central Java and Yogyakarta. seen in Figure 13 below. These progressive
changes result in many environmental changes
The population almost doubled during the 1950s in the Semarang territory, such as deforestation,
and 1960s. It had further rapid increases between creating patches of bare ground in certain places
1999 and 2014. Thus, the population of the city of and therefore making them more exposed to
Semarang stood at around 1,730,000 inhabitants erosion and landslides.
in 20165, with an annual increase of 1.7%. The
active share of the population is about 72%.

Over a 5-year period (2011-2016), the population

density tended to increase in parallel with the
population. In addition, the population is distributed
heterogeneously amongst the sub-districts.
Figure 12 below shows very rapid growth in urbanised
land over the period from 1999 to 2014.

This strong demographic growth, less today,

reflects urban sprawl on a big scale. In 1999, only 15%
of the municipality’s territory was urbanised against 13. Evolution of the urbanisation between 1999 and 2014 (in red).
44% 15 years later, in 2014 (see Figure 12 below). From UNDIP.

One fears that at this rate, the entire 374 km2 of

the territory could be impacted by urbanisation in At the same time, an intensification of motorised
20306, and this despite public policies to protect travel can be observed. This is due to the delayed
natural areas. effects of the demographic increase and to three
factors intimately linked to the rapid emergence of
a middle/upper class:
• urban sprawl with private housing developments
- perumahan - who welcome the middle classes
leaving the city centre;
• the polarisation of economic activity around
tertiary and industrial centres which increases
commuter journeys;
• the democratisation of motorcycle use to the
5 Based on the BPS 2016
calculation, Badan Pusat detriment of public transport, which has almost
Statistik kota Semarang -
https://semarangkota. disappeared.
bps.go.id

6 Source: Diponegoro
University (UNDIP). 12. Evolution of the urbanisation (in ha). From UNDIP.
 S e m a r a n g : t h e c h a l l e n g e o f t h e c o a s ta l s t r i p 33

14. Demographic growth areas. From UNDIP.

Daily trips to economic activity centres generate road infrastructures in the form of ring roads,
stress for the public and congestion on main to reduce automobile congestion and support
roads, which has consequences for the health the urbanisation of sectors which are still not yet
and safety of individuals. Heavy road traffic built today.
creates excessive air pollution from gas emissions,
noise pollution and causes a growing number of
traffic accidents.

The demographic increase in recent decades is

problematic for the organisation and functioning
of urban services: development of the roads,
management of household waste, supply of
clean water, sanitation. The difficulty of setting
up service levels appropriate to the needs of the
population has effects on health, particularly in
certain densely urbanised districts. Population
15. Semarang - Road infrastructure planning.
growth indirectly also has aggravating effects on
the risk of flooding. The scheme also provides for a qualitative
component including the creation of an “ecodistrict”
Faced with the multiple challenges linked to the close to the western canal (development of the
urbanisation of the territory, the City of Semarang existing district and canal banks), the constitution
technical planning department (Bappeda), of an application file for registration of the old
established a 2010-2030 planning scheme. The city with UNESCO world heritage and an action
main projects relate to the creation of several planting mangroves on the coastline.
 34 S e m a r a n g : t h e c h a l l e n g e o f t h e c o a s ta l s t r i p

3 Subsidence, a major phenomenon in Semarang

Semarang’s alluvial plain is impacted by heavy an aquifer-aquitard8 system from 30 to 80 metres
subsidence, constituting a major phenomenon for deep (see section below). They form the plain
the city’s future. As indicated above, subsidence known as Semarang-Demak.
is a natural phenomenon of settlement of the
sedimentary layers, the intensity of which is The deposition of these geological formations
accentuated by anthropogenic activities such as comes from sedimentation linked to the fluctuation
loading the land or pumping the groundwater. of sea levels during the Holocene, caused by a
succession of marine transgressions and regressions
creating the silting up of the Semarang-Demak
3.1. A physical and anthropogenic plain. Thus, 300 years ago, the port of Semarang
phenomenon was in Bergota, about 5 km south of the present
coast and of Semarang-Demak. From 1695 to 1991,
The subsoil of the Semarang coastal strip consists the coastline moved towards the sea at an
of recent deltaic fluvial outwash at a thickness average rate of 8 m/year according to UNDIP
from 25 to 80 metres or even 100 meters depending sources. Figure 16 shows, on a geological profile,
on the sector7. This fluvial outwash, saturated how urbanisation has developed on an aquifer
with water, is very compressible. They constitute made up of sandy and clay depositions.

7 According to Sukhyar
(2003).

8 In hydro-geology,
an aquifer corresponds
to a geological formation
enabling the storage and
flow of an underground
aquifer, which can be
exploited for human
needs, whereas an aquitard
is a permeable formation,
but not saturated with
water and therefore
exploitable. 16. Schematic geological profile of the Semarang plain.
 S e m a r a n g : t h e c h a l l e n g e o f t h e c o a s ta l s t r i p 35

■ Subsidence measurements Radar satellite imagery, with radar interferometry

or InSAR enables measuring ground movements
To measure the subsidence which gets to high values over big areas (several thousand km 2) with
in Semarang, several methods have been successively millimetric precision. The launch by the European
used9 by different organisations: Space Agency (ESA) of the Sentinel-1 mission
• the levelling method10 (1999 to 2003); in 2014 was a new step, as it provides continuous
• gravimetric methods; and free band-C SAR data at medium resolution
• GPS measurements (from 2008 to 2011); (20 m).
• the measurement of surface movements by radar
interferometry. The big areas covered by radar sweeps of up to
several hundred kilometres and the high temporal
Measurement can also be done using a physical repetition (revisit cycles of a few days) allow InSAR
reference point, progressive changes to which are technology to be applied for monitoring surface
followed annually, as shown in Figure 17. deformations over vast areas.

The study was done by TRE ALTAMIRA on Semarang

city. The main objective of this study was, using
the capacities of the Sentinel-1 images in terms
of spatial resolution, temporal resolution and
synoptic view, to detect the deformations that
impact the urban city.

The following map comes from the analysis by

radar satellite interferometry of Earth observation
data acquired by the Sentinel-1 satellite over
17. Subsidence - Fixed reference point on the JICA approximately four years, between October 2014
pumping plant.
and July 2018. It represents the vertical movements
These different types of measurements made in Semarang.
between 1999 and 2014 show average subsidence
of 6 to 7 cm per year, occasionally able to reach To conduct this study, the SqueeSAR® algorithm
values of nearly 20 cm per year. These values are (TRE ALTAMIRA's proprietary algorithm) was used
much higher than those generally obtained by to measure surface movements with millimetric
natural soil compaction. The results testify to an precision.
exceptional phenomenon with regard to its
intensity and with no prospect of a medium-term In Figure 18, the different coloured dots correspond
slowdown (50 years). to natural targets which are mainly located in
built-up areas, on bare soil or in areas of little
■ The work done by TRE ALTAMIRA: vegetation, etc. They constitute the measurement
analysis by radar satellite interferometry points used for analysis of the surface movements.
Information on the deformation rate measured
New technologies are used more and more for by the technique is given in millimetres per year.
monitoring ground movement. These technologies The scale used varies from red to blue, from -75 to
According to Nur Miladan, op.cit. 9
reinforce and supplement the measurements obtained +75 mm per year, depending on direction and
28 points measured by the Center 10
by more conventional cartographic processes. the intensity of the movement. of Environmental Geology.
 36 S e m a r a n g : t h e c h a l l e n g e o f t h e c o a s ta l s t r i p

18. Vertical movement map (subsidence) from the SqueeSAR® analysis.

Sentinel-1 data acquired between 14 October 2014 and 19 July 2018 (author: TRE ALTAMIRA, 2018).

About 56,900 measurement points were detected underground water, construction and creating
in the sector under consideration. The results show embankments…
a strong deformation gradient that extends from
the interior to the coastal zone. Various movement Groundwater pumping strongly accentuates
11 The number of wells
recorded was 94 in 1974, areas are thus brought to light. The maximum subsidence. This is the case when water extraction
178 in 1981, 350 in 1989,
600 in 1990, 950 in 1996
settlement zone is located in the eastern part of is significantly higher than the natural recharge
and 1,050 in 2000. The
extraction volume
the municipality, where the subsidence measured of aquifers. The decrease in the volume of
increased from around
0.4 million m3/year
reaches 13 cm per year. groundwater results in a decrease in the interstitial
in 1900 to 0.9 million
in 1974, 1.8 million
pressure and a corresponding increase in the
in 1981, 8.8 million in
1989, 16.9 million in 1990,
The work carried out by TRE ALTAMIRA is explained compaction of the fluvial outwash.
32.8 million in 1996 in the annex to the document.
and 38 million in 2000.
According to Abidin et al., In Semarang, the amount of wells and ground-
Land subsidence
in coastal city of ■ Subsidence factors water abstraction has increased sharply since the
Semarang (Indonesia):
characteristics, impacts early 1990s11, as shown in Figure 19 below. In
and causes, Geomatics,
Natural Hazards and Risk, Subsidence in Semarang is largely the result of some areas, there is a direct correlation between
2013, 4: 3, 226-240,
DOI: 10.1080/19475705. natural factors. It is, however, accelerated by the the lowering of the roof of the water table and
2012.692336 2013
and Nur Miladan, op.cit. intensification of human activity: pumping of soil subsidence.
 S e m a r a n g : t h e c h a l l e n g e o f t h e c o a s ta l s t r i p 37

-1400
much higher than natural subsidence. Moreover,
50.00
50
Deep wells
45.00 Total with drawal (Million m3/year)
the need to win back areas lost to the sea leads to
Groundwater abstraction (Million m3/year)

- 1200
40.00

- 1000 the construction of hugely extended embankments.

Number of registered deep wells

35.00

30.00
- 800
The answers provided locally contribute to the
25.00 aggravation of the problem.
- 600
20.00

Groundwater salinity is also mentioned by scientists

15.00
- 400
10.00

5.00
- 200 as being a possible accelerator of subsidence. In 2018,
0.00 -0 the University of Bandung12 established for the first
1900 1910 1920 1932 1982 1985 1990 1995 1996 1998 1999 2002
time the effect of the groundwater salinity on the
19. Groundwater exploitation and number of deep wells. compressibility of the Semarang-Demak aquitard,
From The International Symposium and workshop on
Current Problems in Groundwater Management and i.e. on the intensity of the subsidence13. The coastal
Related Water Resources Issues, Bali December 2007. aquifer-aquitard system has variable features
ranging from freshwater to saltwater. The Damar
Water management in Semarang is faced with a aquifer, the main aquifer on the Semarang-Demak
deficit in hydraulic infrastructure combined with plain, contains fresh water which has run through
constantly increasing needs linked to population volcanic rocks. On the other hand, the water tables
growth, lifestyle changes in and the development made up of marine clays contain salt water.
of economic activities. Through establishing
collective management. which can meet the Finally, there is the question of the role of Semarang’s
challenges, we hope that the excessive demands tectonics on subsidence (cf. Figure 20). Without
on aquifers can be reduced. having been demonstrated, it is possible that the
natural phenomenon linked to the set of faults
Ground load is another factor making subsidence running north-west to south-east accentuates
worse. Increasing construction of buildings, subsidence by a general tilting of the area towards
infrastructures or embankments on this compressible the north-east. A deeper investigation of this
ground causes "anthropogenic" soil subsidence subject would be necessary.

Sea of Java

N
Coastal area

Recent alluvium

Middle area
Sandy composition

F F F

F F

Marl
Upper area
F
F
F F
Marly-clay
Clluvium

Fault
Volcanic formation Sarah Dwi et al., op.cit. 12
F
The increase in the salinity 13
Marly-clay of the clays increases the rate
Marl of consolidation and hydraulic
conductivity. It promotes rapid
20. Semarang’s structural geology. dissipation of interstitial water.
 38 S e m a r a n g : t h e c h a l l e n g e o f t h e c o a s ta l s t r i p

3.2. Subsidence hazard subsidence value measured at 14 cm/year and

more, then a median value set at 7 cm/year and
Subsidence is a natural process of soil compaction finally a low value set at 2 cm/year.
over time. It manifests itself in different ways
depending on geographical sectors and human The cartographic representation of these intensity
activities. Spatial mapping of this hazard is very levels for subsidence leads to proposing zoning of
useful because it constitutes a decision-making tool the next subsidence hazard:
for the development of the coastal strip.
Intensity level Annual subsidence
Cerema has therefore drawn up a zoning proposal
high (red) 7 cm or more
for "the subsidence hazard" in the municipality of
Semarang (see map below). This work was based medium (orange) 3 to 6 cm

on 2014 data, acquired by UNDIP. The zoning low (yellow) 1 to 2 cm

they have done crosses the values of the available
measurement points with the soil type, having no This zoning constitutes an important step for
detailed geological map with which to perform estimating the magnitude of the damage incurred
this analysis more precisely. by the urbanisation of the coastal strip. Whatever
its intensity, subsidence accentuates marine
Three levels of subsidence intensity are arbitrarily transgression. As a result, the intrusion of seawater
proposed. They are defined from the average into the coastal strip is in a more or less rapid
values of the measurements made, with a high progression in time and space.

21. Map zoning the subsidence hazard.

 S e m a r a n g : t h e c h a l l e n g e o f t h e c o a s ta l s t r i p 39

3.3. The territory’s vulnerability This map shows that approximately 970,000 inha-
to subsidence hazard bitants, that is to say nearly half the population of
Semarang, live in a subsidence area. The table below
The territory's vulnerability to subsidence requires shows the following distribution, according to
analysis of the damage capacity of the elements hazard intensity level:
exposed to this natural phenomenon and its
effects. The impact of subsidence on the life of Intensity level Number of inhabitants
the population, on the proper functioning of
high (red) 200,000
infrastructure, on the city’s equipment and
economy can be evaluated by crossing different medium (orange) 480,000

socio-economic data14 with the hazard zoning. low (yellow) 290,000

The vulnerability of the population to subsidence

hazard was studied on this basis, therefore knowing ■ Transport infrastructure
that the analysis method is similar for the other
components of the above-mentioned territory. In the municipality of Semarang, the numerous
road links and the rail link are busy traffic routes.
■ The population These traffic routes are pivotal for economic
exchange as public transport for daily individual
From the UNDIP data and by superimposing the mobility is hardly being developed. However, the
subsistence hazard map with the density distribution superimposition of the subsidence hazard map and
of the districts making up the city of Semarang, the the various communication channels demonstrates
number of people impacted by the subsidence that entire sections of these routes are exposed
phenomenon could be evaluated. The result of this to the phenomenon of subsidence which can
analysis is transcribed into the map below. itself be linked with marine transgression.

22. Subsidence hazard and the population. Source: UNDIP, 2014. 14

 40 S e m a r a n g : t h e c h a l l e n g e o f t h e c o a s ta l s t r i p

The distribution of the different communication ■ The population and the built environment
routes at risk from the subsidence hazard is defined
as follows: Buildings have been observed sinking into the
ground. This sometimes causes tilting, a decrease
Subsidence hazard/ Motorway Main roads Secondary roads Railway in the heights of the entrances and the ceiling. Cracks
Issues in km in km in km in km
may appear on the walls, sea water can damage
TOTAL 12 km 51.5 km 52 km 24.5 km the foundations, causing loss of functionality.
Of red zone 1 km 24 km 5 km 12 km Homes directly exposed to marine transgression
can be flooded.
Table 1. Length of the various infrastructures impacted by subsidence.

In the coastal strip, the inhabitants who experience

The main road networks and the rail network are the effects of soil subsidence on a daily basis are
widely impacted by the subsidence phenomenon, forced to adapt by changing their way of life.
which represents a major constraint for the city's Depending on the water level in their home, some
economy in the domains of freight transport and of them resort to pumping the water.
human movement.
Residential areas are sometimes surrounded by
■ Strategic level facilities embankments protecting them against flooding.

The main economic structures of the city (hospitals/ In the fishing districts very close to the sea the
care centres, stations, airport, schools, strategic residents live in their flooded house or take
industrial buildings...) have been listed and grouped refuge upstairs during high tides. Some people
thematically. The superimposition of these data on raise their homes every five years, either by
the subsidence hazard map shows that a high number raising the roof by at least one metre, or by
of vital centres are located in areas of heavy subsidence. adding an extra floor15. They can also raise the
These are mainly four health centres, 19 schools/ floor of their house and the level of the land or
universities and the historic centre of Semarang. build a small dam around their property to keep
the water out. As part of his ongoing thesis,
This analysis shows that subsidence has a big impact devoted to the social and spatial transformations
15 Safrinal Sofaniadi,
Rusmadi and on the sector’s economy and the life of the territory. caused by industrialisation in Semarang16, Julien
Aniessa Delima Sari,
Protect, adapt or relocate? Birgi notes:
Responding to climate
change in coastal • The increased isolation of districts, ringed by
Indonesia, Asian Cities
Climate Resilience 3.4. The disruption dikes and raising the height of the infrastructure;
Working Paper Series,
IIED order no: 10723, 2015. and the response provided • Increased destitution: many inhabitants remain,
16 Julien Birgi, When
but those who have the means leave the districts
productive systems
at work in emerging
The total area at risk from the subsidence phenomenon most impacted by subsidence. They are replaced by
countries shape cities
and contribute to
currently covers approximately 16,000 ha, or 42% of much poorer migrants who settle there, because
their resilience.
Comparative analysis
the territory of Semarang. there are still areas available;
of the impact of different
forms of loose soil
• The dissolution of social bonds: those who have
industries on socio-spatial In an urban environment, this phenomenon creates the means raise their house, those who do not
structures in Semarang
and Jepara in Java, disruption for housing, economic buildings such have it remain flooded/sunk. The answers are more
Indonesia, from 1985
until today, Geography as offices and industrial buildings and damages individual than coming from citizen associations.
thesis in progress,
under the supervision transport infrastructure together with structural Social tensions are appearing, while the forms of
of Manuelle Franck,
INALCO, Sorbonne Paris works, roads, railways and the drainage system, solidarity that are widespread in poor quarters in
Cité Université, CESSMA
(UMR 245). including pipelines. Indonesia tend to disappear.
 S e m a r a n g : t h e c h a l l e n g e o f t h e c o a s ta l s t r i p 41

23. Building subsidence (on the left) and land raising (on the right).

Sometimes adaptation is not possible and some ■ Facilities at stake

buildings have to be abandoned.
The big activity areas for economic life (port, refinery,
In other cases, impacted buildings are still used with industries) are also impacted by soil subsidence and
reduced ceiling heights. marine submersion. To limit the effects or remedy
them, adjustments are made. Dikes can be built. Land
The question then arises of the techniques currently is backfilled by section which allows the facilities
used to limit or anticipate the effects of subsidence to be kept out of the water, but without this is not
on constructions: the existence of technical a sustainable solution. Figure 24 below shows an
recommendations, construction practices, engineer example of building reconstruction in a sector of
awareness of this phenomenon… the port area exposed to a lot of subsidence.

24. Port building in the subsidence area - Reconstruction (left part).

 42 S e m a r a n g : t h e c h a l l e n g e o f t h e c o a s ta l s t r i p

■ Transport infrastructure raised with the consequence of creating drops

with regard to the adjacent sectors.
Subsidence combined with flooding strongly Structures designed with foundations that take
impacts linear infrastructure. Getting them out of subsidence into account (use of piles in particular)
water is done in different ways. The main roads are, however, impacted over time by the overall
are constructed on raised embankments, they subsidence of the structure. They require follow-up
thus constitute dikes playing the role of dam and adaptation work.
against the water. This type of development The adaptation of railways is more difficult. The
protects the urbanised areas effectively against profile along the tracks is in fact difficult to modify
the invasion of the sea. The construction of new without bringing the entire line into question.
toll road infrastructure constituting a big dike The main station located in the city centre is
over 26 km long is in the process of being built frequently flooded despite a system that pumps
in the east of the city. Certain urban roads are water and discharge into the canals.

25. Structure adapted to subsidence - Need for regular interventions.

26. Railway in subsidence and marine transgression area.

 S e m a r a n g : t h e c h a l l e n g e o f t h e c o a s ta l s t r i p 43

Other natural phenomena 4

Subsidence in Semarang is associated with other active
natural phenomena such as marine transgression,
inland flooding, the salinisation of fresh water
and agricultural land or the disappearance of
the mangrove.

The two phenomena, marine transgression and

inland flooding, causing major disruptions for
buildings and human activities, are briefly
presented below.

27. Phenomenon of marine transgression on the coastal strip of Semarang.

4.1. Marine transgression
Underway for several years, the phenomenon today
Marine transgression, lasting invasion of coastal makes big impacts on the territory. It primarily
areas by the sea, impacts the entire Central Java impacts natural coasts and rural areas, poorly
coastline. It results from multiple factors interacting protected and where the mangrove has been
with each other: tectonic movement, coastal destroyed in recent decades. Marine transgression
erosion, rising sea levels17, disappearance of the causes the large scale submersion of villages and
mangrove. Transgression manifests by moving the access roads with the departure of the inhabitants
intertidal zone inland. in consequence, forced to abandon their property.

8 cm in 10 years, 17
28. Phenomenon of marine transgression on the coastal strip of Semarang. according to UNDIP.
44 S e m a r a n g : t h e c h a l l e n g e o f t h e c o a s ta l s t r i p

The issue of marine transgression falls within the scientists are also mobilised. UNDIP is experimenting
jurisdiction of the Province of Central Java. Its with new systems that promote the establishment
fisheries management has to face management of the mangrove and its protection from destructive
difficulties linked to the disappearance of the wave action.
coast. The coastline usually sets the limit of land
management and maritime management, each These provisions have recourse to innovative
area having its own regulatory framework. ecological engineering techniques aimed at
Technical, political and administrative support trapping sediment and weakening currents, with
for the flooding of villages is an example of an some of them showing promising results…
immediate challenge posed by the rapid modification
of the area.

In the airport area, as on the entire Semarang

coast, the coastline has moved more than 2 km
inland. These dynamics seem to have accelerated
sharply in recent years. The map below illustrates
coastline movement to the right of Semarang
Airport, comparing old maps from 1960 and recent
satellite images.

The disappearance of the mangrove, the coast’s 30. Re-creation of the mangrove.
natural protective barrier, results from human
occupation, industrialisation, civil engineering In urban areas, marine transgression is slowed down
works and climate change. Actions have been put by the obstacle created by buildings, but it is
in place to recoup this natural environment. The assisted by the phenomenon of subsidence. In
re-creation of the mangrove (see figure below) non-urbanised areas, the intrusion of the sea is
involves rural populations. Local authorities and facilitated and extends further inland.

29. Changes to the coastline at Semarang (from Cerema and UNDIP data).
 S e m a r a n g : t h e c h a l l e n g e o f t h e c o a s ta l s t r i p 45

4.2. Inland flooding

The configuration of the Semarang territory is

conducive to inland flooding. Indeed, the tropical
climate features intense rainfall, especially during
the monsoon period with 300 to 400 mm of rain
during the month of November. The watershed,
with its contrasting reliefs, ranges from an altitude
of 450 m to 0 m over a short distance of 20 km.
The lower part of the territory plays the role of a
flood expansion zone.

These floods are accentuated by several phenomena,

such as:
• seasonal high tides (locally called rob), an
aggravating factor even outside rainy periods and
reaching up to 1.15 m in height;
• land subsidence accentuating surface flooding,
mainly in the coastal strip;
• climate change with its extreme typhoon-like
weather events and rising sea levels.

During the colonisation period, the Dutch

completed structuring hydraulic works that
complemented the natural hydrographic system.
These works today retain their function of being a
framework for the inland water drainage system:
construction of pipelines, bypass channels and
polders systems. But at this time, these developments
have shown the limits of their effectiveness. The
historic city centre remains flooded.

Flooding has been threatening the city and more

particularly the coastal strip since the mid-1980s,
due to strong industrialisation near the port and 31. Semarang in 1917 with its canals. Source: http://www.semarang.nl
the rapid population growth associated with
these changes. surface area by reducing the possibilities of
water absorption by the soil. Deforestation and
This map of Semarang's urbanisation in 1917 shows urbanisation aggravate soil erosion, causing an
a city laid out parallel to the coast, at a distance accumulation of sediment in the canals to the
The dredging of a canal consists 18
from the coast. The big south-north canals drain detriment of their hydraulic function. in removing the sediment which
has accumulated there
the territory on either side of the urban district, by decantation under water.
This accumulation reduces
itself crossed by the Semarang river. Dredging operations18, heavy to put into action, the hydraulic section of
the canal and aggravates
gradually lose their effectiveness. This results in flooding. Dredging operations
are cumbersome and pose
In addition, urbanisation and industrialisation making inland flooding worse during intense the problem of what to do
with the extracted products,
increase the run-off by increasing the non-porous rain events. which can prove to be polluted.
 46 S e m a r a n g : t h e c h a l l e n g e o f t h e c o a s ta l s t r i p

32. Water pumping station - Semarang.

Pumping stations19 have been designed to pump In addition, urban institutions seek to resolve
run-off water to the sea (see Figure 32). These flooding hazards through other plans and
stations are in permanent operation. projects in progress with the support of the
central government and the Province of Central
Since the 1990s, the municipality has taken the Java, such as:
hazard related to seasonal high tides (rob) and • the Jatibarang dam project, in collaboration
19 The dewatering stations flooding into consideration in planning and in with the Japanese government;
are pumping stations
for inland waters which particular in master plans20. Urban institutions • the Banger polder pilot project, in cooperation
do not find a gravity
outlet. These waters are have drawn up some plans for the urban drainage with the Dutch government;
concentrated in a pond,
from where they are system in collaboration with international players • the urban resilience project in the Asian
extracted and returned
under pressure to in order to reduce the risk of flooding. Cities Climate Change Resilience Network
an outlet.
(ACCCRN) programme, initiated by Mercy Corps
20 Cf. master plan for
the development of
Based on these plans, a number of works have been (international NGO).
water resources
and feasibility study
undertaken in an attempt to stem flooding, namely:
for urgent flood controls,
the urban drainage of
• rehabilitating diversion canals and rivers; The medium-term effectiveness of these hydraulic
the city of Semarang
and its surrounds,
• the development of the Tawang polder; structures can, however, be questioned. In particular,
developed by the Japan
International Cooperation
• some pumping systems. the increase in sediment coming from the reliefs
Agency/JICA (1993), requires a significant maintenance effort such as
draft Semarang urban
drainage master plan These developments enable partial resolution dredging at short time intervals to limit overflowing
developed by the Ministry
of Public Works (2000) of flooding hazards and in particular the afore- during intense rains.
and urban drainage
master plan. mentioned phenomenon of the rob.
 S e m a r a n g : t h e c h a l l e n g e o f t h e c o a s ta l s t r i p 47

From individual action 5

to the mobilisation of players
The disruption observed in the coastal strip leads population of the surrounding working-class
players to take sector-specific measures, to limit districts. In the event of relocation, the inhabitants
the effects of the disruption or to remedy it. would lose their jobs.
These measures show limited effectiveness
against the multiplicity of phenomena of natural or The coastal strip disruption is such that fitness for
anthropogenic origin which interfere with each habitation thresholds are reached, taking into
other. Also, the action carried out by UNDIP and account technical, economic and environmental
Cerema has highlighted the importance of collective possibilities. They set limits to urbanisation, while
mobilisation of players. local demand is strong, due to population growth.
These limits effectively tend to redirect development
policy or construction requests towards other
5.1. Multiple impacts to consider areas of Semarang, to the south, east and west,
which have become more attractive because they
Natural elements and human activities interact. This are less exposed to disturbances.
results in damaging impacts which are directly
observable by inhabitants and local players. However, the redirecting of urbanisation is not
These impacts can be recognised in different ways: without an aggravating effect for the coastal
• the accentuation over time of physical phenomena: strip, when it concerns the upstream part of the
progressive extension of the areas invaded by the watershed. Indeed, this urbanisation leads to
sea, intensification of the subsidence; deforestation encouraging run-off and soil
• limited effectiveness of the measures taken or erosion especially during intense rainy events.
developments carried out: elimination of surface These phenomena accentuate the sedimentary
water, dredging of canals, water retention works filling of the canals and thus aggravate the inland
(JICA project) which no longer fulfil their role; flooding of the coastal strip (cf. Figure 33 below).
• disruption to infrastructure and buildings;
• difficulties in providing services such as
drinking water supply, urban sanitation or waste
collection;
• the deterioration in the quality of life of resident
populations exposed to the hazards (for example,
flooded houses).

This list is not exhaustive. We must also consider

social and economic damage, the increased risk of
disaster if there is an extreme event.

Among the sites and infrastructure impacted, the

problematic ones of the industrial areas deserve to
be mentioned. Indeed, these areas are often built
on sensitive sites, strongly impacted by the rob. The
factories located there employ 30 to 50% of the 33. Sedimentation in the Semarang canals.
 48 S e m a r a n g : t h e c h a l l e n g e o f t h e c o a s ta l s t r i p

This territory-wide process can be summarised The principle is always the same: in a very sensitive
as follows: environment, anthropogenic activities modify natural
elements; the modifications caused alter the living
environment and impact natural resources.
Responses brought in isolation by a player can give
rise to new impacts, which cause further aggravation
of the damage.

Cerema has established a model of the systemic

functioning of Semarang with regard to natural hazards
(submersion, flooding, landslide). The modelling shows
34. Systemic interactions at the territorial level. the complexity of the territory and the importance of
the domino effect. This model was explained to
Other systemic type impacts occur on a more students, teachers and municipal departments, in
local scale, as shown in Figure 35. So, urbanisation, order to put the spotlight on the interest of practising
which results in the destruction of the mangrove, urban "acupuncture". It would be advisable to act on
reduces protection against the erosion of the the territorial components or on the interacting
coast. This results in easier penetration of the sea relationships in the most effective way possible, in
and an increase in the salinity of the freshwater order to benefit from the effects of their reduction.
water tables. This alteration of the environment
will in turn have a negative impact on the lives The processes at work are multiple and interactive
of the inhabitants. as shown in the diagram below:

35. Systemic interactions of anthropogenic activities and natural processes.

 S e m a r a n g : t h e c h a l l e n g e o f t h e c o a s ta l s t r i p 49

5.2. Public and private responses Devices are being tested. They are intended to
facilitate trapping sediment by breaking the
In Indonesia, since the decentralisation laws, energy of ocean currents. Different materials
responsibilities are distributed as follows: have been tested: PVC, wood, bamboo. Plant
• national roads, railways, coastline: Central State cultures have also been set up to replant the
(Pemerintah Pusat); mangrove.
• rivers and watersheds and provincial roads:
Province (Propinsi); At the urban level, the City of Semarang's
• urban planning and local roads: Cities (Kotamadya) various departments, the technical services, the
and Departments (Kabupaten). social services, are on the front line. They are
mobilised to respond daily to the problems that
It is therefore functionaries at different levels who arise. For example, the public authorities
must deal with the disturbances that impact the broadcast the times and levels of the tides,
coastal strip and carry out actions to remedy the chaos. which enables activities to be adapted to flooding
Actions are taken by the operators of major road or in the districts.
rail infrastructure; they aim to reinforce their structures.
At the province level in Central Java, companies are Dewatering stations operate continuously to avoid
combating marine transgression. The local authorities the flooding of certain areas.
also act at the urban level. Out of necessity, then,
the question of coordinating these actions arises. Private companies organise themselves individually
to respond to the chaos they suffer in the coastal
At the regional level, the coastal developments strip. They raise their facilities, rebuild buildings,
carried out now combine heavy work and solutions abandon certain very exposed areas in favour of
based on nature. Thus, UNDIP is experimenting others that are less exposed. Some heavily
and modelling ecological engineering techniques impacted buildings are decommissioned as
with the purpose of reconstructing the mangrove. shown in Figure 36 below.

36. Abandoned building, Semarang.

 50 S e m a r a n g : t h e c h a l l e n g e o f t h e c o a s ta l s t r i p

In his thesis21, Julien Birgi analyses the resilience prevent flooding. These developments, financed
of industrial areas, amongst other subjects. He by the public authority, pulled the districts of
was able to identify the following elements: the west Semarang between the airport and the
developers of industrial zones are public or port out of water. But these very costly
private companies, which invest little if anything investments are of limited effectiveness over
in infrastructure maintenance, a fortiori when time, because they are themselves at risk from
they are faced with a phenomenon as massive as heavy subsidence.
the seasonal high tides (rob). Consequently, it is
the companies themselves (holders of construction By participating in the Resilient cities action,
leases) that try to cope with it. But the possibilities the City of Semarang displays its concern with
for action at their level are limited. Indeed, if they meeting the challenges that its territory is
raise their premises, they face access problems for facing. It develops planning on the scale of its
their trucks and employees by submerged and territory. It takes multiple issues into account
deeply rutted tracks. They either therefore prefer in particular relating to economic development,
to move, to the detriment of the surrounding resource protection and the organisation of
population and contributing to peri-urbanisation. mobility.
In practice, only the public authority (provincial
or municipal government) compensates for the The coastal problem is part of a set of questions
shortcomings of private players: resilience costs raised by urban development. The City is trying
are therefore assumed by the local authority. to deal with the problem by providing fairly
ad hoc responses, since it is in regard to local
Heavy development work like the JICA retention infrastructure (major infrastructure is dealt with
ponds project has been carried out to try to by the Province or the Central State).

21 Julien Birgi, op. cit. 37. JICA retention pond project, under construction.
 S e m a r a n g : t h e c h a l l e n g e o f t h e c o a s ta l s t r i p 51

If the intention certainly exists, Julien Birgi has carried out (for example, by creating more
not identified an integrated approach consisting density over conserved areas to rehouse the
of, for example, articulating planning, infrastructure populations most at risk).
work and a redeployment policy for inhabitants
and activities. He sees two main reasons for this, The initiatives are most often taken on a
the difficulty in coordinating interventions sector-specific basis. They are useful for limiting
(Bappeda being separate from the technical damage, but a collective response is necessary
operational departments that are piloting the to coordinate them and to get some leverage.
works) and the absence of a policy and the Actions complementary to these works are also
tools allowing urban renewal operations to be being sought.
P A R T 3
 Semarang :
towards a territorial
resilience methodology

1. Resilience: what is it?

2. Resilience: responses at different levels
3. A territorial resilience project for Semarang
4. The coastal strip observatory: a foundation stage
5. Different viewpoints from scientists
54 Semarang: towards a territorial resilience methodology

The complex situation of the Semarang coastal strip, This part, after having defined the notion of resilience,
as analysed, leads to applying the resilience concept. will put forward a methodology that takes into
Resilience offers a new paradigm to best counter account the specific features of the coastal strip, a
unwanted impacts and disturbances produced by a first step consisting in setting up an observatory of
rapidly changing environment. The resilience approach subsidence and its impacts. Finally, different
to the Semarang coast makes it possible to leverage viewpoints from scientists who have performed
learning, innovation, developing cooperation, solidarity analyses on this area will provide us with a
and coordinated actions between the players. complementary perspective.
 Semarang: towards a territorial resilience methodology 55

Resilience: what is it? 1

When territories facing big changes become focal This trajectory covers evolutionary processes which
points of systemic effects such as the coastal areas can be engaged for a long time such as urbanisation
considered, resilience is a mode of operation offering or, more recently, climate change. According to
interesting actionable possibilities. It is therefore Cerema, resilience leads to the implementation of
necessary to specify the particularities of a resilience six principles, explained below25.
methodology for these fragile coasts.
A – Thinking of the territory in its entirety

1.1. The contribution Resilience leads to taking into account the

of the resilience concept different disturbances that can affect a territory
and interfere with each other. In a territory under
"Urban resilience" has given rise to many definitions transformation, it leads to actions being taken
in an effort to find a link with the concept of the intended to reduce the territory's fragility at
sustainable city22. We propose to define resilience different spatial and temporal levels. The
here as "the capacity to work out a shared solution measures taken at a given level must not produce
to disaster prevention acceptable to the greatest unidentified and uncompensated counter-
number of stakeholders and which involves them effects. Thus, building a protective structure for
in its implementation, while admitting that this a district exposed to the onslaught of the sea
solution does not allow for eliminating all should not obscure the problems that will arise
damage"23. While the concept of the sustainable in the medium term and at a greater level:
city is built on the idea of a future that we can maintenance of the structure, effects caused
control, sustainability and the reversibility of downstream, etc.
urban functions, resilience takes into account
the existence of processes disrupting urban B – Promoting the diversity
operativity. It accepts the inevitable occurrence and cooperation of players
Marie Toubin et al., 22
of these disturbances, foreseeable or not, which "La résilience urbaine :
un nouveau concept opérationnel
must be anticipated in order to face them and In order to act, resilience considers the links and vecteur de durabilité urbaine ?",
Développement durable
adapt to them. complementarities that can be woven, as well as et territoires [en ligne],
vol. 3, n°1, May 2012,
the cooperation that can be formed between http://journals.openedition.org/
developpementdurable/9208
Resilience views the territory as a complex and structures that are sometimes very different by
Patrick Pigeon et al., 23
dynamic system. The idea of complexity type and by purpose. Extracting oneself from the "Ce que peut apporter
la résilience à la prévention
translates the reality of urbanised coasts well usual relationships resulting from sector-specific des désastres :
since it calls us to recognise the weightings of approaches then enables discovering room for exemples en Lavours
et en Chautagne
the uncertainties, to work on interdependencies manoeuvre, to bring out new ideas, to find new (Ain, Savoie)",
in Annales de Géographie,
and interrelationships24. This bias invites us to resources either the existence or possibilities of n° 719, January-February 2018.

consider urbanised coasts as assemblies made which were previously unknown. These different Edgar Morin, 24
La méthode
up of a large number of interacting entities, in types of resources either exist within the territory or T1 - La nature de la nature,
Ed. Seuils Points,
constant relationship with the outdoors. As are available at higher levels. For example, the 1977, P.149.

systems do, the coast follows a territorial path, resilience of a coastline requires mobilising the Refer to the CGDD/Cerema, 25
Villes et territoires résilients,
resulting from natural or anthropogenic dynamics. players in the area behind it (coastal hinterland). May 2015.
56 Semarang: towards a territorial resilience methodology

C – Encouraging learning and innovation measures. Monitoring not limited to the territory
allows for anticipating locally unprecedented
In the face of new or complex disruption, disturbances. For example, shoreline analyses
conventional and standardised responses are no performed at a regional level broaden possible
longer sufficient. Conversely, it is often possible feedback on events that occurred and the response
to find innovative and tailor-made responses, provided. Forward-looking approaches are also
which are sometimes simple and less costly. good levers for resilience.
Innovation is therefore a component of resilience.
For example, the fight against coastal erosion is
developing nature-based solutions where 1.2. The limitations of strictly
previously it focused solely on the construction sector-specific responses
of civil engineering works.
Weakened by urbanisation and climate change,
D – Reducing vulnerabilities the coasts are faced with different types of change,
with variable kinetics, interacting with each other.
Reduction of vulnerability is a primary component They are experiencing both an intensification of
of resilience. Its purpose is to limit damage in the the hazards and increasing human and economic
event of disturbances and thereby to facilitate a issues. This complexity alters the effectiveness of
rapid resumption of the territory's functionality. strictly technical responses following the usual
However, it comes up against technical and building of structural works model.
economic limitations, hence the notion of
acceptability of a level of hazard. For example, If the completion of isolated structural works
certain extremely intense natural phenomena, can give a one-off solution to a problem and for
such as marine submersion, cannot be counteracted a given time, alone these can rarely thwart the very
by structural works. powerful natural and anthropogenic processes in
the long term.
E – Taking into account specific features
of the territory What is more, it is futile to imagine that structural
works could be designed to give protection from
The resilience of a territory only makes sense if it the most intense hazards, especially in the
relies on local history and culture with their current context of climate change. Besides,
particularities and the way they work. The because of their cost and their impact on the
measures envisaged will be relevant if they take built environment, the environment and the
these elements into account by being received landscape, structural works that have been
better by the population. However, the specific completed cannot easily be redesigned with
features of the territory should not be reproduced larger dimensions.
in their current state without taking into account
the environmental changes in progress. The Finally, designing structures is difficult in an
changes in progress on the coast can thus lead environment that fluctuates too much and
to questioning the urbanisation practices in quickly makes the assumptions made for their
these areas. dimensions obsolete. Moreover, their high cost
would require a long period of technical efficiency,
F – Promoting vigilance and anticipation covering at least the amortisation period of
the investments.
Resilience enhances players’ ability to imagine
and anticipate disturbances that can impact However, in addition to the construction of
the territory and take into account subsequent structural works, the territories include management
 Semarang: towards a territorial resilience methodology 57

systems which can play a beneficial role in the There are, consequently, different ways to act to
face of naturally occurring or human-induced reduce the vulnerability of coasts. The one proposed
disturbances. Certain coastal developments can prioritises a global vision for the territory by
thus be regulated and certain shocks absorbed, associating hazard prevention with other needs
for example by revising a planning scheme to be satisfied: mobility, conservation of natural
redistributing urbanisation making it less vulnerable, environments, public health, facilities requirements,
or decongestion measures in a district facilitating etc. The authorities are then put in the position of
its evacuation in the event of a hazard. Risk giving priority to land projects integrating reduced
management is thus integrated into the development vulnerability. This global and shared approach is
and management of the territory. the only one able to provide effective responses.
 58 Semarang: towards a territorial resilience methodology

2 Resilience:
responses at different levels
Resilience is proposed as a response to the After years of state delay, the Paris Conference in
challenges to which certain coasts are exposed. December 2015 marked a turning point in the
This response involves the local level directly fight against climate change by leading to the first
impacted by the disturbances that the territory legally binding universal agreement.
faces to a very great extent. But resilience also
requires the involvement of the national and By November 2017, 168 countries had ratified the
supranational levels. It is by interconnecting Paris Agreement, which accounts for around 80%
these different levels of intervention that of all global emissions. This agreement defines
resilience can be effective. The principles are general emission control objectives to contain
presented below. temperature rises. It provides milestones every
five years on how the objectives are achieved.

2.1. The global level: The Paris Agreement provides for continued and
thematic policies enhanced international support for the adaptation
efforts of developing countries. It recognises the
Among the main global challenges are climate importance of preventing, limiting and dealing with
disruption, rampant urbanisation and natural or losses associated with the effects of climate change.
technological disasters. International conferences It legitimises the role of local authorities called
targeted on these major challenges try to promote upon to build resilience and reduce vulnerability to
frameworks for action that limit the harmful the consequences of this change. It further
effects for present and future generations. affirms the need to cooperate and enhance
understanding, action and support in different
■ Climate disruption areas, such as early warning systems, preparedness
and the Paris Agreement (ratified in 2017) for emergencies and provisions for insurance against
climate hazards.
Climate change is one of the main challenges
for the contemporary world. This global change, This agreement provides a framework for collective
the effects of which are already widely action by states to limit climate change in the
observable, engages human beings’ responsibility. coming decades. It also stipulates that actions may
Its effects, which are going to degrade the be taken in the general interest in favour of limiting
overall habitability of the planet, will make damage in the areas most at risk. It recognises
themselves particularly felt in certain very the role of non-state players in the fight against
vulnerable areas, such as coasts or arid zones. climate change, in particular local authorities,
The already visible impacts will be mainly borne civil society and the private sector. The principle
26 The African Development
Bank (AfDB), Asian
by future generations. of acting collectively on coastlines weakened by
Development Bank (ADB), climate change emerges as a direct consequence of
European Bank
for Reconstruction Under the UN climate convention, adopted in this agreement. The action requires the mobilisation
and Development (EBRD),
European Investment 1992, a Conference of the Parties (COP) brings of financial resources. Also, at the international
Bank (EIB), the Inter-
American Development together 195 States each year. The objective is to level, multilateral financing banks26 are identified
Bank Group (IDBG),
the Islamic Development control greenhouse gas emissions to contain as among the main donors acting in the fight
Bank (IsDB) and the World
Bank Group (WBG). climate disruptions. against climate change.
 Semarang: towards a territorial resilience methodology 59

■ Rampant urbanisation Settlements Foundation (UNHHSF), an organisation

and the Quito Conference (2016) dedicated to urbanisation problems. The specific
nature of the problems linked to human settlements
Climate change has occurred in a context where, was tackled in 1976 in Vancouver (Canada) during
after having grown a lot in the XIXth century, the the first international conference of the United
population of the world has gone from 220 million Nations especially devoted to urbanisation, known
to 2.8 billion inhabitants in the XXth century. In 2018, as “Habitat I”. The second conference on cities,
it reached 7.6 billion inhabitants. It is estimated that "Habitat II", was held in Istanbul in 1996. Adopted
it will be 8.6 billion in 2030. by 171 countries, the Habitat Agenda resulting from
this summit then had more than 100 commitments
As an expression of remarkable demographic growth and 600 recommendations.
and on a global scale, the accelerated urbanisation
of territories is another big challenge which the In 2002, the Habitat Conference became a fully-
contemporary world must face. Whereas in 1900 one fledged United Nations program, UN-Habitat,
in eight humans was urban, in 2011 the proportion designed to meet the urban challenges of the
of urban inhabitants was higher than that of rural next fifteen years. Benefiting from numerous
ones (cf. Figure 38 below). governmental and non-governmental inter-
national partners, UN-Habitat participates in the
As the graph by Gilles Pison shows (Figure 38), this United Nations goal of reducing poverty and
process moves the planet from a world that was promoting sustainable development. UN-Habitat
mainly rural to one that is becoming mainly urban. establishes strategic plans covering successive
This upheaval has happened in just a few decades six-year periods. These plans aim to address
and has produced major economic, social and urban demographic, environmental, economic,
environmental changes. It requires action at the spatial and social issues. The current plan runs
international level to limit the generalised deterioration from 2014 to 2019.
of people’s living conditions.
The "Habitat III" Conference was held in Quito
(Ecuador) in October 2016 on the theme of
sustainable urban development. It led to the
establishment of a new program for cities, for the
2016-2026 decade. Among the many objectives
set are the adoption and implementation of
measures to reduce and manage disaster hazards,
to reduce vulnerability, to strengthen resilience and
the capacity to adapt to natural or human-induced
disasters, to adopt climate change mitigation and
adaptation actions. The "Cities Programme" refers
explicitly to the Sendai international framework
for disaster prevention.

■ Natural or technological disasters

38. The process of urbanisation of the planet. and the Sendai framework (2015)
From Gilles Pison, Atlas de la population mondiale,
Éditions Autrement, 2009.
In the context of climate change and the rapid
As early as 1975, aware of the profound change urbanisation of territories, the reduction of
underway, the United Nations General Assembly disasters and their effects is another subject of
set up the United Nations Housing and Human international concern. Human disasters are often
60 Semarang: towards a territorial resilience methodology

amplified by climatic factors. They primarily affect of conflict that has arisen between demographic
dense urban areas and impact especially the and urban extension and the natural elements.
poorest populations on the planet. Having said as much, to date, they have not been
identified as such, in particular via an international
In 1987, the United Nations General Assembly "coastline" framework document which was to
decided on an International Decade for Disaster Risk address their specific problems.
Reduction (UNISDR, United Nations International
Strategy for Disaster Reduction). This initiative Furthermore, the three international policies
resulted in ten-year action plans in 1994 (Yokohama), mentioned above have in common the promotion
then in 2005 (Hyogo) and in 2015 (Sendai). The of resilience methodologies as a suitable means
"Sendai framework", in force until 2030, sets an to respond to the challenges to be met.
international goal of protecting life, health, means
of subsistence, ecosystems, natural heritage and Addressing resilience across a territory or a city
critical infrastructure. It calls for a substantial allows for interconnecting the thematic challenges
reduction in losses and aims to increase societal of climate change, the urban developments and
and environmental resilience. the disaster prevention which, in reality, are all
interacting with each other.
For the first time, the UNISDR is widening the scope
of its action from natural hazards to technological To help cities establish strategies responding to the
hazards, thus admitting that it is difficult to consider challenges of the XXIst century taking into account the
the former without taking the latter into account. interests of populations, the Rockefeller Foundation in
It focuses on brutal shocks, but does not explicitly 2013 set up a programme entitled "100 Resilient cities".
extend its field to slow or progressive phenomena, The participating cities were selected based on a
such as subsidence, pollution or contamination. file presenting their motivations. The programme
These phenomena, however, can strongly impact the provides the selected cities with its expertise in
living environment and the health of communities. seeking funding and helps them network.
They also cause major economic damage.

These international frameworks relating to the 2.2. Regional levels conducive

control of climate change, the management of to territorial strategies
urbanisation and disaster prevention converge to
act on the ongoing processes with harmful Establishing territorial strategies responding to the
impacts, of which communities are the first major challenges dealt with by international
victims. Only the Paris Conference concluded with a frameworks would require working at the level of
written commitment by the States to implement large regional entities that could involve several
the guidelines established, at least in principle. countries. Regional variations of international
strategies would enable orientating policies to be
The implementation of these guidelines is often done carried out in territories presenting similar sets
thematically on supranational scales, such as European of problems.
directives. Specific programmes are conducted by
international organisations. Finally, there are The regional approach is particularly suitable for
collaborative or specific initiatives, public or private. tackling the question of coastlines. The transformations
of these latter are very concerning for local
It would be useful to interconnect these thematic communities. In view of the major disasters of recent
methodologies in the areas most sensitive to the decades, players in coastal areas should contribute
effects of climate change, urban development coordinated responses to the safety and health of
and disaster occurrence at this international level. the population, preservation of the environment,
The coasts are thus on the frontline of the state and the viability of economic activities.
 Semarang: towards a territorial resilience methodology 61

The French strategy of coastal adaptation

France implemented a national coastline management strategy in 2012. This strategy recognises the mobility
of the coastline. It recommends working on a strategic retreat from the sectors that cannot be defended and
emphasises soft methods of stabilisation of the dune cordons and sandy coasts, reserving structural works
for protection where the stakes are high. The 2012-2015 action proposals relate to the observation of coastal
development, the definition of local strategies shared between players, the adaptation of management doctrines
and the mobilisation of specific funding.
To follow up on the first action program, a new program was adopted for the 2017-2019 period. It presents:
1. A summary of the actions done under the previous programme;
2. Common principles and strategic recommendations for coastline management;
3. 11 actions and 51 sub-actions identified, organised into 5 focal areas:
• to develop and share knowledge on the coastline,
• to develop and put into practice shared territorial strategies,
• to develop experimental methodologies in coastal areas to facilitate spatial recomposition,
• to identify the methods of financial intervention,
• to communicate, raise awareness and train people about the problems of coastline management.

This strategy is intended to be used in forms suitable for each coastal region. Thus, the prefect of the Occitanie region
has established an integrated regional coastline management strategy for the 2018-2050 period. This regional
strategy defines a reference framework within which coastal development operations must take place.

This regional level is rich in possibilities. While Operating at a local level does not exclude
leaving freedom of initiative to each State and working in a network. Thus, a network dedicated
each coastal territory, it would make possible, for to developing the resilience capacities of Asian
the benefit of the greatest number: cities in the face of climate change, the Asian
• a cross-analysis of the problems raised; Cities Climate Change Resilience Network, has
• data pooling; been set up by the Rockefeller Foundation. This
• benchmarking exercises between local responses; network unites India, Indonesia, Bangladesh,
• the mobilisation of high-level international expertise; Thailand and Vietnam.
• development and experimenting with new methods;
• the mobilisation of international funding. This level can itself be broken down into multiple
mini-levels of operations depending on the territorial
This level is intermediate between the one, often organisation in place: State, province or region,
global, at which major principles are defined and the municipality, district. These levels are situated
one where they are put into practice at local level. further away from or nearer to communities.

As indicated above, conventional responses, if

2.3. The local level adapted they are necessary, are not enough and moreover
to resilience methodologies must be coordinated with each other. Thus, it is
necessary to implement resilience leveraging as
The local level is made up of all the players present presented above.
in a territory, whether they come within local, regional
or national jurisdictions. They are stakeholders in Therefore, it's at the local level that Cerema operates
the way the territory is run in accordance with their in Semarang to promote a regional resilience
types of activities. It is at this level that operational methodology.
responses must be brought to the challenges of
disaster prevention, climate change provisions and
controlling urbanisation.
 62 Semarang: towards a territorial resilience methodology

3 A territorial resilience project

for Semarang
The City of Semarang is committed to the As a first step, it proposes to make an observatory
Rockefeller Foundation programme: Resilient of subsidence and its effects, intended to unite
Semarang, in connection with Mercy Corps the players.
and UNDIP. This fairly innovative approach,
both bottom-up and transversal, has tackled
different subjects, but not specifically that of 3.1. Contributions of the Franco-
the coastal strip. Indonesian Seminar in Semarang
The territorial resilience project proposed by Held in 2015, COP 21 resulted in the Paris climate
Cerema in connection with the coastal problems is agreement. In this context, Diponegoro University
therefore a project complementary to that already (UNDIP), the French Embassy in Indonesia and Cerema
under way. For the first time, it involves all the then decided to organise a seminar in Semarang to deal
players concerned with the future of the coastal with territorial resilience in relation to the situation of
strip, whether local or whether they represent the coastal strip. It was about taking on the climate
larger scale entities: the Province, the State or the change challenge in a concrete way for the specific
international community. Amongst the possibilities case of a coast particularly at risk from subsidence.
available to build this new project, Cerema has The seminar was held at UNDIP on 7 October 2015,
proposed targeting themes of people’s living under the aegis of the rector of the university,
standards, the adaptation of urban infrastructure Professor Dr Yos Johan Utama, SH., M.Hum and the
and global water management. French ambassador for the Climate, Philippe Lacoste.

39. Participants in the Semarang seminar, 7 October 2015.

 Semarang: towards a territorial resilience methodology 63

The Indonesian delegation unites representatives of future developmental progressions in the

from the Governor of the Province of Central coming years and decades. This last aspect is
Java, the Indonesian Ministry of Public Works, essential to help managers and decision-makers
the City of Semarang, administrative departments, to make strategic choices for territorial development
universities and infrastructure management and management.
services. The French delegation was made up of
experts from Cerema, ENTPE27 teacher-researchers, The other components of the proposed resilience
a representative of the Ameva28 basin public project are action-orientated. The first of them aims
territorial establishment, of French companies with to improve the living conditions of the population
different technical mobilisable know-how linked in the coastal strip (Focal point 2). This can be done
to subsidence. by developing practices that promote a resilient
habitat. Many inhabitants are acting in this way,
The seminar endorsed the principle of a territorial individually, by making use of the resources and
resilience project to respond collectively to the help that they have available. These initiatives
challenge of Semarang. Two working sessions deserve to be encouraged, valued and supported
followed up the seminar: one with the representative by specific external resources so that the living
of the governor of the Province of Central Java conditions of as many people as possible can
(Fishing directorate), the other with the City of be improved.
Semarang planning departments (Bappeda29).
Technical infrastructure is tested by subsidence.
The goal of the project is to federate a network Responses are provided on a case-by-case basis to
of Indonesian, French and European partners since remedy the disruption that is the most penalising,
German and Dutch organisations are already operating the most likely to affect the service provided to
in or near Semarang. users. A collective dynamic could support managers'
efforts to help them in the search for suitable
responses and to pool the resources that can be
3.2. The proposed territorial resilience mobilised (Focal point 3).
project
Finally, concerted management of the water
The project proposed is based primarily on a tool bringing together the watershed cycle, the cycle of
for understanding the problems of the coastal its urban exploitation and interference with the
strip, its progression over time (Focal point 1). This maritime environment (tides, salinity, etc.) would
observation component is necessary to capitalise deserve to be in the forefront of collective actions
on the data accumulated in recent years, data (Focal point 4). It would involve committing to National School of 27
State Public Works.
which is often dispersed out to different organisations. global management of the water and flooding by
Mixed syndicate 28
It also aims at structuring an effective network of also dealing with issues of run-off and soil for the development
and enhancement of
measures appropriate to needs and offering the erosion, landslides, quality changes in surface and the Somme watershed.

possibility of pooling instrumentation and analysis groundwater…). Management at the watershed level Badan Perencanaan 29
Pembangunan Daerah,
resources. Finally, its purpose is to make projections benefits the coastal strip. disingkat Bappeda.
64 Semarang: towards a territorial resilience methodology

Other themes would justify resilience methodologies, This is why the proposed territorial resilience
but it seems that the action should be confined to project is limited to the four focal points for work
a few major themes. described in the table below:

Resilience
Subject Purpose First steps principles
(cf. 1.1 )
Focal point 1 - Establish a system 1. P
 utting data providers in touch 1. Situational analysis of resources A, B, F
observing the effects of subsidence. with each other. available.
2. Defining needs. 2. Defining needs.
3. S
 tructuring the observatory 3. Identifying gaps.
and the methods for creating it, 4. Definition of the projected
its management. observatory.

Focal point 2 - Improve the living 1. C

 onducting a call for projects 1. Performing diagnoses by district. B, C, E
conditions of the inhabitants by to promote a resilient habitat 2. Drawing up requirement
developing a resilient habitat. in the coastal strip. specifications.
2. D
 evelopment of innovative 3. Defining launch methods.
projects.

Focal point 3 - Adapt the urban 1. D iagnosing technical problems 1. Shared situational analysis D
infrastructure through technical and the solutions used. for problems.
innovation. 2. E stablishing a resilience action 2. Analysis of possible solutions.
programme for technical 3. Defining an action programme.
infrastructure.

Focal point 4 - Promote global 1. Constructing a project. 1. R

 aising awareness of the benefits A, B, E
water management. 2. I ncentives to keep developing of a global approach.
practices. 2. Shared situational analysis for
problems and the resources
available.
3. Constructing a resilience project.

The territorial resilience approach requires devising in place dedicated budgets, mobilising the greatest
strategic planning in favour of the coastal strip, possible number of players concerned and in
ensuring that disturbances on the coastal strip particular the manufacturers, establishing local
are taken into account in the definition and communication and links with the population,
implementation of development projects, putting defining training needs.
 Semarang: towards a territorial resilience methodology 65

The coastal strip observatory: 4

a foundation stage
The resilience methodology in Semarang calls on manager
DATA

the territory's players to unite. The establishment

1
of an observatory for subsidence and its + contributors
+
effects on the coastal strip is a practical way of
administrators
achieving this objective. It will make it possible
to collect and share data from the territory. This
observatory is an essential lever for the coastal IN DATA DATA
+
strip’s resilience project. governance

DATA

4.1. What is an observatory?

An observatory is a device that takes an

PROCESSING

analytical look at a given environment or

OBSERVATORY
subject30. It makes it possible to follow the
evolution of a territorial phenomenon in time
and in space. It calls on experienced observers or
consultants. Information providers are all persons
OUT DATA

or organisations who hold information on the

phenomenon or who study it. They can be
university researchers, practitioners or specialists
developers
in the questions which are subject to specific beneficiaries
analysis such as administrations, companies,
engineering design offices... 40. Organisational diagram of an observatory.

Most observatories take the form of computer For the proper functioning of the observatory,
applications in which data is collected, ordered, it is useful to set up governance connecting
processed and returned in summary form, managers, contributors and beneficiaries. This will
such as thematic maps, tables, graphics (see enable defining31 :
Figure 40). • the objectives to be followed;
• the main directions to be taken;
http://observatoire 30
The recovered processed data is made available • the protocols and management plans to be devised; gouvernance.ca

to users interested in the subject, such as • the field surveys to be carried out; http://www.valleedugaleizon.fr/ 31
observatoire-territoire/
developers or scientists. • the results obtained to be validated. observatoire-scientifique.html
 66 Semarang: towards a territorial resilience methodology

The observatory also requires the establishment then communicate the information produced to
of agreements with various organisations, in beneficiary organisations.
order to increase the number of partners, to
share the workload and the financial costs. Correlations between natural phenomena and
anthropogenic dynamics can be made in order
to understand and anticipate changes in the
4.2. The SeMiReSu project: coastal strip.
a simplified prototype
These analyses will aim to integrate hazards into
Scientific work done in the context of the Nusantara regional planning and provide the most appropriate
PHC led to the proposal for the creation of an responses.
observatory on subsidence and its effects on the
Semarang coastal strip called "Semarang coastal This observatory should also have knowledge of the
Mitigation and Resilience to Subsidence" (SeMiReSu). various projects impacting the coastal strip. It can
then simulate their induced effects and suggest
This project aims to develop the territorial resilience of that they be taken into account.
Semarang to natural hazards in a context of demo-
graphic growth, climate change and the exposure There are multiple players potentially concerned
of the coastal strip to the impact of subsidence. by this project. They are involved in different areas
The objectives to be achieved are as follows: of management: transport infrastructure, urban
• to contribute to the knowledge and monitoring planning and housing, water...
over time of subsidence phenomena on the coastal
strip and its impact on the territory of Semarang by The main public stakeholders are the cities (Kotamadya)
setting up a lasting network of measurements not limited to Semarang, and the agencies (Kabupaten)
carried out by different organisations: the multi- responsible respectively for urban planning and roads,
plication of measurement points enriching and the Province of Central Java (Propinsi Java Central)
improving interpretations; responsible for rivers, watersheds and provincial roads,
• to develop knowledge and make it available to the Central State (Pemerintah Pusat) responsible for
decision-makers and project directors with the national roads, railways and coastline.
production of thematic maps and analyses;
• to raise awareness and train players about Private players amongst those most concerned by
damaging systemic effects and how to avoid or the coastal strip are also to be mobilised: the
limit them; airport manager, seaport manager and managers
• to federate the projects participating in the of big companies.
territory’s resilience and enhance them to promote
new ones.. In support of this first circle of players, expert
organisations, administrative departments, service
This project starts from the findings that the City, providers will then need to be mobilised.
universities, water management services, design offices
produce a lot of data on Semarang and its coastal strip. By raising awareness and bringing together all of
These relate to various subjects - measuring subsidence, these players, the observatory will be an operational
demography, economic activities, habitat, distribution lever for territorial resilience.
of water supplies and collections and the different
pumping operations, etc. - useful for carrying out a It is envisaged that the themes to be dealt with will
territorial resilience action. be broken down into two strands, distinct but
destined to be linked together :
The SeMiReSu observatory will allow us to collect • water-related hazards (at the level of the watershed);
useful data, update them, process them, and • hazards linked to urbanisation (Semarang level).
 Semarang: towards a territorial resilience methodology 67

The subjects dealt with will be the following:

Phénomènes physiques Anthropogenic activities

Water-related hazards and related natural processes

(inland watershed level)

Inland flooding hazard (overflow): knowledge, monitoring. Protection by structural works, management and operational practices.

Run-off hazard. Deforestation.

Making the ground non-porous.
Agricultural practices.

Rises in the sea level/submersion. Coastal development: strategic or economic facilities, urbanisation.
Land salinisation (slaking area). Activity established at the coast, linked to the sea: fishing.
Salinisation of freshwater water tables. Freshwater groundwater/saltwater groundwater abstraction.
Coastal erosion. Mangrove reconstruction.
Disappearance of terrestrial areas.
State of the natural or reconfigured mangrove.

Hazards linked to urbanisation

(Semarang level)

Subsidence: space data. Public living conditions, vulnerability of facilities and structural works,
economic impacts.
Groundwater abstraction and its progression, solutions.
Water needs and their evolution: household and industrial uses.
Human activities.
Constructive modes.
...
Ground movement: identification, knowledge and monitoring. Urban planning.
Constructive modes.

Water-related hazards: flood protection: Living conditions of the population.

giant sea wall urban protection projects. Vulnerability of developments and constructions, urban departments;
roads, waste management.
Economic impacts.

To meet these objectives, the observatory will take

the form of a website providing access to:
• knowledge on subsidence affecting the Semarang
coastal strip in the form of measurements, images,
maps, analyses;
• a documentary toolbox;
• targeted approaches: schools, professions, etc.;
• a territorial resilience charter to be signed by
the partners and a list of affiliated projects;
• a list of partners associating themselves with
the project.

41. Pre-model of the coastal strip observatory site.

Charte graphique : Tanguy Guézo.
 68 Semarang: towards a territorial resilience methodology

The evolution and development of this tool will only • to develop knowledge about resilient habitats and
be possible with the active collaboration of the make it available to players in the building sector;
partners, as well as a constant supply of subsidence • to manage abandoned land.
data over time.
The observatory will enable the implementation of
About forty players have been identified as an information system designed to ensure the
potentially concerned by the observatory. These production of data and the monitoring of indicators
players are distributed as follows: relating to resilient habitats. The ability of the
habitat to absorb disturbances and to re-organise
Indicative number itself could be understood by the producing data
Field of activity of organisations
concerned on the following themes:
Water management 4 • knowledge of multi-physical phenomena on the
Spatial planning 3
scale of buildings;
• measurement campaigns in situ with the
Infrastructures 5
characterisation of constraints, pathologies and
Underground infrastructure 1
disruptions;
Energy 3
• the identification of structural and functional
Public health 4 strategies for the construction, protection, adaptation
Economic and social 9 and renovation of habitats;
Educational establishments 3 • the analysis of feedback and the conservation of
Geophysics and environment 6 collective memory;
Hazard and risk management 3 • training, encouragement to learn, to know the
habitat and how it works, to acquire behaviours
Marine sciences and oceanography 4
suitable to living conditions in buildings exposed to
Total number of organisations 45
natural hazards.

4.3. Focus on “resilient habitat” The observatory will be able to look with particular
by Richard Cantin, attention at different types of buildings exposed to
teacher-researcher natural hazards, depending on whether they provide
management of civil security events, accommodate or
The “resilient habitat” component of the observatory are likely to provide shelter for communities susceptible
aims to build knowledge to improve the living to hazards or participate in public service missions,
conditions of the inhabitants and develop the and which must be restored as quickly as possible.
resilience of habitats exposed to natural hazards.
Resilient habitat refers to the different types of Data relating to resilience strategies will be regularly
building use (residential, tertiary, industrial, etc.). updated for these buildings.

The objectives are the following: The observatory must be able to grasp the
• to contribute to interdisciplinary knowledge of change, but also to adapt to it, by taking
the different habitats exposed to natural hazards; systemic interactions between buildings and their
• to draw up a summary of the buildings and ensure environment into consideration. It will thus promote
monitoring over time; organising information in order to determine and act
• to provide information on the capacity of habitats at different levels (building, residential block, district)
to absorb disturbances; with a global and multi-dimensional approach.
 Semarang: towards a territorial resilience methodology 69

42. Effect of subsidence on a dwelling.

43. Activities building impacted by subsidence. The ground floor level is lowered.
70 Semarang: towards a territorial resilience methodology

The observatory should facilitate forward thinking This observatory will support awareness-raising
to outline the possible futures of habitats, to make and training actions for inhabitants and players
information, the consistency and sustainability of in the building sector, developing skills relating
the information system more reliable and to provide to construction and renovation methods for
information accessible to inhabitants. different types of buildings at risk from natural
hazards. It should thus enable inhabitants and
In this context, the “resilient habitat” component decision-makers to regularly and quickly have
of the observatory should allow for: indicators available even just to give them
• carrying out building-level diagnostics; information about the realities of the habitats
• the production of scientific expertise specific to they manage and the elements they need in order
resilient habitat; to make their decisions and do their operations.
• knowledge and the monitoring of inhabitants’
living conditions;
• the establishment of multi-annual action
programmes aimed at improving the resilience of
habitats (research and development, innovative
projects, experiments).
 Semarang: towards a territorial resilience methodology 71

Different viewpoints from scientists 5

Two scientific perspectives are brought by Julien Birgi, adapt to changes. The players in the production of
a PhD student in urban planning and by Gilles Hubert, this city, the most invested and interested in its
university professor in planning and development, future, in the front line of which are the inhabitants
on the question of Semarang's resilience to the of the new districts and the landowners, constitute a
challenges posed by the coastal strip. considerable force with which public policies will
have to make compromises in order to meet the
challenge of subsistence. Indeed, without close
5.1. Semarang's problems, articulation with these players from the organic city,
by Julien Birgi urban planning and investments in infrastructure will
produce very limited effects. These are the findings
Faced with the difficulty of anticipating climatic made around the large western canal in Semarang,
phenomena and their consequences, resilience is an where the considerable investments made to combat
essential factor in territories’ capacity to accommodate flooding have not leveraged the development of
populations and human activities. Applied to urban the districts concerned.
policies, it questions the degree of consideration
given to the flexible or reversible nature of planning From this point of view, the approach put into
choices, a parameter often eclipsed by immediate effect by Cerema is extremely interesting.
priorities and technical or economic constraints. Without prejudging the solutions to be provided,
However, cities are complex systems, for which public the work programme has taken the time it
authority planning and management are only one needed to understand the issues and to formulate
factor in their evolution. As the time of technological, recommendations shared with a key local player
economic and societal changes accelerates, these – Diponegoro University – which relate to an
systems become more and more volatile and difficult intervention framework rather than to technical
to get a grip on. This is particularly true in emerging choices. The work done thus leaves total latitude to
countries, where the fragility of statistical tools, the local players to perform the actions they deem
sometimes inextricable nature of governance best suited to the local context and to their
problems, demographic and social pressure, the lack available resources. This approach is certainly
of resources and the difficulty in articulating public not as spectacular as a projected structural works
and private players in development explain the or key in hand smart city. But, by committing to the
essentially organic development of the urban fabric. long term and leaving local players to take care of
technical choices, it encourages the affirmation of
Thus, in Semarang as in most Indonesian cities, the alternative urban models, undoubtedly more sober
effort of the different local authorities (City, Province, than those to which we are accustomed.
Central State) on infrastructure does not really
correlate with private (residential developments or This humility in the responses to the challenges of
perumahan, industrial areas or kawasan industri, the sustainable city is undoubtedly the first
commercial centres or ruko) and informal (urban condition for moving towards a more resilient city.
villages or kampung) yet dominant urban production. From this point of view, the long time frame and
non-material dimension of programs like Cerema's,
This "organic" city is not without virtues. If it deviates often perceived as handicaps by donors, actually
from the canons of planning dear to the hearts of represent a particularly ethical investment which
certain urban planners, it testifies to a real capacity to deserves the full attention of institutional partners.
 72 Semarang: towards a territorial resilience methodology

5.2. Spotlight on the actions and/or absence of link between these two levels
of inhabitants, by Gilles Hubert could thus be brought into question.

Gilles Hubert takes up here the results of the work As shown by the Cerema report, the city of
of Nur Miladan, completed as part of a doctoral Semarang is a particularly interesting area for
thesis defended in 201632. studying natural hazards and visualising the use of
a territorial resilience strategy. It is therefore not
■ Original research areas surprising that Nur Miladan should have focused
and a relevant field on this example. For his research, he mainly did an
important field investigation to study the modes
The research related to understanding the forms of of action of inhabitants living in very exposed
action taken by communities of inhabitants at the districts more closely.
level of their own district, to deal with recurring
natural phenomena (flooding linked to tides with Two types of land were studied (cf. Figure 44). They were
high coefficients, the rob). It is in the field of work chosen because they correspond to two conventional
32 Nur Miladan, op. cit.
This thesis was
on questions of civic and social values ("Civic and Indonesian urban forms. They are located at the level
jointly supervised
by Nathalie Lancret,
social capacity"). It helped to get a better grasp of of the coastal strip of Semarang (land reclaimed from
the National Centre
for Scientific Research
the concept of social resilience. the sea over the course of past centuries) on either
(CNRS, Centre national de
la recherche scientifique)
side of the Tanjung Emas port and are bordered by
director of research, The thesis looked at, on the one hand, the policy canalised rivers. They have in common that they are
Sugiono Soetomo
(university professor) implemented by the public authorities to manage exposed to flooding and are furthermore located
and Gilles Hubert
(university professor). flood hazard at different levels (institutional in an area of high subsidence (greater than or equal
It benefited from joint
supervision between territories, at risk territories) and, on the other to 7 cm per year). The two terrains differ in their
the University of Paris-Est
and Dipanegoro University. hand, the action of inhabitants at the level of social characteristics and, consequently, in their
33 Op. cit. their neighbourhoods to face the hazards. The link specific urban features.

1 Tanah Mas Real Estate

(zone résidentielle)
2 Kampung Cilosari
(sous-district de Kemijen)
3 Kampung Tambak Lorok
(sous-district de Tanjung Mas)
A Asin River (rivière d’Asin)
B Semarang River
(rivière de Semarang)
C West Floodway
(canal de dérivation Ouest)
D Banger River
(rivière de Banger)
E East Floodway
(canal de dérivation Est)

44. Location of sectors 1,2, and 3. Source: Doctoral thesis by Nur Miladan33
 Semarang: towards a territorial resilience methodology 73

The first type corresponds to a residential district The community represents a human group formed
(Tanah Mas) which was built on the basis of an within a district or a village. It constitutes an area
urban planning scheme and built by private for sociability where various forms of solidarity
developers. It is made up of relatively similar are expressed. There are two types of community
detached houses. The quality of infrastructure and organisation:
networks (drinking water supply, waste water • Rukun Tetangga: neighbourhood association
system, waste collection) is remarkable in comparison whose head is chosen by deliberation on the part
to the other terrain. of the families;
• Rukun Warga: grouping of neighbourhood
The latter is made up of two traditional habitat associations, the head of which is appointed from
districts. This type of habitat, specific to South- among the heads of these latter.
east Asia is called kampung. "Urban village" has
also been used to designate it. These two districts It is generally considered that urban life generates a
are adjacent. Their urban and social characteristics process of individualism. This does not seem to be
are similar: the case here. The spirit of solidarity, which is part
• Kampung Cilosari: a working-class district where of traditional Indonesian culture, remains present.
the inhabitants work in the port industry or live
off the informal economy; ■ Solidarity actions at the district level
• Kampung Tambak Lorok: a fishing district, located
downstream from the previous one and right next Faced with the hazards and inadequate institutional
to the sea. responses, the residents associations develop
forms of self-organisation and self-help at the
The vulnerability of the kampung to flooding is district level. They seek to reduce the impact of
higher than that of the residential district, especially flooding by themselves by acting on the urban
due to poor quality infrastructure and networks. morphology (reinforcing dikes, raising streets or
The poor coverage of the drinking water supply pavements...), on the housing (improving the level
network leads residents to pump in the ground- of protection, building an additional floor…) and
water, overuse of which aggravates the phenomenon on water management (clearing canals, waste
of subsidence. removal, pumping).

■ Characterising the role Work in the districts, done at the level of the public
of the communities of inhabitants spaces, is the responsibility of the community
which raises funds from the families. They are
The mess caused by recurrent hydrological events coordinated by the "heads" of the communities.
(whether they come from rain or tides) and the The work to reduce the vulnerability of housing is
very relative effectiveness of the structural financed by the households, but is carried out with
measures put in place by the local authorities lead help from the community.
the inhabitants to act autonomously in their
districts in order to protect themselves. Households, according to their means, try to
renovate, repair and reinforce their housing.
These initiatives have multiplied since the emergence These practices remain modest and partial.
of the rob in the 1980s, a marine submersion
phenomenon accentuated by the retreat of the ■ The production of environmental inequalities
coastline and land subsidence. They are based on
the existence of communities of inhabitants who, The residents associations function independently
in Indonesia, are part of society and are integrated of each other. Solidarity is expressed at the level of
into the institutional system. a district, but not between districts. This form of
 74 Semarang: towards a territorial resilience methodology

self-organisation is a source of conflict between The inhabitants know the hydrological phenomena,
adjacent neighbourhoods (the one upstream which they see as disruptive elements of their
discharging its water into the one downstream). daily life. However, they do not wish to move
It also generates tensions within the same district. house. The occupants of the residential area
consider that they live in a strategic sector (close
This is for example the case with the two kampung to the city centre and workplaces). Those of the
studied, where individual and collective means are kampung are also attached to their neighbourhood
insufficient to make actions effective. These poor for similar reasons (proximity to the sea for
districts do not have the possibility of reducing the fishermen and to the port for workers in industry).
vulnerability of their territory. Solidarity translates Coupled with this is the fact that they are unable
into operations that mobilise time and labour: to move.
cleaning up canals, cleaning streets, etc. Actions to
improve housing, which some families can carry The existence of community systems at the local
out, sometimes cause neighbourhood conflicts. level is an asset for confronting hazard and crisis
Community leaders play a major role in quieting situations. Their actions are a significant element
tensions. But the spirit of solidarity is on the wane. in constructing the resilience of a territory. But
they must be complementary to public authority
The situation encountered in the Tanah Mas residential intervention and not a response to their failure.
area is different. The financial capacity of households They should be valued, but they must also be
and, consequently, that of the community, allow the regulated.
deployment of collective and individual measures
that look satisfactory to the inhabitants. Community Currently, each community acts on its own
operations thus do not get under way. The community account and intervenes for the protection of its
was able to finance a pumping system which had the immediate environment, without worrying about
effect of strengthening the solidarity between any domino effects. It operates autonomously
residents and their desire to act collectively (rather with resources that are totally dependent on the
than at an individual level). This system is also capacity of its members. This causes the creation
recognised by the public authorities. Here too, of environmental inequalities.
community leaders have an essential role: they
coordinate efforts and guide decision-making. For their part, the public authorities act at another
level and in another area. They recognise the
■ Collectively building territorial resilience actions of the communities, but do not worry
about collateral effects.
In view of the results of the research, we can
consider that the inhabitants, whatever the district, The advantage of articulating and coordinating
have a culture of hazard that has been built on the the actions of both seems obvious. As such, the
lived experience of events, given their recurrence, observatory proposed by Cerema can be an
but also on their involvement in taking action in the opportunity to visualise coordination between
absence of effective intervention on the part of players (community leaders, heads of public
public authorities. authorities, external experts...).
 77

General conclusion

Located on the north coast of the island of Java, technological responses such as the construction
Semarang urban district has strong demographic of hydraulic structures, elevating the roofs of
dynamics which are accompanied by a rapid dwellings, raising road infrastructure, etc. were
expansion of the urban influence on a geographically necessary but insufficient to compensate for
constrained territory. the effects of subsistence. Taken separately,
these actions cannot prevent the multiple
To the north, the coastal strip is exposed to multiple interactions between anthropogenic activities
very intense natural hazards including subsidence, and natural phenomena. They thus act as
inland flooding and rising sea levels. Made up of big palliatives, without succeeding in arresting the
volcanic reliefs, the south of the territory is subject ongoing processes.
to increasing deforestation, often accompanied
by landslides. To respond to this problematic situation and allow
Semarang to develop in a sustainable way, Cerema
The work done jointly by Cerema and UNDIP has recommends a territorial resilience methodology.
shown the need for collective and determined This principle is not intended to remove the impacts
action to meet the challenges of sustainable urban of natural phenomena present, but to reduce them
development, in a sensitive context where intense or slow them down, even anticipate and prevent
natural phenomena and the effects of climate their most damaging effects.
change are superimposed. This work benefitted from
the assistance and support of many French partners As a first step, the creation of an observatory for
(French Institute of Indonesia, ENTPE in particular) the subsidence on the coastal strip and its
and Indonesian partners (City of Semarang, effects is proposed. This tool will make it possible
Province of Central Java in particular). to collectively manage scientific and technical
knowledge by giving open access to players in the
Particular attention has been paid to the coastal territory. It will facilitate taking into account
strip where urbanisation has developed widely in natural phenomena in projects and also the prior
recent decades. Human occupation has reclaimed performance of analyses on the effects of a
recent land of alluvial origin, which is being project on the territory. It will help to bring
compacted. Subsidence measurements show very together the players concerned: local, regional and
significant soil subsidence in certain areas. national authorities, professionals and managers,
scientists and experts.
On the coast, natural phenomena are intense. They
interact with each other and with anthropogenic The materialisation of this observatory appeared
activity, in particular groundwater pumping, as a short-term, pragmatic and unifying objective.
overloading of land with embankments or structural It requires the continuation of an already very
works. These damaging processes impact residents' active collaboration between French and
living conditions and economic activity. Indonesian partners and, moreover, the mobilisation
of financial contributors. The resilience methodology
Semarang territory analyses were shared with will then rely on the observatory to be rolled
local players. They have shown that the usual out in different directions.
78 General conclusion

Other steps are destined to follow the establishment as a support for similar work on other coasts in
of this observatory. Their definition will depend Indonesia, Southeast Asia or other parts of the
on the priorities that players identify. It is desirable globe. These particularly vulnerable coasts are
that the other three focal points proposed often confronted with dense urbanisation,
(promotion of a resilient habitat, adaptation of various natural hazards and the effects of climate
urban infrastructure through technical innovation, change, in particular the rising sea levels.
global management) be included in the developments
of the coming years. And besides, this territorial resilience methodology
is also perfectly consistent with international
The case of Semarang shows that each coast has frameworks on climate change, sustainable urban
a particular configuration. However, the territorial development and disaster prevention. Conditions are
resilience approach proposed in Semarang can serve right for it to be put into action.
80 T e c h n i c a l a n n e x b y T r e A lta m i r a
 81

Technical annex by Tre Altamira

"Coastline tracking by satellite
Study of soil movements in the city of Semarang (Indonesia)"
Fifamè Koudogbo and Anne Urdiroz, TRE ALTAMIRA

1. Movement measurement sent out the signal to the satellite with a strong
with SqueeSAR® and constant (lasting) intensity over time (Ferretti
et al., 2001). These algorithms make it possible to
■ Methodology achieve millimetric precision for ground movements
by estimating and eliminating contributions from
InSAR combines synthetic aperture radars (SAR) atmospheric noise. The SqueeSAR algorithm®,
corresponding to high resolution satellite systems software owned by TRE ALTAMIRA, supplies high
and interferometry which refers to the superimposition precision measurements of surface deformations
of waves, in order to detect differences over time. from the processing of a set of radar images34.
Radar satellites record the distance travelled by
the radar signal between emission and reception There are two types of measurement points:
of the wave with very great precision. Thus, by Permanent Scatterers (PS) which are point targets
comparing the evolution of the target-sensor which show a very strong reflection inside a pixel in
distance over time, InSAR technology provides the image (for example, built-up area, rock outcrops,
very precise information on ground deformation, linear structures, etc.) and Distributed Scatterers (DS)
thus making it possible to detect movements with which are extended targets which can be formed
millimetric precision. in certain environments in the absence of a
dominant reflector (PS), by grouping homogeneous
The advanced PSI type interferometry algorithms pixels in order to obtain a sufficiently strong and
are based on the use of a large number of radar stable reflection over time (uncultivated land,
acquisitions, in order to identify the targets which dirt roads, deserts, etc.).

A Ferretti et al., 34
"A New Algorithm
for Processing Interferometric
Data-Stacks: SqueeSAR®",
IEEE Transactions
on Geoscience
and Remote Sensing,
Figure 1. Type of measurement points considered during a SqueeSAR® analysis. 2011.
 82 T e c h n i c a l a n n e x b y T r e A lta m i r a

Figure 2. Projection of actual ground movement in the direction of the line of sight (LOS).

■ Movement measurement and precision not only on the quality of each image, but also
on the quality of the processing carried out.
SAR satellites follow a fixed trajectory around
the Earth at an altitude of about 800 km. This
trajectory is inclined a few degrees relative to 2. Case study – Historical study
the north-south axis. Radar satellites measure of subsidence across the city
movements in the direction of their line of sight of Semarang
(LOS) which is defined as the line towards which
the sensor looks at the surface of the Earth. In ■ Area of interest and satellite data archive
other words, what the sensor actually measures
is the projection of the movement in the LOS; The study focuses on the city of Semarang, a city
different examples are offered in Figure 2. in Indonesia located on the north coast of Java,
the Pasisir. Located on the island of Java’s ocean
Displacement measurements provided by the seaboard, the city of Semarang developed
SqueeSAR technique® are differential and relative towards the coast on unconsolidated quaternary
to a spatial reference. This reference point is sedimentary grounds (alluvial delta).
selected during the process based on its excellent
electromagnetic characteristics. Due to urbanisation, it has suffered the effects of
subsidence for several years, that is to say, soil
An accuracy index corresponding to the standard compaction, combined with processes of marine
deviation is also provided with each measurement. erosion and rising sea levels. This complex
The precision of the processing depends largely combination of natural phenomena exacerbated
on the estimation of the atmospheric artifacts by anthropogenic activities produces a dynamic
impacting the dataset. This step will itself depend damaging to the territory.
 T e c h n i c a l a n n e x b y T r e A lta m i r a 83

The European Space Agency's Sentinel-1 data

archive was used for the study. Sentinel-1 is one
of a series of ESA Earth observation satellites,
developed in the framework of the European
Copernicus programme; the data is free of rights.
The spatial resolution of the images is 20 metres.
Figure 3 shows the extent of the images acquired
by the Sentinel-1 satellite across the study area
under consideration.

The study period is defined by the data available in

the archives, it therefore extends from 14 October 2014
to 19 July 2018.

Finally, the technical characteristics of the processing

and the measurement are summarised in Tables 1 Figure 3. Shows the extent of the images acquired by the
and 2 respectively. Sentinel-1 satellite across the study area under consideration.

sept.-14 march-15 sept.-15 march-16 aug.-16 feb.-17 aug.-17 feb.-18 aug.-18

Figure 4. Temporal distribution of Sentinel-1 images used for the study.

Mission Spatial resolution Study period No. of images

Sentinel-1 20 m 14 Oct. 14 – 19 Jul. 18 102

Table 1. Technical characteristics of the treatment.

Measurement precision

Average movement speed 1-2 mm/year

Individual movement measurement 3-4 mm

Table 2. Technical features of average rate of movement measurements.

84 T e c h n i c a l a n n e x b y T r e A lta m i r a

Figure 5 represents the movement map across between -75 and 75 mm/year, depending on the
Semarang resulting from analysis by radar satellite direction and intensity of the movement.
interferometry of Earth observation data acquired About 56,900 measurement points were detected in
by the Sentinel-1 satellite over approximately the sector under consideration. The results show a
four years, between October 2014 and July 2018. strong deformation gradient that extends from the
On the illustration, the different coloured dots interior to the coastal zone. Various sectors of
correspond to natural targets which are mainly movement are thus brought to light, the area of
located in built-up areas, on bare soil or in areas of maximum subsidence is located to the east; the
little vegetation, etc. and which constitute the subsidence measured there reaching 13 cm per year.  
measurement points used for analysis of the
surface movements. Time series are plotted in Figure 6, they show the
The information on the speed of deformation progression of subsidence in different places; the
measured by the technique is given in millimetres closest to the coast, cumulative movements of more
per year from the scale varying from red to blue, than 35 cm over 4 years were measured.

Figure 5. Movement map from SqueeSAR analysis® data Sentinel-1 acquired between 14 October 2014 and 19 July 2018.

Figure 6. Time series of measurement points.

 T e c h n i c a l a n n e x b y T r e A lta m i r a 85

3. Summary

In this article, interferometry shows its full capacity to The use of interferometry for detecting surface
perform temporal and precise monitoring of surface deformation of natural (for example, natural soil
movements in Semarang. Around 57,000 measurement compaction…) or anthropogenic origin (for example,
points were thus detected without any ground groundwater extraction…) can thus have a strong
instrumentation being necessary. Interferometry impact on development strategies; there is no
thus makes it possible, when a data archive is doubt that this “macro” view of the territories
available, to carry out retrospective analyses; we can could be of great help for better understanding
also emphasise the speed of execution, since a of hazards and plans for resilience.
situational analysis of the movements affecting
the site can be generated in less than two months.
 87

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 91

Glossary

The definitions proposed below are those used in the Subduction: process by which an oceanic tectonic
■ 
work. They do not exclude other possible definitions. plate curves and plunges under another plate before
sinking into the Earth’s mantle.
Natural hazard: manifestation of a potentially
■ 
damaging and naturally caused physical process at Subsidence: phenomenon of compaction of loose
■ 
a given time and place. The characteristics of the sedimentary soils saturated with water, which
natural hazard, nature, intensity, frequency, depend are particularly compressible.
on the physical process or processes involved, on the
geographic configuration. They vary over time. Marine submersion: temporary invasion of land
■ 
by the sea during storms or hurricanes.
Coastal strip: the coastal strip is defined here
■ 
qualitatively as the flat coastal area located at Talweg: steepest line following the bottom of a
■ 
altimetric sea level, an area exposed to the tidal valley, of a dale, of a ravine.
range and to changes in the coastline. When setting
up the observatory, this concept must be clarified Marine transgression: lasting invasion of coastal
■ 
– by basing it on scientific and technical criteria. areas by the sea, due to land mass subsidence or
a general rise in sea levels.
Tectonic plate: piece of the rigid envelope of the
■ 
Earth’s surface that includes the Earth's crust and Tsunami: tidal wave type phenomenon mainly
■ 
part of the mantle that moves. generated by a brutal movement of the seabed
during an earthquake, an underwater volcanic
Resilience: capacity to work out a shared solution
■  eruption or a landslide.
to disaster prevention acceptable to the greatest
number of stakeholders and which involves them Urbanisation: process of city development and
■ 
in its implementation, while admitting that this concentration of population in these latter.
solution does not allow for eliminating all damage.
Territory vulnerability: potential for damage to
■ 
Natural risk: potentially harmful event, having a
■  its components (population, networks, essential
certain probability. The risk results from the facilities, the natural environment, economic
conjunction of a natural hazard and a problem. activities...) here faced by natural hazards.
 93

Index of illustrations

1. Barbary Tongue threatened by rising sea levels (Senegal).......................................................................................................... 18

2. Bangkok (Thailand), 2011. An international metropolis which is sinking into the sea.................................................... 18
3. Geographical location of Indonesia....................................................................................................................................................... 20
4. Java’s different provinces........................................................................................................................................................................... 22
5. The city of Semarang (province of Central Java)............................................................................................................................. 22
6. The rector of the Diponegoro University and the French ambassador for the Climate.................................................. 23
7. Cerema-UNDIP workshop.......................................................................................................................................................................... 24
8. First approach to systemic functioning............................................................................................................................................... 25
9. Semarang.......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 29
10. Geology and dividing up the three areas of Semarang................................................................................................................ 29
11. Morphological section of Semarang..................................................................................................................................................... 30
12. Evolution of the urbanisation (in ha)................................................................................................................................................... 32
13. Evolution of the urbanisation between 1999 and 2014 (in red).............................................................................................. 32
14. Demographic growth areas....................................................................................................................................................................... 33
15. Semarang - Road infrastructure planning......................................................................................................................................... 33
16. Schematic geological profile of the Semarang plain..................................................................................................................... 34
17. Subsidence - Fixed reference point on the JICA pumping plant.............................................................................................. 35
18. Map of vertical movements (subsidence) coming from SqueeSAR® analysis..................................................................... 36
19. Groundwater exploitation and number of deep wells.................................................................................................................. 37
20. Semarang’s structural geology................................................................................................................................................................. 37
21. Map zoning the subsidence hazard....................................................................................................................................................... 38
22. Subsidence hazard and the population............................................................................................................................................... 39
23. Building subsidence (on the left) and land raising (on the right)............................................................................................ 41
24. Port building in the subsidence area - Reconstruction (left part)........................................................................................... 41
25. Structure adapted to subsidence - Need for regular interventions........................................................................................ 42
26. Railway in subsidence and marine transgression area.................................................................................................................. 42
27. Phenomenon of marine transgression on the coastal strip of Semarang............................................................................ 43
28. Phenomenon of marine transgression on the coastal strip of Semarang............................................................................ 43
29. Changes to the coastline at Semarang................................................................................................................................................ 44
30. Re-creation of the mangrove................................................................................................................................................................... 44
31. Semarang in 1917 with its canals.......................................................................................................................................................... 45
32. Water pumping station - Semarang..................................................................................................................................................... 46
33. Sedimentation in the Semarang canals............................................................................................................................................... 47
34. Systemic interactions at the territorial level..................................................................................................................................... 48
35. Systemic interactions of anthropogenic activities and natural processes............................................................................ 48
36. Abandoned building, Semarang.............................................................................................................................................................. 49
37. JICA retention pond project, under construction............................................................................................................................ 50
38. The process of urbanisation of the planet.......................................................................................................................................... 59
39. Participants in the Semarang seminar, 7 October 2015............................................................................................................... 62
40. Organisational diagram of an observatory......................................................................................................................................... 65
41. Pre-model of the coastal strip observatory site............................................................................................................................... 67
42. Effect of subsidence on a dwelling........................................................................................................................................................ 69
43. Activities building impacted by subsidence....................................................................................................................................... 69
44. Locations of sectors 1, 2, 3 being studied.......................................................................................................................................... 72
 95

Table of Contents

Prefaces 3
Foreword 9
General Introduction 11

PART 1
The coast, a space in the process of becoming fragile 12
1. An area distressed by climate change 15
1.1. The coast: an area fragile by nature 15
1.2. Specific physical phenomena 15
2. An area particularly at risk from urbanisation 17
2.1. Coastal urbanisation and its effects 17
2.2. Fitness for habitation threatened by slow and continuous processes 17
2.3. The most recent disasters 19
3. The Indonesian coastline 20
3.1. The geographical context 20
3.2. The vulnerability of the Indonesian coast 21
3.3. Semarang's coast exposed to natural hazards 22
4. Cerema's intervention in Semarang 23
4.1. Chronology of the interventions 23
4.2. Working method 24

PART 2
Semarang: the challenge of the coastal strip 26
1. A geographical context became a constraint 29
2. Une dynamique d’urbanisation préoccupante 32
3. Subsidence, a major phenomenon in Semarang 34
3.1. A physical and anthropogenic phenomenon 34
3.2. Subsidence hazard 38
3.3. The territory’s vulnerability to subsidence hazard 39
3.4. The disruption and the response provided 40

4. Other natural phenomena 43

4.1. Marine transgression 43
4.2. Inland flooding 45

5. From individual action to the mobilisation of players 47

5.1. Multiple impacts to consider 47
5.2. Public and private responses 49
96

PART 3
Semarang:
towards a territorial resilience methodology 52
1. Resilience: what is it? 55
1.1. The contribution of the resilience concept 55
1.2. The limitations of strictly sector-specific responses 56

2. Resilience: responses at different levels 58

2.1. The global level: thematic policies 58
2.2. Regional levels conducive to territorial strategies 60
2.3. The local level adapted to resilience methodologies 61

3. A territorial resilience project for Semarang 62

3.1. Contributions of the Franco-Indonesian Seminar in Semarang 62
3.2. The proposed territorial resilience project 63

4. The coastal strip observatory: a foundation stage 65

4.1. What is an observatory? 65
4.2. The SeMiReSu project: a simplified prototype 66
4.3. Focus on “resilient habitat” by Richard Cantin, teacher-researcher 68

5. Different viewpoints from scientists 71

5.1. Semarang's problems, by Julien Birgi 71
5.2. Spotlight on the actions of inhabitants, by Gilles Hubert 72

General conclusion 77

Technical annex by Tre Altamira 81

1. Movement measurement with SqueeSAR® 81
2. Case study
Historical study of subsidence across the city of Semarang 82
3. Summary 85

Bibliography 87

Glossary 91

Index of illustrations 93
98

Résilience du littoral indonésien

aux risques naturels
Semarang et la subsidence

Les littoraux sont des espaces fragiles exposés aux aléas naturels. Ils peuvent être intensément perturbés par
le développement rapide de l’urbanisation et par les effets du changement climatique. Cet ouvrage présente le cas
de l’agglomération indonésienne de Semarang situé en bordure de la mer de Java.

La particularité du littoral de Semarang résulte de son exposition à une subsidence très active qui se traduit par
un affaissement du sol pouvant atteindre jusqu’à 13 cm par an.

Le Cerema a mené une analyse en collaboration avec l’université Diponegoro – Undip (Indonésie) pour identifier
les processus à l’oeuvre. Le travail produit a bénéficié du soutien de l’Ambassade de France en Indonésie et
des ministères chargés de la recherche et des affaires étrangères des deux pays. C’est en appliquant le concept
de résilience qu’une voie s’ouvre vers la recherche de réponses adaptées.

Largement illustré, Ll’ouvrage bénéficie de contributions de la part de scientifiques et d’experts qui sont intervenus
concrètement sur le territoire de Semarang dans des contextes différents, apportant ainsi leur propre vision à
l’analyse de la situation.
 99

Resiliencia del litoral indonesio

a los riesgos naturales
Semarang y la subsidencia

Los litorales son espacios frágiles expuestos a los peligros naturales. Pueden ser intensamente perturbados
por el rápido desarrollo de la urbanización y por los efectos del cambio climático. Esta obra presenta el caso de
la aglomeración indonesia de Semarang, situada al borde del Mar de Java.

La particularidad del litoral de Semarang resulta de su exposición a una subsidencia muy activa que se traduce
por un hundimiento del suelo que puede alcanzar hasta 13 cm por año.

Cerema realizó un análisis en colaboración con la Universidad Diponegoro – Undip (Indonesia) para identificar los
procesos existentes. El trabajo realizado contó con el apoyo de la Embajada de Francia en Indonesia y de los
ministerios encargados de investigación y de asuntos internacionales de los dos países. Aplicando el concepto de
resiliencia se abre una vía a la búsqueda de respuestas adaptadas.

Ampliamente ilustrada, la obra cuenta con contribuciones de científicos y de expertos que intervinieron
concretamente en el territorio de Semarang en diferentes contextos, aportando de esta forma su propia visión
al análisis de la situación.
© 2021 - Cerema
Cerema (Centre d'études et d'expertise sur les risques, l'environnement, la mobilité et
l'aménagement - Centre for Studies on Risks, the Environment, Mobility and Urban Planning)
is a public administrative body (établissement public à caractère administratif - EPA),
under joint supervision by the French Ministry of the Environment, Energy and the Sea
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providing support for drawing up, implementing and assessing public policies in the
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of directors and the strategic board of the institution.

Nationally and regionally, Cerema is a centre for interdisciplinary scientific and technical
resources and expertise. It is distinguished by having strong regional roots and its
ability to link up central government, State decentralized services, local authorities and
all those who contribute to implementing public policies in the fields of planning and
sustainable development.

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Coordination: service éditions Cerema/Territoires et ville (P. Marchand)

Layout: PAO Concept +33 (0)4 78 22 70 35
Registered: March 2021
ISBN: 978-2-37180-475-3 (pdf)
ISSN: 2417-9701

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Cerema
CLIMAT & TERRITOIRES DE DEMAIN
Cerema
CLIMAT & TERRITOIRES DE DEMAIN

This series presents the state of knowledge at a given time and provides information on a subject, without
being exhaustive. It provides an update on professional knowledge and practices, including new technical or
methodological approaches. It is designed for professionals wishing to maintain and further their knowledge
of constantly changing technical fields. The information presented may be considered recommendations but
The Resilience of the Indonesian Coastline
does not have the status of validated references. to Natural Hazards
Semarang and subsidence
The Resilience of the Indonesian Coastline to Natural Hazards
Semarang and subsidence
Coastlines are fragile areas exposed to natural hazards. They may be intensely disrupted by both rapidly
developing urbanisation and the effects of climate change. This publication presents the case of the Indonesian
urban area of Semarang, located on the shores of the Java Sea.
The Semarang coastline is unusual in that it is exposed to very active subsidence which can cause the ground
to sink by up to 13 cm per year.
Cerema has carried out an analysis in collaboration with Diponegoro University - Undip (Indonesia) to identify
the processes at work. The work produced was supported by the French Embassy in Indonesia and the
ministries of research and foreign affairs of both countries. By applying the concept of resilience, a path is
opening up in the search for appropriate responses.
The publication is fully illustrated, and contains contributions from scientists and experts who have engaged in
practical work in Semarang in different contexts, thus bringing their own vision to the analysis of the situation.

On the same subject:

Sécurité globale et résilience des territoires
Ingénierie, effets de leviers et stratégies à promouvoir (2019)
En téléchargement gratuit sur www.cerema.fr

Résilience urbaine et Sécurité des territoires

Crises redoutées, résiliences escomptées et étapes à franchir (2018)
En téléchargement gratuit sur www.cerema.fr

Territoires résilients
Six leviers d’actions pour bâtir votre stratégie (2018)
En téléchargement gratuit sur www.cerema.fr

Territoires résilients - série de fiches

- Vers des territoires résilients : Six leviers opérationnels pour anticiper, réagir, s’adapter
- Le GIP littoral aquitain : une gouvernance à grande échelle pour anticiper les changements
En téléchargement gratuit sur www.cerema.fr

Country planning for regional cohesion - Town planning and urban strategies - Energy transition and climate - Environment and natural
resources - Risk mitigation - Well-being and pollution mitigation - Mobility and transport - Transport infrastructure - Sustainable buildings.

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