Introduction

Soil erosion is a naturally occurring process that affects all landforms. In agriculture, soil erosion
refers to the wearing away of a field’s topsoil by the natural physical forces of water (Figure 1)
and wind (Figure 2) or through forces associated with farming activities such as tillage.. In other
words erosion can be described as loss of soil from both agricultural and non-agricultural
lands due to water, wind and glacier

Figure 1. The erosive force of water from concentrated surface water runoff.
Figure 2. The erosive force of wind on an open field.

Erosion, whether it is by water, wind or tillage, involves three distinct actions — soil
detachment, movement and deposition. Topsoil, which is high in organic matter, fertility and soil
life, is relocated elsewhere “on-site” where it builds up over time or is carried “off-site” where it
fills in drainage channels. Soil erosion reduces cropland productivity and contributes to the
pollution of adjacent watercourses, wetlands and lakes.

Soil erosion can be a slow process that continues relatively unnoticed or can occur at an alarming
rate, causing serious loss of topsoil. Soil compaction, low organic matter, loss of soil structure,
poor internal drainage, salinisation and soil acidity problems are other serious soil degradation
conditions that can accelerate the soil erosion process.

This fact sheet looks at the causes and effects of water, wind and tillage erosion on agricultural
land.

Water erosion

The widespread occurrence of water erosion combined with the severity of on-site and off-site
impacts have made water erosion the focus of soil conservation efforts.

Forms of water erosion

Sheet erosion
Sheet erosion is the movement of soil from raindrop splash and runoff water. It typically occurs
evenly over a uniform slope and goes unnoticed until most of the productive topsoil has been
lost. Deposition of the eroded soil occurs at the bottom of the slope (Figure 3) or in low areas.
Lighter-coloured soils on knolls, changes in soil horizon thickness and low crop yields on
shoulder slopes and knolls are other indicators.

Figure 3. The accumulation of soil and crop debris at the lower end of this field is an indicator of
sheet erosion.

Rill erosion

Rill erosion results when surface water runoff concentrates, forming small yet well-defined
channels (Figure 4). These distinct channels where the soil has been washed away are called rills
when they are small enough to not interfere with field machinery operations. In many cases, rills
are filled in each year as part of tillage operations.
Figure 4. The distinct path where the soil has been washed away by surface water runoff is an
indicator of rill erosion.

Gully erosion

Gully erosion is an advanced stage of rill erosion where surface channels are eroded to the point
where they become a nuisance factor in normal tillage operations (Figure 5). There are farms in
Ontario that are losing large quantities of topsoil and subsoil each year due to gully erosion.
Surface water runoff, causing gully formation or the enlarging of existing gullies, is usually the
result of improper outlet design for local surface and subsurface drainage systems. The soil
instability of gully banks, usually associated with seepage of groundwater, leads to sloughing
and slumping (caving-in) of bank slopes. Such failures usually occur during spring months when
the soil water conditions are most conducive to the problem.

Figure 5. Gully erosion may develop in locations where rill erosion has not been managed.

Gully formations are difficult to control if corrective measures are not designed and properly
constructed. Control measures must consider the cause of the increased flow of water across the
landscape and be capable of directing the runoff to a proper outlet. Gully erosion results in
significant amounts of land being taken out of production and creates hazardous conditions for
the operators of farm machinery.

Bank erosion

Natural streams and constructed drainage channels act as outlets for surface water runoff and
subsurface drainage systems. Bank erosion is the progressive undercutting, scouring and
slumping of these drainageways (Figure 6). Poor construction practices, inadequate maintenance,
uncontrolled livestock access and cropping too close can all lead to bank erosion problems.
Figure 6. Bank erosion involves the undercutting and scouring of natural stream and drainage
channel banks.

Poorly constructed tile outlets also contribute to bank erosion. Some do not function properly
because they have no rigid outlet pipe, have an inadequate splash pad or no splash pad at all, or
have outlet pipes that have been damaged by erosion, machinery or bank cave-ins.

The direct damages from bank erosion include loss of productive farmland, undermining of
structures such as bridges, increased need to clean out and maintain drainage channels and
washing out of lanes, roads and fence rows.

4.3 Scale of Erosion

It measures the extent of erosion. According to scale of erosion, the erosion may be classified as
under:

a) Micro Erosion (1mm2 to 1m2)

At this scale, erosion is controlled largely by the stability of the soil aggregates. Soil moisture,
organic matter content and the activity of soil fauna, particularly earthworms, have major
influences. Erosion in small scale, are identified with sheet erosion and small scale rill erosion.

b) Plot-scale (1m2 to 100m2)

Erosion at the plot scale is controlled by the processes that generate surface runoff. These include
the infiltration characteristics of the soil and changes in the micro-topography of the surface
related to crust development and surface roughness. The spatial distribution of crusted and
uncrusted areas or vegetated and bare soil areas determines the locations of runoff and the
patterns of flow and sediment movement over the soil surface.

c) Field scale (100m2 to 10,000m2)

There is usually a reasonably well defined spatial pattern of runoff pathways in locations such as
swales and valley bottoms, separated by areas of either inter-rill erosion or no erosion. The
extent of inter-rill erosion depends on the severity of the rainfall event so that the size of the area
contributing runoff is quite dynamic. The direction of runoff pathways is often controlled by
tillage.

(d) Catchment scale (>10,000m2)

Erosion is generally limited to local slope wash, but with higher rainfall, runoff pathways
develop over the whole hillside with local discharges into the river; with more extreme events,
overland flow and slope wash may be widespread.

Tillage erosion

Tillage erosion is the redistribution of soil through the action of tillage and gravity (Figure 8). It
results in the progressive down-slope movement of soil, causing severe soil loss on upper-slope
positions and accumulation in lower-slope positions. This form of erosion is a major delivery
mechanism for water erosion. Tillage action moves soil to convergent areas of a field where
surface water runoff concentrates. Also, exposed subsoil is highly erodible to the forces of water
and wind. Tillage erosion has the greatest potential for the “on-site” movement of soil and in
many cases can cause more erosion than water or wind.
Figure 8. Tillage erosion involves the progressive down-slope movement of soil.

The rate and magnitude of soil erosion by tillage is controlled by the following factors:

Type of tillage equipment

Tillage equipment that lifts and carries will tend to move more soil. As an example, a chisel plow
leaves far more crop residue on the soil surface than the conventional moldboard plow but it can
move as much soil as the moldboard plow and move it to a greater distance. Using implements
that do not move very much soil will help minimize the effects of tillage erosion.

Direction

Tillage implements like a plow or disc throw soil either up or down slope, depending on the
direction of tillage. Typically, more soil is moved while tilling in the down-slope direction than
while tilling in the up-slope direction.

Speed and depth

The speed and depth of tillage operations will influence the amount of soil moved. Deep tillage
disturbs more soil, while increased speed moves soil further.
Number of passes

Reducing the number of passes of tillage equipment reduces the movement of soil. It also leaves
more crop residue on the soil surface and reduces pulverization of the soil aggregates, both of
which can help resist water and wind erosion.

Effects of tillage erosion

Tillage erosion impacts crop development and yield. Crop growth on shoulder slopes and knolls
is slow and stunted due to poor soil structure and loss of organic matter and is more susceptible
to stress under adverse conditions. Changes in soil structure and texture can increase the
erodibility of the soil and expose the soil to further erosion by the forces of water and wind.

In extreme cases, tillage erosion includes the movement of subsurface soil. Subsoil that has been
moved from upper-slope positions to lower-slope positions can bury the productive topsoil in the
lower-slope areas, further impacting crop development and yield. Research related to tillage-
eroded fields has shown soil loss of as much as 2 m of depth on upper-slope positions and yield
declines of up to 40% in corn.

Remediation for extreme cases involves the relocation of displaced soils to the upper-slope
positions.

Conservation measures

The adoption of various soil conservation measures reduces soil erosion by water, wind and
tillage. Tillage and cropping practices, as well as land management practices, directly affect the
overall soil erosion problem and solutions on a farm. When crop rotations or changing tillage
practices are not enough to control erosion on a field, a combination of approaches or more
extreme measures might be necessary. For example, contour plowing, strip-cropping or terracing
may be considered. In more serious cases where concentrated runoff occurs, it is necessary to
include structural controls as part of the overall solution — grassed waterways, drop pipe and
grade control structures, rock chutes, and water and sediment control basins.

More details on these and other best management practices can be found
in OMAFRA publication Best Management Practices, Controlling Soil Erosion on the Farm.