Brain vs Mind

BRAIN pg 1
- Neurons are responsible for sending and receiving neurotransmitters, chemicals that
carry information between brain cells. Depending on its location, a neuron can
perform the job of a sensory neuron, a motor neuron, or an interneuron, sending
and receiving specific neurotransmitters.
- Neurons are the building blocks of the nervous system. They receive and transmit
signals to different parts of the body
- The sensory neurons carry information from the sensory receptor cells present
throughout the body to the brain. Whereas, the motor neurons transmit information
from the brain to the muscles. The interneurons transmit information between
different neurons in the body.

Neuron structure pg 2
A neuron varies in shape and size depending on
its function and location. All neurons have three
different parts – dendrites, cell body and axon.

Dendrites
Dendrites are tree-like extensions at the
beginning of a neuron that help increase the
surface area of the cell body. These tiny
protrusions receive information from other neurons and transmit electrical stimulation to
the soma. Dendrites are also covered with synapses.
Characteristics
 Have many dendrites, or only one dendrite
 Are short and highly branched
 Transmit information to the cell body
Most neurons possess these branch-like extensions that extend outward away from the cell
body. These dendrites then receive chemical signals from other neurons, which are then
converted into electrical impulses that are transmitted toward the cell body.
Some neurons have very small, short dendrites, while other cells possess very long ones. The
neurons of the central nervous systems have very long and complex dendrites that then
receive signals from as many as a thousand other neurons.
If the electrical impulses transmitted inward toward the cell body are large enough, they will
generate an action potential. This results in the signal being transmitted down the axon.

Cell Body pg 3
The soma, or cell body, is where the signals from the dendrites are joined and passed on.
The soma and the nucleus do not play an active role in the transmission of the neural signal.
Instead, these two structures serve to maintain the cell and keep the neuron functional. 1
Characteristics
 Contains numerous organelles involved in a variety of cell functions
 Contains a cell nucleus that produces RNA that directs the synthesis of proteins
 Supports and maintains the functioning of the neuron
Think of the cell body as a small factory that fuels the neuron.
The soma produces the proteins that the other parts of the neuron, including the dendrites,
axons, and synapses, need to function properly.
The support structures of the cell include mitochondria, which provide energy for the cell,
and the Golgi apparatus, which packages products created by the cell and dispatches them
to various locations inside and outside the cell.
Axon Hillock pg 4
The axon hillock is located at the end of the soma and controls the firing of the neuron. If
the total strength of the signal exceeds the threshold limit of the axon hillock, the structure
will fire a signal (known as an action potential) down the axon.
The axon hillock acts as something of a manager, summing the total inhibitory and excitatory
signals. If the sum of these signals exceeds a certain threshold, the action potential will be
triggered and an electrical signal will then be transmitted down the axon away from the cell
body. This action potential is caused by changes in ion channels which are affected by
changes in polarization.
Characteristics
 Acts as something of a manager, summing the total inhibitory
 Possesses an internal polarization of approximately -70mV in a normal resting state
When a signal is received by the cell, it causes sodium ions to enter the cell and reduce
polarization. If the axon hillock is depolarized to a certain threshold, an action potential will
fire and transmit the electrical signal down the axon to the synapses.
It is important to note that the action potential is an all-or-nothing process and that signals
are not partially transmitted. The neurons either fire or they do not.
Axon pg 5
The axon is the elongated fibre that extends from the cell body to the terminal endings and
transmits the neural signal. The larger the diameter of the axon, the faster it transmits
information.
Some axons are covered with a fatty substance called myelin that acts as an insulator. These
myelinated axons transmit information much faster than other neurons.
Characteristics
 Most neurons have only one axon
 Transmit information away from the cell body
 May or may not have a myelin covering
 Range dramatically in size, from 0.1 millimetres to over 3 feet long2
The myelin surrounding the neurons protects the axon and aids in the speed of transmission.
The myelin sheath is broken up by points known as the nodes of Ranvier or myelin sheath
gaps. Electrical impulses are able to jump from one node to the next, which plays a role in
speeding up the transmission of the signal.
Axons connect with other cells in the body including other neurons, muscle cells, and
organs. These connections occur at junctions known as synapses.
The synapses allow electrical and chemical messages to be transmitted from the neuron to
the other cells in the body.
Terminal Buttons and Synapses pg 6
Terminal buttons are found at the end of the axon, below the myelin sheath, and are
responsible for sending the signal on to other neurons. At the end of the terminal button is a
gap known as a synapse.
Neurotransmitters carry signals across the synapse to other neurons. When an electrical
signal reaches the terminal buttons, neurotransmitters are then released into the synaptic
gap.
Characteristics
 Contain vesicles holding the neurotransmitters
 Convert electrical impulses into chemical signals
 Cross the synapse where they are received by other nerve cells
 Responsible for the reuptake of any excessive neurotransmitters released during this
process

Neuron Types pg 7
There are three different types of
neurons:
Sensory Neurons
The sensory neurons convert signals from the external environment into corresponding
internal stimuli. The sensory inputs activate the sensory neurons and carry sensory
information to the brain and spinal cord. They are pseudounipolar in structure.
Motor Neurons
These are multipolar and are located in the central nervous system extending their axons
outside the central nervous system. This is the most common type of neuron and transmits
information from the brain to the muscles of the body.
Interneurons
They are multipolar in structure. Their axons connect only to the nearby sensory and motor
neurons. They help in passing signals between two neurons.

Pg 8

Synapse, the site of transmission of

electric nerve impulses between two
nerve cells (neurons) or between a neuron
and a gland or muscle cell (effector). A
synaptic connection between
a neuron and a muscle cell is called
a neuromuscular junction.

Neuron Functions pg 9
The important functions of a neuron are:
Chemical Synapse
In chemical synapses, the action potential affects other
neurons through a gap present between two neurons
known as the synapse. The action potential is carried along
the axon to a postsynaptic ending that initiates the release
of chemical messengers known as neurotransmitters. These
neurotransmitters excite the postsynaptic neurons that
generate an action potential of their own.
Electrical Synapse
When two neurons are connected by a gap junction, it results in an electrical synapse. These
gaps include ion channels that help in the direct transmission of a positive electrical signal.
These are much faster than chemical synapses.

Neuromuscular junction pg 10
site of chemical communication between a nerve fibre and a muscle cell. The neuromuscular
junction is analogous to the synapse between two neurons. A nerve fibre divides into many
terminal branches; each terminal ends on a region of muscle fibre called the end plate.
Embedded in the end plate are thousands of receptors, which are long protein molecules
that form channels through the membrane. Upon stimulation by a nerve impulse, the
terminal releases the chemical neurotransmitter acetylcholine from synaptic vesicles.
Acetylcholine then binds to the receptors, the channels open, and sodium ions flow into the
end plate. This initiates the end-plate potential, the electrical event that leads to contraction
of the muscle fibre.

MIND pg 11
The relationship between the brain and the mind is a complex and fascinating area of study
within psychology and neuroscience. Understanding how neural processes give rise to
subjective experiences, thoughts, emotions, and behaviours work at challenging researchers
to unravel the mysteries of human consciousness. This connection between biology and
psychology forms the cornerstone of many psychological theories and research endeavours.

Understanding the Mind pg 12

The human mind, filled with thoughts, emotions, and behaviours, has always intrigued
philosophers, scientists, and curious individuals. It is a complex system that governs how we
perceive the world, make decisions, and interact with others. The mind is just not about
thinking; it holds our memories, dreams, and consciousness, all of which shape our identity
and experiences.

Psychology delves deep into this intricate area, aiming to understand and explain the vast
collection of mental processes. It looks at how we learn, develop, and respond to our
environment, providing a framework for understanding everything from basic sensory
perceptions to complete social interactions. Cognitive psychology, for example, studies
mental functions such as attention, language use, memory, perception, problem-solving,
creativity and thinking. Meanwhile, behavioural psychology focuses on how our interactions
and experiences influence our behaviour.

Emotions pg 13
The limbic system of the human brain controls emotions. While researchers do not know all
the structures within it, some key parts include the amygdala, hippocampus, limbic cortex,
and hypothalamus.
The brain is a very complex organ. It controls and coordinates everything from the
movement of your fingers to your heart rate. The brain also plays a crucial role in how you
control and process your emotions.
Experts still have a lot of questions about the brain’s role in a range of emotions, but they
have pinpointed the origins of some common ones, including fear, anger, happiness, and
love.

Where do emotions come from? Pg 14

The limbic system is a group of interconnected structures located deep within the brain. It is
the part of the brain that is responsible for behavioural and emotional responses.
Scientists have not reached an agreement about the full list of structures that make up the
limbic system, but the following structures are generally accepted as part of the group:
 Hypothalamus. In addition to controlling emotional responses, the hypothalamus is
also involved in sexual responses, hormone release, and regulating body
temperature.
 Hippocampus. The hippocampus helps preserve and retrieve memories. It also plays
a role in how you understand the spatial dimensions of your environment.
 Amygdala. The amygdala helps coordinate responses to things in your environment,
especially those that trigger an emotional response. This structure plays an
important role in fear and anger.
 Limbic cortex. This part contains two structures, the cingulate gyrus, and the Para
hippocampal gyrus. Together, they impact mood, motivation, and judgement.

What part of the brain controls fear? Pg 15

From a biological standpoint, fear is a very important emotion. It helps you respond
appropriately to threatening situations that could harm you.
This response is generated by stimulation of the amygdala, followed by the hypothalamus.
This is why some people with brain damage affecting their amygdala don’t always respond
appropriately to dangerous scenarios.
When the amygdala stimulates the hypothalamus, it initiates the fight-or-flight response.
The hypothalamus sends signals to the adrenal glands to produce hormones, such
as adrenaline and cortisol.
As these hormones enter the bloodstream, you might notice some physical changes, such as
an increase in:
 heart rate
 breathing rate
 blood sugar
  perspiration
In addition to initiating the fight-or-flight response, the amygdala also plays a role in fear
learning. This refers to the process by which you develop an association between certain
situations and feelings of fear.

What part of the brain controls anger? Pg 16

Much like fear, anger is a response to threats or stressors in your environment. When you’re
in a situation that seems dangerous and you can’t escape, you’ll likely respond with anger or
aggression. You can think of the anger response and the fight as part of the fight-or-flight
response.
Frustration, such as facing roadblocks while trying to achieve a goal, can also trigger the
anger response.
Anger starts with the amygdala stimulating the hypothalamus, much like in the fear
response. In addition, parts of the prefrontal cortex may also play a role in anger. People
with damage to this area often have trouble controlling their emotions, especially anger and
aggression.
Parts of the prefrontal cortex of the brain may also contribute to the regulation of an anger
response. People with damage to this area of the brain sometimes have difficulty Trusted
Source controlling their emotions, particularly anger and aggression.

What part of the brain controls happiness? Pg 17

Happiness refers to an overall state of well-being or satisfaction. When you feel happy, you
generally have positive thoughts and feelings.
Imaging studies suggest that the happiness response originates partly in the limbic cortex.
Another area called the precuneus also plays a role. The precuneus is involved in retrieving
memories, maintaining your sense of self, and focusing your attention as you move about
your environment.
A 2015 study Trusted Source found that people with larger grey matter volume in their right
precuneus reported being happier. Experts think the precuneus processes certain
information and converts it into feelings of happiness. For example, imagine you have spent
a wonderful night out with someone you care about. Going forward, when you recall this
experience and others like it, you may experience a feeling of happiness.

What part of the brain controls love? Pg 18

It may sound strange, but the beginnings of romantic love are associated with the stress
response triggered by your hypothalamus. It makes more sense when you think about the
nervous excitement or anxiety you feel while falling for someone.
As these feelings grow, the hypothalamus triggers release of other hormones, such as
dopamine, oxytocin, and vasopressin.
Dopamine is associated with your body’s reward system. This helps make love a desirable
feeling.
A small 2005 study showed participants a picture of someone they were romantically in love
with. Then, they showed them a photo of an acquaintance. When shown a picture of
someone they loved, the participants had increased activity in parts of the brain that are rich
in dopamine.
Oxytocin is often referred to as the “love hormone.” This is largely because it increases when
you hug someone or have an orgasm. It is produced in the hypothalamus and released
through your pituitary gland. It is associated with social bonding as well. This is important for
trust and building a relationship. It can also promote a feeling of calmness and contentment.
Vasopressin is similarly produced in your hypothalamus and released by your pituitary gland.
It is also involved in social bonding with a partner.

Pg 19
A paired, almond-shaped structure deep within the brain, the amygdala integrates emotions,
emotional behaviour, and motivation. It interprets fear, helps distinguish friends from foes,
and identifies social rewards and how to attain them. The amygdala is also important for a
type of learning called classical conditioning. Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov first described
classical conditioning, where, through repeated exposure, a stimulus elicits a particular
response, in his studies of digestion in dogs. The dogs salivated when a lab technician
brought them food. Over time, Pavlov noted the dogs also began to salivate at the mere
sight of the technician, even if he was empty-handed.
The insula is the source of disgust — a strong negative reaction to an unpleasant odor, for
instance. The experience of disgust may protect you from ingesting poison or spoiled food.
Studies using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) have found the insula lights up with activity
when someone feels or anticipates pain. Neuroscientists think the insula receives a status
report about the body’s physiological state and generates subjective feelings about it thus
linking internal states, feelings, and conscious actions.
Pg 20
The periaqueductal grey, located in the brainstem, has also been implicated in pain
perception. It contains receptors for pain-reducing compounds like morphine and
oxycodone, and can help quell activity in pain-sensing nerves — it might be part of the
reason you can sometimes distract yourself from pain so you don’t feel it as acutely. The
periaqueductal grey is also involved in defensive and reproductive behaviours, maternal
attachment, and anxiety.