Course Name: Principles of Hydrology

Course Code: GEO-3201

Assignment On:
I. Surface Run-off
II. Ground-water Hydrology
III. Drainage Basin
IV. Sediment Production and Transportation

Submitted to,
Md. Mohiuddin
Assistant Professor
Dept. Of Geography & Environment
Jagannath University, Dhaka.

Submitted by,
Jannatul Ferdouse
ID-B160602030
Session: 2016-2017
Batch: 13th
Dept. Of Geography & Environment
Jagannath University, Dhaka.

Submission Date: 06-07-2021

 TOPIC: SURFACE RUNOFF

❖ Definition:
⚫ Surface runoff is the flow of water occurring on the ground surface when excess
rainwater, storm water, melt water, or other sources, can no longer sufficiently
rapidly infiltrate in the soil.
⚫ Runoff can be described as the part of the water cycle that flows over land as surface
water instead of being absorbed into groundwater or evaporating. Runoff is that part
of the precipitation, snow melt, or irrigation water that appears in uncontrolled
surface streams, rivers, drains, or sewers.
⚫ During rainfall, it is common for a portion of the rain to immerse into the ground unit
the soil became saturated. After the soil is infiltrated to its maximum ability, the
water pools on the surface, causing it to flows into any nearby low point. The excess
water that flows over the land is known as surface runoff.

Fig: Surface Runoff

⚫ The concept of runoff as a phase in the water cycle is the story of water flowing
across the land in streams and rivers. The total process includes several intermediate
steps between precipitation and stream flow.
⚫ Runoff means the draining or flowing off precipitation from a catchment area
through a surface channel then enters into a stream channel.
❖ Elements of surface runoff
Runoff is nothing more than water "running off" the land surface. The rain that covers
the landscape with runs off downhill, too (due to gravity). Runoff is an important
component of the natural water cycle. There are some effective elements of surface
runoff. They are noted below-

1. Evaporation
2. Evapotranspiration
3. Condensation
4. Precipitation
5. Runoff
6. Infiltration.
Fig: Components of Surface Run off

*Evaporation
Evaporation is a form of vaporation that usually happens on the surface of liquids and it
involves the transition of the liquid particles into the gaseous phase.

*Evapotranspiration
Evapotranspiration can be defined as the sum of all forms of evaporation plus
transpiration, but here at the Water Science School, we'll be defining it as the sum of
evaporation from the land surface plus transpiration from plants.

Evapotranspiration is the combination of evaporation and transpiration.

It is the evaporation taking place from any plant or greenery. Such like, water droplet on
a leaf getting evaporated into atmosphere.

*Condensation
Condensation is the process by which water vapor in the air is changed into liquid water.
In other words, the water in the air, a gas known as water vapor. It is the conversion of a
vapor or gas to liquid.
*Precipitation
It is rain, snow, sleet or hail- means any kind of weather condition where something’s
falling from the sky. Precipitation has to do with things falling down and not just from the
sky. It’s also what happens in chemical reactions when a solid settles to the bottom of
solution.

*Runoff
Runoff can be described as the part of the water cycle that flows over land as surface
water instead of being absorbed into groundwater or evaporating. According to the
U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), runoff is that part of the precipitation, snow melt, or
irrigation water that appears in uncontrolled surface streams, rivers, drains, or sewers.

*Infiltration
Infiltration is the process by which water on the ground surface enters the soil. It is
commonly used in both hydrology and soil sciences. The
infiltration capacity is defined as the maximum rate of infiltration.

➢ There are two types of surface runoff that occur during rainfall or snowmelt.

▪ Infiltration excess overland flow occurs with soil that is not saturated. In fact, the
soil can be quite dry, but soil properties or land cover do not allow for infiltration
to keep up with high rainfall or snowmelt rates.

▪ Saturation excess overland flow occurs when the soil becomes saturated and
there is no longer any space for water to infiltrate. This can occur even with soil
that would typically allow for large amounts of infiltration in sub-saturated
conditions.
 Fig: Types of Surface Runoff.

❖ Process of Run off

• Rain and snowmelt water take various paths to streams.
Each path contributes differently to;
- peak and timing of storm runoff
- erosion
- transport of chemicals into streams

• Planners need to understand runoff processes to;

- identify the area contributing to runoff generation
- assess the impact of deforestation, road construction, and other landuse change on
runoff characteristics
- evaluate the risk of stream pollution
Fig: Process of Run-off

There are 3 steps by which we can describe the process of runoff. They are noted
below:

▪ (Step-1)
In one section about water storage in the oceans we describe how the oceans act as
large storehouse of water that evaporates to become atmospheric moisture.

▪ (Step-2)
The oceans are kept full by precipitation and also by runoff and discharge from rivers and
the ground.

▪ (Step-3)
Many people probably have an overly simplified idea that precipitation falls on the land,
flows overland and runs into rivers, which then empty into the oceans. That is “overly
simplified” because rivers also gain the lose water to ground still, it is that much of the
water in rivers comes directly from runoff from the land surface, which is defined as
surface runoff.
 Fig: Process of Runoff

Runoff mechanisms:
Surface runoff (also known as overland flow) is the flow of water that occurs when
excess storm water, melt water or other sources flow over the earth’s surface.

❖ Factors Influencing Surface Runoff:

Runoff rate and its volume from an area, mainly influenced by following two factors-

Climatic Factors
Physiographic Factors.

Climatic Factors:
The climatic factors of the watershed affecting the runoff are mainly associated with the
characteristics of precipitation. Which include

Type of precipitation
Rainfall intensity
 Duration of rainfall
Rainfall distribution
Direction of prevailing wind
Other climate factors.

Types of precipitation
It has a great effect on the runoff. A precipitation which occurs in the form if rainfall
starts immediately as surface runoff depending upon rainfall intensity while precipitation
in the form of snow doesn’t result in surface runoff.

Rainfall intensity
If the rainfall intensity is greater than infiltration rate of soil then runoff starts
immediately after rainfall. While in case of low rainfall intensity runoff starts letter. Thus
high intensities of rainfall yield higher runoff.

Duration of rainfall
It is directly related to the volume of runoff because infiltration rate of soil decreases
with duration of rainfall. Therefore medium intensity rainfall even results in considerable
amount of runoff if duration is longer.

Rainfall distribution
Runoff from a watershed depends very much on the distribution of rainfall. It is also
expressed as “distribution efficient “mean ratio of maximum rainfall at a point to the
mean rainfall of water. Therefore, near outlet watershed runoff will be more.

Direction of prevailing wind

If the direction of prevailing wind is same as drainage system, it results in peak low. A
storm moving in the direction of stream slope produce a higher peak in shorter period of
time than a storm moving in opposite direction.

Other climate factors

It includes direction of other factors such as temperature wind velocity, relative
humidity, annual rainfall etc. Affect the water losses from watershed area.
 Fig: Factors influencing surface Run-off.

Physiographic factors
It includes both watershed and channel characteristics which area as follows-

Size of watershed
Shape of watershed
Slope of watershed
Orientation of watershed
Land use
Soil moisture
Soil type
Topographic characteristics
Drainage density
Fig: Physical factors of surface run-off.

Size of watershed
A large watershed takes longer time for draining the runoff to outlet than smaller
watershed and vise-verse.

Shape of watershed
Runoff is greatly affected by shape of watershed. Shape of watershed is generally
expressed by the term “form factor” and “compactness coefficient.”

Slope of watershed
It has complex affect. It controls the time of overland flow and time of concentration of
rainfall.

Orientation of watershed
This affects the evaporation and transpiration losses from the area. The north or south
orientation affects the time of melting of collected snow.

Land use
Land use and land management practices have great effect on the runoff yield.

Soil moisture
Moisture of runoff yield depends upon the initial moisture present in soil at
the time of rainfall.

Soil type
Infiltration rate vary with type of soil. So, runoff is great affected by soil type.

Topographic characteristics
It includes this topographic features which affects the runoff.

Drainage density
It is defined as the ratio of the total channel length in the watershed to total watershed
area.

Types of Run-off:

a. Surface Runoff: That portion of rainfall which enters the stream immediately after the
rainfall. It occurs when all loses is satisfied and rainfall is still continued and rate of
rainfall [intensity] in greater than infiltration rate.

b. Sub-Surface Runoff: That part of rainfall which first leaches into the soil and moves
laterally without joining the water table, to the stream, rivers or ocean is known as sub-
surface runoff. It is usually referred is inter-flow.

c. Base flow: It is delayed flow defined as that part of rainfall, which after falling on the
ground the surface, infiltrated into the soil and meets to the water table and flow the
streams, ocean etc. The movement of water in this is very slow. Therefore it is also
referred a delayed runoff.
Total runoff = Surface runoff + GW Base flow.

Runoff cycle play a vital role in hydrological cycle.

Runoff Cycle:

The part of the hydrologic cycle undergone by water between the times it reaches the
land as precipitation and its subsequent evapotranspiration or discharge through stream
channels.
The runoff cycle can be explained by following a raindrop as it comes to the earth and
travels toward the nearest stream.

(Early stage)
The stage begins in day weather when the vegetation and soil surfaces are essentially
dry. In the early part of storm, much of the rain is intercepted by vegetation and the rain
that falls on the ground is drown into the soil by infiltration. Some of the intercepted
water begin to evaporate from the vegetation.
 Fig: Runoff cycle
(Second stage)
As rain continues to fall, it runs off the vegetation and falls to the ground. It may exceed
the soil’s infiltration capacity and begin to fill shadow depressions and to accumulate as a
layer on the surface which then begins to move as overland flow toward a watercourse.
As rain continues to fall, some water is still evaporating from the vegetation and the soil,
but now the surface depressions are overflowing and water flows continuously toward
the stream as overland flow and as water flow.

(Final stage)
Runoff cycle ends as rain stops and landscape begins to dry out. When the rain steps,
overland flow and interflow soon cease. Water from the stream went into the banks as
the stream rose and new will slowly run back out as the stream level toward its dry
weather level.
 Hydrological cycle is also known as the “water cycle”; it is the normal water
recycling system on Earth. Due to solar radiation, water evaporates, generally from
the sea, lakes, etc. Water also evaporates from plant leaves through the
mechanism of transpiration.

➢ The hydrological cycle of the earth is the sum total of all processes in which water
moves from the land and ocean surface to the atmosphere and back in form of
precipitation.

The hydrological cycle is dependent on various factors and is equally affected by

oceans and land surfaces. In the case of the land surface, vegetation plays a vital
role in the maintenance of the hydrologic budget

➢ Runoff is precipitation that did not get (infiltrated) absorbed into the soil or did not
evaporate, and therefore, made its way from the ground surface into places that
water collect.
 Fig: Importance of Runoff in Hydrological Cycle

Runoff causes erosion and also carry chemicals and substances on the ground
surface along to the rivers where the water ends up.

➢ Surface runoff is water, from rain, snowmelt, or other sources, that flows over the
land surface, and is a major component of the water cycle.

➢ Increased runoff reduces groundwater recharge, thus lowering the water table and
making droughts worse, especially for farmers and others who depend on water
wells.

➢ water that evaporates to become atmospheric moisture. The oceans are kept full by
precipitation and also by runoff and discharge from rivers and the ground.

➢ Many people probably have an overly-simplified idea that precipitation falls on the
land, flows overland (runoff), and runs into rivers, which then empty into the
oceans. That is "overly simplified" because rivers also gain and lose water to the
ground.

Still, it is true that much of the water in rivers comes directly from runoff from the
land surface, which is defined as surface runoff.
 ❖ TOPIC: GROUND-WATER.

Definition :
• Groundwater or phreatic water is subsurface water which absolutely saturates the
pore spaces above an impermeable layer.
• Water found in the pore spaces, cracks, tubes, crevices beneath the surface has
been termed as underground water, groundwater, subsurface water and
subterranean water.
• Water existing in the voids of the geological stratum below the surface of the
earth is called groundwater. Groundwater is found in pores and fissures of rocks. It
is regulated by the quantum and speed of rains, extent of vaporization at the time
of rain, temperature, slope of land, dryness of air, porosity and permeability of
rocks, vegetative cover and water absorbing capacity of the soil.
• Groundwater is water that has infiltrated the ground to fill the spaces between
sediments and cracks in rock.

Fig: Ground water.

Groundwater is 0.58 per cent of the total water resources available in nature and it is
22.21 per cent of fresh water part (2.6%) of total water reservoirs. It is located up to a
depth of 4 kms of the earth’s surface. It is also called sub-surface water since it is found
below the surface of earth.
 ❖ Origin of Groundwater:
Total water existing on earth is 13, 84,12,0000 cubic kms, out of which 8,00,0042 cubic
kms is groundwater. Apart from this, 61,234 cubic kms is in form of soil moisture.
Groundwater and soil moisture together constitute the sub-surface quantity of water.
Groundwater is stored in different layers of earth by infiltration through pores and
fissures of permeable rocks.

❖ Sources of Groundwater:
Water received on the surface of the earth from different sources becomes groundwater
when it goes underground after information through pores of permeable rocks.
It is found from following sources:
(i) Meteoric Water:
✓ This is the main source of groundwater. This water is received in the form of rain
and snow. Water from tanks, lakes, rivers and seas is again received by earth after
vaporization. Water is received by melting of snow or rain, hence it is called
‘mete­oric’ or ‘shooting star water’. From the surface of the earth, this water
infiltrates down below through rock joints, pores and fissures of rocks and is
stored at the level of impermeable rocks in the form of groundwater.
✓ Another way in which the groundwater may be derived directly from atmospheric
moisture is condensation of water vapour from air circulating through the pores
and interstices. This is also known as ‘condensational water’ and is the basic
source of replenishment in the arid and semi-arid areas.
 Fig: Meteoric Water.

✓ A third source is effluent seepage from lakes, rivers, oceans and also
✓ man-made channels, but the importance of this varies with the climate of the area
concerned. In fact, in humid regions, the groundwater contributes to stream flow
by means of effluent seepage, and the gradient of this saturated groundwater
more often than not slopes towards the surface water bodies and the oceans.

(ii) Connate Water:

✓ Water contained in pores and cavities of sedimentary rocks under seas and lakes is
called connate water. It is also called ‘sediment water’. It is the second important
source of groundwater.
✓ This is the water that is entrapped in the interstices of sedimentary and volcanic
rocks at the time of deposition. Connate water is highly mineralized and salty and
does not mix readily with meteoric groundwater. Connate water is usually found
deep down in the lower layers of the zone of saturation.

(iii) Magmatic Water:

✓ Hot magma enters rocks due to volcanic action after which its vapour drops are
condensed and converted into water. This is called magmatic water. Apart from it,
other sources are those in which groundwater becomes again available on the
surface of the earth.
✓ More than half of all groundwater is available within 750 m of the earth’s surface.
However, evidences of the presence of groundwater are also found at a depth of
more than 11000 m, for instance in the Kola Peninsula of Russia. Water below the
ground is available in four zones, viz., soil zone, intermediate zone, capillary zone
and saturation zone.
 Fig: Magmatic Process.

❖ Zone of Aeration or vadose zone:

The zone where water is available is called the zone of aeration. There are two forces
which actively prevent groundwater from moving downward.
(a) the molecular attraction between water and the rock and earth materials and
(b) the molecular attraction between water particle
In this zone the soil pores are partially filled with water. The space between the ground
surface and the water table is the zone of aeration.
Zone of aeration can be further divided into three zones,
o i. Soil Water Zone,
o ii. Pellicular Water Zone and
o iii. Capillary Water Zone.

▪ i. Soil Water Zone:

It is adjacent to the ground surface consisting of the topsoil and the subsoil. In this zone
water is lost to the atmosphere mainly due to evapotranspiration. The depth of this zone
varies up to about 15 meters depending on the
type of soil.
▪ ii. Pellicular Water Zone:
This zone lies between the soil water zone and
capillary water zone. In this zone water is held
in place by capillary forces. Temporarily water
moves downward in this belt as gravitational
water. The water in this zone is also known as
vadose water.
 ▪ iii. Capillary Fringe:
This is the zone in which water is held by capillary action. This zone is situated between
the gravitational zone and the saturated zone. The thickness of this zone may vary from
few centimeters is about 600 meters or more depending on the type of soil.

❖ Zone of Saturation or phreatic zone:

The zone of saturation lies below the zone of aeration and is also called the phreatic
zone. The water available in this zone is known as groundwater. The groundwater table
or water table segregates the zone of aeration and the zone of saturation.
The maximum elevation of water in a well which penetrates the groundwater zone is
known as piezometric water table. Generally, the water table follows the irregularities of
the earth’s surface; for example, the water table is highest beneath hills and lowest
beneath valleys

Voids are fully saturated with water. This zone may include loose, unconsolidated
deposits of sand and gravel as well as porous rock formations like limestone and
sandstone.

• Saturated Formation:
All earth materials, from soils to rocks have pore spaces. Although these pores are
completely saturated with water below the water table, from the groundwater
utilization aspect only such material through which water moves easily and hence can be
extracted with ease are significant. On these basis, the saturated formations are
classified into four categories;
 Aquifer
 Aquitard
 Aquiclude
 Aquifuge
 ✓ Aquifer:
Aquifer is made of two words ‘aqua’ and ‘ferre’ from Latin language. ‘Aqua’ means
water and ‘ferre’ means ‘produce or bear’. Thus, aquifer is a geological composition
which is porous and permeable. There is storage and transmission of water in it, as well
as yielding of water to wells and springs in sufficient quantity.
A geological structure fully saturated by water, capable of producing sufficient
quantities of water that can be economically used and developed, is known as aquifer
(Latin; to bear water). Examples include sandstone layer, unconsolidated sand and
gravel, limestone, fractured plutonic and metamorphic rocks which act as aquifers.
An aquifer can be broadly divided into
(a) unconfined and
(b) confined aquifers.

Fig: Confined/ Unconfined aquifers.

1 Unconfined Aquifers:
In such types of aquifers, groundwater level works like the upper layer of the zone of
saturation. It is also called free or non-artesian groundwater. Wavy form and slope of
groundwater is changeable, which depends on replenishing of groundwater, abandoned
area and permeability.
Fluctuation in the level of groundwater occurs according to changes in the stored
groundwater in the space of the aquifer. On the basis of rise of water level in wells, a
contour map of water level and sections can be prepared, with the help of which
information about availability of water, and its distribution and transmission can be
known.

2 Confined Aquifers:
Confined aquifers are found at such places where pressure of groundwater is
comparatively more than atmospheric pressure due to non-permeable layers. They are
also called ‘artesian aquifers.’ Such types of aquifers are found above the base of
confined beds of water level in punctured wells.
Water enters confined aquifers from such areas where confined beds come up right up
to the surface of the earth or disappear due to geological situations and aquifers become
unconfined. The area supplying water to confined aquifers is called ‘recharge area’. In
punctured wells of confined aquifers, fluctuation in water level is more due to changes m
pressure than due to change in quantity of stored water.

✓ Aquitard:
Aquitard is represented by such geological formation which transmits limited amount of
water which is not sufficient for pumping or dug wells because there is a very slow rate
of movement of water
.

✓ Aquiclude:
If an aquifer is overlaid by a confined bed of impervious material, then this confined bed
of overburden is known as aquiclude.

✓ Aquifuge:
A mask of rock matrix, which neither transmits nor stores water in significant quantity, is
called an aquifuge. Such materials can confine water in an artesian aquifer.
 ❖ Occurrence of Groundwater:
The occurrence of groundwater involves the consideration of hydrometeorological
conditions, which provide water to the sub-surface zones through the processes of
infiltration and percolation of rainwater and meltwater and characteristics of sub-surface
strata regarding water holding and water yielding capabilities of geological formations,
vertical distribution of groundwater, geological formations etc.
Primary sources of the occurrences of groundwater:
• Rainwater received through rainstorms
• Meltwater through the melting of snow and ice
• Seepage water from the water bodies of land surfaces
• Seepage from water retention depressions on the ground surface
• Seepage of seawater from the coastal areas of seas and ocean
• Water from the soil moisture storage
• Condensation of vapour trapped inside the subsurface formations.

When precipitation falls it may:

(i) Evaporated from the earth's surface or from the leaves of plants
(evapotranspiration) whose roots have taken up the moisture from the soil;
(ii) flow along or near the surface of the earth in watercourses of ever-increasing size
until it reaches the ocean;
(iii) infiltrate down through the pores or crevices of the earth's mantle either at the
point where it falls or at some distant point to which surface flow has carried it.
Water which evaporates from the earth's surface or bodies of water is ready to start
the cycle over again as precipitation.
When water is added to dry or unsaturated soil it is held in the voids between particles by
capillary forces. Once the voids are saturated, however, the water is free to descend under
the effect of gravity. As long as there is sufficient water to maintain saturation, the water
will descend until it is stopped by some impervious layer, such as rock or highly impervious
clay. The water can then flow laterally through the voids or rock crevices above the barrier.

Fig: Occurrence of Ground water

If there are significant differences in surface elevation, the water may flow out along the
impervious layer at some lower point called a spring. If a hole is made vertically down into
the saturated layer, water will flow into the hole. If the saturated layer has sufficient
interconnected voids, water will flow through it relatively rapidly. When the saturated
layer yields water in economic quantities, it is called an aquifer and the hole made into it
could be developed into a well.
The lack of resistance to flow through porous material is called permeability. In general,
fine grained material such as clay or silt is low in permeability; sand is of medium
permeability, and gravel is most permeable. Fractured rock varies in permeability
depending on the degree and pattern of fracture. The quantity of water which can be
stored in an aquifer is equal to the total volume of voids between the solid particles. The
fraction of the total volume of an aquifer made up of voids is called porosity. If the voids
are interconnected, aquifers of high porosity also tend to have high permeability
sometimes groundwater is trapped under an impervious layer. An aquifer thus located is
called a confined aquifer. If the inflow area to a confined aquifer is higher than the
confining layer where a well penetrates it, the water will be under pressure and will rise
in the well to some level above the confining layer. Such a well is referred to
as artesian. If the water rises to the top of the well a "flowing well" results.

❖ The occurrence of groundwater is influenced by the following factors:

1) Climate: Groundwater is easily available at great depths in arid regions while it
exists at shallow depth in humid regions. Water table rises during rainy season and
sinks in dry season.
2) Topography : The water table tends to be higher near the hilltops and lower near
the valleys, because near the valleys water seepages into streams, swamps and
lakes cause descending water table.

3) Types of Materials: Porosity and permeability of the underground materials

have an impact on the storage and movement of groundwater. The variability in
porosity exists as the underground materials are heterogeneous in nature.
4) Porosity : refers to the percentage of the total volume of rock with voids.
Porosity determines the volume of water a rock body can retain. Four types of
pore spaces are found—
(i) Pore space between mineral grains,
(ii) Fractures,
(iii) Solution cavities, and
(iv) Vesicles.
5) Permeability: refers to the capacity of a rock body to transmit water. Sandstone
and conglomerate are highly permeable because of the presence of relatively large
interconnected pore space between the grains.
6) Nature and Movement of Groundwater : The groundwater movement takes
place through pore spaces at extremely slow velocity. The flow velocity of
groundwater is expressed in metres-1 day. Water percolates from areas of high
 water table to the areas where water table is lowest i.e., towards lakes and surface
streams.

➢ TOPIC: Drainage Basin

❖ Drainage Basin:

▪ A drainage basin or catchment basin is an extent or an area of land where surface

water from melting snow or ice converges to a single point at a lower elevation,
usually the exit of the basin, where the waters join another water body, such as a
river, lake reservoir estuary wetland, sea or ocean.
▪ A Drainage Basin is a geomorphic unit; also known as the hydrologic unit. In simple
words Drainage Basin may be defined as an area which contributes water to a
particular channel or set of channels.
▪ Simply said, it is an area of land that drains water, sediment and dissolved
materials to a common outlet.

Fig: Drainage basin

➢ Features of a drainage basin:

✓ The drainage basin begins at the source which is hills or mountain and ends at the
mouth which is sea or lake.
✓ The path taken by the river from its source to the mouth is called the course of the
river.
✓ Terminology for drainage basin is given below:
Drainage basin:
• The area of land drained by a river.

Catchment area:
• The area within the drainage basin.
• The area from which water drains into a particular drainage basin.

Watershed:
• The boundary dividing one drainage basin from another a ridge of high land.
• The edge highland surrounding a drainage basin. It makes the boundary between
two drainage basins.

Source:
• The beginning or start of a river.
• The upland area where the river begins.

Confluence:
• The point at which two rivers or stream join.

Tributary:
• A stream or smaller river which joins a larger stream or river
• A river which joins a larger river

Mouth:
• The point where the river comes to the end, usually when entering a sea.
• Where the river flows into the sea or sometimes a lake.
 Fig: Features of drainage basin

➢ Drainage divide:
When two drainage basins are divided by a line then it is called drainage divide. It can be
grouped in three categories
1. Continental divide
2. Major drainage divide
3. Minor drainage divide

Fig: Drainage basin operating system:

A drainage basin system is a part of the worlds hydrological cycle.
✓ A hydrological cycle as a closed system
✓ A hydrological cycle as a open system.

 As a closed system:
Water does not come into or leave planet earth. Water is continuously transferred
between the atmosphere and the oceans. This is known as the global hydrological cycle.
This system is a closed system. There are no inputs or outputs.
  As an
open
system:
The drainage basin hydrological cycle may be defined as a single river basin bounded by
its own watershed and the sea. The drainage basin hydrological cycle is an open system.
This means it has inputs and outputs. Energy from the sun and precipitation (including rain
and snow) enter the system and water leaves it.

This open system has a range of inputs, outputs, stores, transfers and flows.

• Inputs:

include precipitation (including rain and snow) and solar energy for
evaporation.

• Outputs:
move moisture out of the drainage basin and include evaporation and transpiration from
vegetation (together known as evapotranspiration), run-off into the sea and percolation
of water to underlying rock strata into underground stores.

• Stores:
include puddles, rivers, lakes (surface storage), glaciers, soil storage and groundwater
storage along with water stored on vegetation (interception) following precipitation.

• Transfers or flows:
include percolation, overland flow, infiltration, stemflow, throughflow and overland flow.
Drainage basin system

inputs stores and flows

outputs
precipitation interception
river runoff
surface water storage
evaporation
surface runoff
transpiration
infiltration

soil water storage

throughflow

percolation

groundwater storage

Inputs – water coming into the system

precipitation All forms of moisture that reach the

earth’s surface e.g. rain, snow, sleet and
hail.

Storage – water stored in the system

interception this is when precipitation lands on

buildings, vegetation and concrete before
it reaches the soil. Interception storage is
only temporary as it is often quickly
evaporated.

Vegetation storage this is water taken up by vegetation. It is all

the moisture in vegetation at any one time.

Surface storage the total volume of water held on the

Earth’s surface in lakes, ponds and
puddles.
Groundwater storage the storage of water underground in
permeable rock strata.
Channel storage the water held in a river or stream channel.

Flows and Processes – water moving from one place to another

baseflow water that reaches the channel largely

through slow throughflow and from
permeable rock below the water table.

Channel flow the movement of water within the river

channel. This is also called a river’s
discharge.

groundwater flow the deeper movement of water through

underlying permeable rock strata below
the water table. Limestone is highly
permeable with lots of joints and can lead
to faster groundwater flow.

infiltration water flowing downhill through above the

water table permeable rock

interflow water flowing downhill through above the

water table permeable rock

percolation the gravity flow of water within the soil.

stemflow water running down a plant stem or tree

trunk.

Surface runoff the movement of water over the surface of

the land, usually when the ground is
saturated or frozen or when precipitation
is too intense from infiltration to occur
 ➢ Drainage Basin Form:

The external shape of any drainage basin is called drainage basin from. Drainage basin
form can be divided into three parameters. They are –

1. Drainage basin shape/pattern

2. Drainage basin network

3. Drainage basin relief

✓ Drainage Basin Shape/Pattern

A drainage pattern is a descriptive term. It can be calculated also. It is the configuration
exhibited by the stream occupying a drainage basin. It is controlled by surface features and
subsurface geology.

✓ Dendritic Drainage Pattern

Dendritic drainage systems are the most common form of drainage system. In a dendritic
system, there are many contributing streams (analogous to the twigs of a tree), which are
then joined together into the tributaries of the main river (the branches and the trunk of the
tree, respectively). They develop where the river channel follows the slope of the terrain.
Dendritic systems form in V-shaped valleys; as a result, the rock types must be
impervious and non-porous.

✓ Parallel Drainage Pattern

A parallel drainage system is a pattern of rivers caused by steep slopes with some relief.
Because of the steep slopes, the streams are swift and straight, with very few tributaries,
and all flow in the same direction. This system forms on uniformly sloping surfaces, for
example, rivers flowing southeast from the Aberdare Mountains in Kenya.
 ✓ Trellis Drainage Pattern
Trellis drainage pattern
The geometry of a trellis drainage system is similar to that of a common garden trellis
used to grow vines. Asthe river flows along a strike valley, smaller tributaries feed into it
from the steep slopes on the sides of mountains. These tributaries enter the main river at
approximately 90 degree angles, causing a trellis-like appearance of the drainage system.
Trellis drainage is characteristic of folded mountains, such as the Appalachian Mountains
in North America.

✓ Rectangular Drainage Pattern

Rectangular drainage develops on rocks that are of approximately uniform resistance to
erosion, but which have two directions of jointing at approximately right angles. The
joints are usually less resistant to erosion than the bulk rock so erosion tends to
preferentially open the joints and streams eventually develop along the joints. The result is
a stream system in which streams consist mainly of straight line segments with right angle
bends and tributaries join larger streams at right angles.
 ✓ Radial Drainage Pattern
Geological features on which radial drainage commonly develops are domes and
laccoliths. On these features the drainage may exhibit a combination of radial and annular
patterns.
In a radial drainage system, the streams radiate outwards from a central high point.
Volcanos usually display excellent radial drainage.

✓ Centripetal Drainage Pattern

Centripetal drainage systems are similar to radial drainage systems except the rivers flow
in the opposite direction. They drain from the sides of hills to a central depression[2]
where a lake is formed.[4] This is common in western and south-western US, where
centripetal drainage systems form intermittent lakes. These lakes leave behind salt flats
when they evaporate during dry seasons.

✓ Deranged Drainage Pattern

A deranged drainage system is a drainage system in drainage basins where there is no
coherent pattern to the rivers and lakes. It happens in areas where there has been much
geological disruption. The classic example is the Canadian Shield. During the last ice age,
the topsoil was scraped off, leaving mostly bare rock. The melting of the glaciers left land
with many irregularities of elevation, and a great deal of water to collect in the low points,
explaining the large number of lakes which are found in Canada. The watersheds are
young and are still sorting themselves out. Eventually the system will stabilize.
 ✓ Annular Drainage Pattern
In an annular drainage pattern streams follow a roughly circular or concentric path along a
belt of weak rock, resembling in plan a ringlike pattern. It is best displayed by streams
draining a maturely dissected structural dome or basin where erosion has exposed
rimming sedimentary strata of greatly varying degrees of hardness, as in the Red Valley,
which nearly encircles the domal structure of the Black Hills of South Dakota.
 ➢ Drainage Basin Network

Drainage Basin Network is the measurement of tributaries and main

streams in a drainage basin as delineated on a parametric map. The
measurements are listed as below:

• Stream Ordering

• Number of Stream

• Length of stream

• Stream Density

➢ Drainage basin relief:

Drainage system is described as accordant if its pattern correlates to the
structure and relief of the landscape over which it flows.
In more precise word we can say that it’s an area of land that drains water,
sediment and dissolved materials to a common outlet.
TOPIC: SEDIMENT PRODUCTION & TRANSPORTATION.

❖ Sediment production: Sediment production refers to the

addition of new sediment to the channel system
• landslides
• surface erosion
• channel bank erosion

❖ Sediment production processes:

o rain splash erosion
o Sheet wash erosion - surface runoff
o Freeze-thaw erosion
o Expansion and contraction of erodible rock surfaces
o Frost expansion
o Needle ice development
o Animal movement
o Ravelling of loose sediment surfaces
o Undercutting and slumping of loose surfaces
o Mass wasting

❖ Factors controlling sediment production

• Cause of runoff
Rainfall produces more sediment than an equivalent volume of
snowmelt

✓ Rain erosion on exposed sediment sources vs. Water yield from

snowpack that blankets the exposed sed.
✓ Rainfall produces larger peaks than streamflow, hence greater
sediment transport and channel scour
 • Size of storm
Larger storms generally produce more sediment
✓ Larger yield, and greater peak concentration

• Watershed morphology
Lithology: softer more erodible bedrock (e.g., basalt ­ catherine cr.)
Produces more sediment than harder more resistant bedrock
Type and connectivity of sediment sources
a. Debris flow deposits are big producers
b. Hillside sediment sources
c. Landslide scars, road cuts
d. Slope stability.

• Land use (e.g. Logging and related activities)

Related to other factors such as slope stability and surface erosion from
road surfaces and cut and fill slopes
o Increase in mass wasting processes following logging
o Yarding disturbance
Potential increase in streamflow after logging
o Increase in sediment transport capability
o Increase in stream channel and bank erosion

❖ Sediment Transport
Sediment transport is the movement of organic and inorganic particles
by water. In general, the greater the flow, the more sediment that will
be conveyed.

Water flow can be strong enough to suspend particles in the water

column as they move downstream, or simply push them along the
bottom of a waterway. .Transported sediment may include mineral
matter, chemicals and pollutants, and organic material.
 ➢ Types of sediment transport systems:
Supply limited

• Most rivers are supply limited in terms of sediment production

• The stream has the ability to move all the sediment that is
supplied to it, hence sediment transport is limited by the supply
• Sediment transport tends to exhibit pulse behaviour, sediment
movement occurs mostly on the hydrograph rising limb
• Hysteresis occurs where sediment concentration for a given flow
is greater for rising than falling streamflow

Large rivers tend to be transport limited during freshet periods

• Sediment concentrations tend to be high during spring freshet because

Flow is low - sediment is “concentrated”
Sediment production occurs as a result of supply of sediment
accumulated over winter that enters the system all at once
• As flows increase, they become supply limited

Sediment transport capability increases

Another name for sediment transport is sediment load. The total load
includes all particles moving as bedload, suspended load, and wash load.
 ▪ Bedload
Bedload is the portion of sediment transport that rolls, slides or bounces
along the bottom of a waterway. This sediment is not truly suspended,
as it sustains intermittent contact with the streambed, and the
movement is neither uniform nor continuous.

Bedload occurs when the force of the water flow is strong enough to
overcome the weight and cohesion of the sediment. While the particles
are pushed along, they typically do not move as fast as the water around
them, as the flow rate is not great enough to fully suspend them.

Bedload transport can occur during low flows (smaller particles) or at

high flows (for larger particles). Approximately 5-20% of total sediment
transport is bedload. In situations where the flow rate is strong enough,
some of the smaller bedload particles can be pushed up into the water
column and become suspended.
 ▪ Suspended Load
While there is often overlap, the suspended load and suspended
sediment are not the same thing. Suspended sediment are any particles
found in the water column, whether the water is flowing or not.

The suspended load, on the other hand, is the amount of sediment

carried downstream within the water column by the water flow.
Suspended loads require moving water, as the water flow creates small
upward currents (turbulence) that keep the particles above the bed.

The size of the particles that can be carried as suspended load is

dependent on the flow rate. Larger particles are more likely to fall
through the upward currents to the bottom, unless the flow rate
increases, increasing the turbulence at the streambed.

In addition, suspended sediment will not necessarily remain suspended

if the flow rate slows.
 ▪ Wash Load
The wash load is a subset of the suspended load. This load is comprised
of the finest suspended sediment (typically less than 0.00195 mm in
diameter). The wash load is differentiated from the suspended load
because it will not settle to the bottom of a waterway during a low or no
flow period.

Instead, these particles remain in permanent suspension as they are

small enough to bounce off water molecules and stay afloat. However,
during flow periods, the wash load and suspended load are
indistinguishable.

Turbidity in lakes and slow moving rivers is typically due the wash load.
When the flow rate increases (increasing the suspended load and overall
sediment transport), turbidity also increases.

While turbidity cannot be used to estimate sediment transport, it can

approximate suspended sediment concentrations at a specific location.
➢ Factors that Influence Sediment Transport
Sediment transport is not constant. In fact, it is constantly subject to
change. In addition to the changes in sediment load due to geology,
geomorphology and organic elements, sediment transport can be
altered by other external factors. The alteration to sediment transport
can come from changes in water flow, water level, weather events and
human influence.

• Water Flow
Water flow, also called water discharge, is the single most important
element of sediment transport. The flow of water is responsible for
picking up, moving and depositing sediment in a waterway. Without
flow, sediment might remain suspended or settle out – but it will not
move downstream. Flow is required to initiate the transport. There are
two basic ways to calculate flow. Water discharge can be simplified as
area (a cross-section of the waterway) multiplied by velocity, or as a
volume of water moved over time.
 • Weather Events and Water Level
Sediment transport relies on water flow to move a load downstream.
Water flow is variable, affected not only by the local terrain (e.g. slope),
but by water level which, in turn, is influenced by precipitation (or lack
thereof).

Most changes in water level are due to weather events such as rainfall.
Precipitation causes water levels to initially rise, and then return to
previous levels (base flow) over the course of hours or days. Rainfall,
whether slight or heavy can affect water flow and sediment transport.
The extent to which a weather event will influence sediment transport is
dependent on the amount of sediment available. Snowmelt in a
glaciated area will result in a high sediment load due to glacial silt. Heavy
rainfall over an area of loose soil and minimal vegetation will create
runoff, carrying loose particles into the waterway. Likewise, flooding will
also pick up sediment from the local area. In fact, most of the
waterway’s sediment load occurs during flood events.
Increased water level creates additional volume in a channel, and
increases the hydraulic radius (cross-sectional area of a waterway). The
increased hydraulic radius increases the discharge rate, regardless of
whether or not flow is uniform or non-uniform. Increased flow will
increase the stress on the bed, making it more likely for water flow to
initiate sediment transport. The higher velocity also increases erosion
rates as flow overcomes the shear stress of sediment.

Seasonal effects are also responsible for changes in water level and flow.
Most seasonal changes are due to precipitation levels and events such as
snowmelt. During low precipitation and low flow periods, sediment
transport falls. During the peak of snowmelt, the sediment load can
increase by a factor of 15 or more. Climate change can also play a role in
sediment transport, as it affects both the timing and magnitude of floods
and other weather events.
• Human Influence

Anthropogenic factors, such as dams and altered land use will affect
both the sediment load and sediment transport rate. Dams affect the
water flow through complete detention or restricted channels. The
restricted flow can cause the channel downstream of the dam to
become “sediment-starved”, while the sediment load behind the dam
builds up. A sediment-starved river will not be able to provide habitats
for benthic organisms or spawning fish. The highly silted reservoir
behind the dam may face issues of too much sediment, including
changes in aquatic life and the potential for algal blooms. On the other
side of the spectrum, when a dam release occurs, the flow rate
downstream can dramatically increase. If the release is controlled, it can
refresh the bed material, building bars and other habitat areas. An
uncontrolled release or dam removal can result in flooding, carrying the
released sediment further downstream than is needed.

Human land use, such as urban areas, agricultural farms and

construction sites will affect the sediment load, but not the transport
rate. These effects are indirect, as they require heavy rainfall or flooding
to carry their sediment into the waterway. However, anthropogenic land
use is one of the leading contributors to excessive sedimentation due to
erosion and runoff. This increase occurs because “disturbed sites”
(logging, mining, construction and farm sites) often expose or loosen top
soil by removing native vegetation. This loose soil is then easily carried
into a nearby river or stream by rainfall and runoff.