Module 4

Q1. Explain basic components used in movement of the ICE.

COMPONENTS OF IC ENGINE

1. Cylinder block
Cylinder is the main body of IC engine. Cylinder is a part in which the intake of fuel, compression
of fuel and burning of fuel take place. The main function of cylinder is to guide the piston. It is in
direct contact with the products of combustion so it must be cooled. For cooling of cylinder, a
water jacket (for liquid cooling used in most of cars) or fin (for air cooling used in most of bikes)
are situated at the outer side of cylinder. At the upper end of cylinder, cylinder head and at the
bottom end crank case is bolted. The upper side of cylinder is consisting a combustion chamber
where fuel burns. To handle all this pressure and temperature generated by combustion of fuel,
cylinder material should have high compressive strength. So it is made by high grade cast iron. It
is made by casting and usually cast in one piece.

2. Cylinder head
The top end of the engine cylinder is closed by means of removable cylinder head. There are two
holes or ports at the cylinder head, one for intake of fuel and other for exhaust. Both the intake
and exhaust ports are closed by the two valves known as inlet and exhaust valve. The inlet
valve, exhaust valve, spark plug, injector etc. are bolted on the cylinder head. The main function
of cylinder head is to seal the cylinder block and not to permit entry and exit of gases on cover
head valve engine. Cylinder head is usually made by cast iron or aluminum. It is made by casting
or forging and usually in one piece.

3. Piston
A piston is fitted to each cylinder as a face to receive gas pressure and transmit the thrust to the
connecting rod. It is a prime mover in the engine. The main function of piston is to give tight seal
to the cylinder through bore and slide freely inside the cylinder. Piston should be light and
sufficient strong to handle gas pressure generated by combustion of fuel. So the piston is made
by aluminum alloy and sometimes it is made by cast iron because light alloy piston expands
more than cast iron so they need more clearances to the bore.

4. Piston rings
A piston must be a fairly loose fit in the cylinder so it can move freely inside the cylinder. If the
piston is too tight fit, it would expand as it got hot and might stick tight in the cylinder and if it is
too loose it would leaks the vapor pressure. To provide a good sealing fit and less friction
resistance between the piston and cylinder, pistons are equipped with piston rings. These rings
are fitted in grooves which have been cut in the piston. They are split at one end so they can
expand or slipped over the end of piston. A small two stroke engine has two piston rings to
provide good sealing but a four-stroke engine has an extra ring which is known as oil ring. Piston
rings are made of cast iron of fine grain and high elastic material which is not affected by the
working heat. Sometimes it is made by alloy spring steel.

5. Connecting rod
Connecting rod connects the piston to crankshaft and transmits the motion and thrust of piston to
crankshaft. It converts the reciprocating motion of the piston into rotary motion of crankshaft.
There are two end of connecting rod; one is known as big end and other as small end. Big end is
connected to the crankshaft and the small end is connected to the piston by use of piston pin.
The connecting rods are made of nickel, chrome, and chrome vanadium steels. For small
engines the material may be aluminum.

6. Crankshaft
The crankshaft of an internal combustion engine receives the efforts or thrust supplied by piston
to the connecting rod and converts the reciprocating motion of piston into rotary motion of
crankshaft. The crankshaft mounts in bearing so it can rotate freely. The shape and size of
crankshaft depends on the number and arrangement of cylinders. It is usually made by steel
forging, but some makers use special types of cast-iron such as spheroidal graphitic or nickel
alloy castings which are cheaper to produce and have good service life.

7. Engine bearing
Everywhere there is rotary action in the engine, bearings are needed. Bearings are used to
support the moving parts. The crankshaft is supported by bearing. The connecting rod big end is
attached to the crank pin on the crank of the crankshaft by a bearing. A piston pin at the small
end is used to attach the rod to the piston is also rides in bearings. The main function of bearings
is to reduce friction between these moving parts. In an IC engine sliding and rolling types of
bearing used. The sliding type bearing which are sometime called bush is use to attach the
connecting rod to the piston and crankshaft. They are split in order to permit their assembly into
the engine. The rolling and ball bearing is used to support crankshaft so it can rotate freely. The
typical bearing half is made of steel or bronze back to which a lining of relatively soft bearing
material is applied.

8. Crankcase
The main body of the engine at which the cylinder are attached and which contains the
crankshaft and crankshaft bearing is called crankcase. It serves as the lubricating system too
and sometime it is called oil sump. All the oil for lubrication is placed in it.

9. Valves
To control the inlet and exhaust of internal combustion engine, valves are used. The number of
valves in an engine depends on the number of cylinders. Two valves are used for each cylinder
one for inlet of air-fuel mixture inside the cylinder and other for exhaust of combustion gases. The
valves are fitted in the port at the cylinder head by use of strong spring. This spring keep them
closed. Both valves usually open inwards.

10. Spark plug

It is used in spark ignition engine. The main function of a spark plug is to conduct a high potential
from the ignition system into the combustion chamber to ignite the compressed air fuel mixture. It
is fitted on cylinder head. The spark plug consists of a metal shell having two electrodes which
are insulated from each other with an air gap. When high potential current supply to spark plug it
jumping from the supply electrode and produces the necessary spark.

11. Injector
Injector is usually used in compression ignition engine. It sprays the fuel into combustion
chamber at the end of compression stroke. It is fitted on cylinder head.

12. Manifold
The main function of manifold is to supply the air fuel mixture and collects the exhaust gases
equally from all cylinder. In an internal combustion engine two manifold are used, one for intake
and other for exhaust. They are usually made by aluminum alloy.

13. Camshaft
Camshaft is used in IC engine to control the opening and closing of valves at proper timing. For
proper engine output inlet valve should open at the end of exhaust stroke and closed at the end
of intake stroke. So to regulate its timing, a cam is use which is oval in shape and it exerts a
pressure on the valve to open and release to close. It is drive by the timing belt which drives by
crankshaft. It is placed at the top or at the bottom of cylinder.

NO NEED TO WRITE THIS MUCH WRITE PARTS

AND EXPLAIN 2-3 IMPORTANT PARTS with diagram
Source: https://www.ingenieriaymecanicaautomotriz.com/ic-engine-components-and-
their-functions-types-and-terminology/
Q2. Name the motors used in EHEV. Explain the parameter of the AC and DC motors used
in EV/HEV.

Source: https://www.eai.in/blog/2018/12/comparison-of-various-motors-used-in-ev.html

Introduction
Different types of motors exhibit different characteristics, which makes it
important to evaluate motors on some basic parameters for choosing a
particular type of motor for an electric vehicle.
Electric motors used in electric vehicle should have important attributes
like simple design, high specific power, low maintenance cost, and good
control. Motors that are widely used by electric vehicle manufacturers are DC
brushed motors, DC brushless motors, Induction (Asynchronous) motor,
Synchronous motor and Switched Reluctance motor. The comparison of few
motors are mentioned below

Motor Type Advantage Disadvantage

 Bulky structure

Brushed DC Motor[1] Maximum torque at low speed  Low efficiency

 Heat generation
at brushes

 No rotor copper loss

 Short constant
 More efficiency than induction
power range
motors
Permanent Magnet  Decreased
Brushless DC Motor  Lighter & Smaller
torque with
(BLDC)  Better heat dissipation
increase in speed
 More reliability
 High cost
 More torque density
because of PM
 More specific power
  Operable in different speed
ranges without using gear
systems
 Huge iron loss at
Permanent Magnet  Efficient
Synchronous Motor high speeds
 Compact
(PMSM) during in-wheel
 Suitable for in-wheel
operation
application
 High torque even at very low
speeds

 The most mature commutator

less motor drive system

Induction Motor (IM)  Can be operated like a

separately excited DC motor
by employing field orientation
control

 Very noisy
 Simple and robust
 Low efficiency
construction
 Larger and
 Low cost
heavier than PM
 High speed
Switched Reluctance machines
Motor(SRM)Synchronous  Less chance of hazard
 Complex design
Reluctance Motor  Long constant power range
and control
(SynRM)  High power density
 Problems in
 Robust
controllability
 Fault tolerant
and
 Efficient
manufacturing
 Small
 Low power factor

 Greater power factor than

PM assisted
Synchronous Reluctance SynRMs
Motor  Free from demagnetizing
problems observed in IPM
  No iron used in outer rotor
 No stator core
 Lightweight
Axial Flux Ironless  Better power density
Permanent Magnet
 Minimized copper loss
Motor
 Better efficiency
 Variable speed machine
 Rotor is capable of being fitted
to the lateral side of the wheel

Power (kW)

Motor Type Base Speed (rpm) Minimum Speed (rpm)

HEV BEV

IM 57 93 3000 12,000

SRM 42 77 2000 12,000

BLDC 75 110 4000 9000

Power comparison of different motors having the same size

Today’s automakers use three different types of electric motors in green cars: the
BLDC motor, brushed DC motor, and AC induction motor.
Permanent Magnet motors for example provide high power density as well as very
high efficiency. The downside is that these motors are very expensive and also
suffer from problems such as demagnetization of the magnets if the temperature
exceeds the curie point. The motor in Nissan Leaf is a permanent magnet motor
Induction motors on the other hand are cheap to manufacture and maintain but
suffer from lower efficiency as well as power density compared to their Permanent
Magnet counterparts. Tesla model S uses an Induction motor
In addition to these two there are also Synchronous Brushed motor and Switched
Reluctance motor (used in Holden/ECOmmodore)

PAGE 72/73 of NOTES

Q3. Explain working of converters. Draw and explain two quadrant operation of DC motor
choppers. With suitable waveform for EV.

NOTES PAGE 173 , 174 and 175

Two-Quadrant Control of Forward Motoring and Regenera ve Braking A two-quadrant opera on

consis ng of forward motoring and forward regenera ve braking requires a chopper capable of giving
a posi ve voltage and current in either direc on. This two-quadrant opera on can be realized in the
following two schemes.2 Single Chopper with a Reverse Switch The chopper circuit used for forward
motoring and forward regenera ve braking is shown in Figure 9, where S is a self-commutated semi-
conductor switch, operated periodically such that it remains closed for a dura on of δ T and remains
open for a dura on of (1—δ )T. C is the manual switch. When C is closed and S is in opera on, the
circuit is similar to that of permi ng the forward motoring opera on. Under these condi ons, terminal
a is posi ve and terminal b is nega ve. Regenera ve braking in the forward direc on is obtained when
C is opened and the armature connec on is reversed with the help of the reversing switch RS, making
terminal b posi ve and terminal a nega ve. During the on-period of the switch S, the motor current
flows through a path consis ng of the motor armature, switch S, and diode D1, and increases the
energy stored in the armature circuit inductance. When S is opened, the current flows through the
armature diode D2, source V, diode D1 and back to the armature, thus feeding energy into the source.
During motoring, the changeover to regenera on is done in the following steps. Switch S is deac vated
and switch C is opened. This forces the armature current to flow through diode D2, source V, and diode
D1. The energy stored in the armature circuit is fed back to the source and the armature current falls
to zero. A er an adequate delay to ensure that the current has indeed become zero, the armature
connec on is reversed and switch S is reac vated with a suitable value of d to start regenera on.

Class C Two-Quadrant Chopper In some applica ons, a smooth transi on from motoring to braking
and vice versa is required. For such applica ons, the class C chopper is used as shown in Figure 10. The
self-commutated semiconductor switch S1 and diode D1 cons tute one chopper and the self-
commutator switch S2 and diode D2 form another chopper. Both the choppers are controlled
simultane- ously, both for motoring and regenera ve braking. The switches S1 and S2 are closed
alternately. In the chopping period T, S1 is kept on for a dura on δ T, and S2 is kept on from δ T to T. To
avoid a direct short-circuit across the source, care is taken to ensure that S1 and S2 do not conduct at
the same me. This is generally achieved by providing some delay between the turn off of one switch
and the turn on of another switch. The waveforms of the control signals va ia , and is and the devices
under conduc ng during different intervals of a chopping period are shown

In drawing these waveforms, the delay between the turn off of one switch and the turn on of another
switch has been ignored because it is usually very small. The control signals for the switches S1 and S2
are denoted by ic1 and ic2 , respec vely. It is assumed that a switch conducts onlywhen the control
signal is present and the switch is forward biased. The following points are helpful in understanding
the opera on of this two-quadrant circuit:

1. In this circuit, discon nuous conduc on does not occur, irrespec ve of its frequency of opera on.
Discon nuous conduc on occurs. when the armature current falls to zero and remains zero for a finite
interval of me. The current may become zero either during the freewheeling interval or in the energy
transfer interval. In this circuit, freewheeling will occur when S1 is off and the current is flowing
through D1. This will happen in interval δ T ≤ t ≤ T, which is also the interval for which S2 receives the
control signal. If ia falls to zero in the freewheeling interval, the back EMF will immediately drive a
current through S2 in the reverse direc on, thus preven ng the armature current from remaining zero
for a finite interval of me. Similarly, energy transfer will be present when S2 is off and D2 is conduc ng
— that is, during the interval 0≤t≤δ T. If the current falls to zero during this interval, S1 will conduct
immediately because ic is present and V >E. The armature current will flow, preven ng discon nuous
conduc on.

2. Since discon nuous condi ons are absent, the motor current will be flowing all the me. Thus,
during the interval 0≤t≤δ T, the motor armature will be connected either through S1 or D2.
Consequently, the motor terminal voltage will be V and the rate of change of ia will be posi ve because
V > E. Similarly, during the interval δ T≤ t ≤ T, the motor armature will be shorted either through D1 or
S2. Consequently, the motor voltage will be zero andthe rate of change of ia will be nega ve.

3. During the interval 0≤t≤δT, the posi ve armature current is carried by S1 and the nega ve armature
current is carried by D2. The source current flows only during this interval and it is equal to ia . During
the interval δT≤t≤T, the posi ve current is carried by D1 and the nega ve current is carried by S2.

4. From the motor terminal voltage waveform of Figure Va=δ V. Hence, δV—E . Ra Equa on suggests
that the motoring opera on takes place when δ >E/V, and that regenera ve braking occurs when δ <
E/V. The no-load opera on is obtained when δ =E/V.

Q4 Skip this ques on

Q5. Illustrate the fuel efficiency of ICE based conven onal vehicles and Electric Vehicle with the help
of neat diagrams and compare their overall performance.

A Case study This case treated the following aspects: economic criteria, environmental criteria, and a
combined impact criterion. The la er is a normalized indicator that takes into account the effects on
both environmental and economic performance of the op ons considered. Case compared four kinds
of fuel-propulsion vehicle alterna ves. Two addi onal kinds of vehicles, both of which are zero
pollu ng at fuel u liza on stage (during vehicle opera on) were also included in analysis. The vehicles
analyzed were as follows: 1. Conven onal gasoline vehicle (gasoline fuel and ICE), 2. Hybrid vehicle
(gasoline fuel, electrical drive, and large rechargeable ba ery), 3. Electric vehicle (high-capacity
electrical ba ery and electrical drive/generator), 4. Hydrogen fuel cell vehicle (high-pressure hydrogen
fuel tank, fuel cell, electrical drive), 5. Hydrogen internal combus on vehicle (high-pressure hydrogen
fuel tank and ICE), 6. Ammonia-fueled vehicle (liquid ammonia fuel tank, ammonia thermo-cataly c
decomposi on and separa on unit to generate pure hydrogen, hydrogen-fueled ICE). For
environmental impact analysis, all stages of the life cycle were considered, star ng from a) The
extrac on of natural resources to produce materials and b) Ending with conversion of the energy
stored onboard the vehicle into mechanical energy for vehicle displacement and c) Other purposes
(hea ng, cooling, ligh ng, etc.). In addi on, vehicle produc on stages and end-of-life disposal
contribute substan ally when

quan fying the life cycle environmental impact of fuel-propulsion alterna ves.

The analysis were conducted on six vehicles, each was representa ve of one of the above

discussed categories. The specific vehicles were:

1) Toyota Corolla (conven onal vehicle),

2) Toyota Prius (hybrid vehicle),

3) Toyota RAV4EV (electric vehicle),

4) Honda FCX (hydrogen fuel cell vehicle),

5) Ford Focus H2-ICE (hydrogen ICE vehicle),

6) Ford Focus H2-ICE adapted to use ammonia as source of hydrogen (ammonia-fueled ICE

vehicle).

Environmental Analysis Analysis for the first five op ons was based on published data from
manufacturers. The results for the sixth case, i.e. the ammonia-fueled vehicle, were calculated from
data published by Ford on the performance of its hydrogen-fueled Ford Focus vehicle. Two
environmental impact elements were accounted for in the: a) Air pollu on (AP) and b) Greenhouse
gas (GHG) emissions. The main GHGs were CO2, CH4, N2O, and SF6 (sulfur hexafluoride), which have
GHG impact weigh ng coefficients rela ve to CO2 of 1, 21, 310, and 24,900, respec vely. For AP, the
airborne pollutants CO, NOx, SOx, and VOCs are assigned the following weigh ng coefficients: 0.017,
1, 1.3, and 0.64, respec vely. The vehicle produc on stage contributes to the total life cycle
environmental impact through the pollu on associated with a) The extrac on and processing of
material resources, b) Manufacturing and c) The vehicle disposal stage. Addi onal sources of GHG and
AP emissions were associated with the fuel produc on and u liza on stages. The environmental
impacts of these stages have been evaluated in numerous life cycle assessments of fuel cycles.
Regarding electricity produc on for the electric car case, three case scenarios were considered here:
1. when electricity is produced from renewable energy sources and nuclear energy; 2. when 50% of
the electricity is produced from renewable energy sources and 50% from natural gas at an efficiency
of 40%; 3. when electricity is produced from natural gas at an efficiency of 40%. AP emissions were
calculated assuming that GHG emissions for plant manufacturing correspond en rely to natural gas
combus on. GHG and AP emissions embedded in manufacturing a natural gas power genera on plant
were negligible compared to the direct emissions during its u liza on. Taking those factors into
account, GHG and AP emissions for the three scenarios of electricity genera on were presented in

The environmental impact of the fuel u liza on stage, as well as the overall life cycle is presented in
Table 4. The H2-ICE vehicle results were based on the assump on that the only GHG emissions during
the u liza on stage were associated with the compression work, needed to fill the fuel tank of the
vehicle. The GHG effect of water vapor emissions was neglected in this analysis due its li le value,. For
the ammonia fuel vehicle, a very small amount of pump work was needed therefore, ammonia fuel
was considered to emit no GHGs during fuel u liza on.
 Module 4

Q1. Compare the characteris cs and performance of different energy sources used in EV.
RAGONE PLOT same ques on