Module I

BASIC THERMODYNAMICS
REFERENCES:
ENGINEERING THERMODYNAMICS by P.K.NAG 3RD EDITION
 LAWS OF THERMODYNAMICS
• 0 th law – when a body A is in thermal
equilibrium with a body B, and also separately
with a body C, then B and C will be in thermal
equilibrium with each other.
• Significance- measurement of property called
temperature.
 A

B C
Evacuated tube

100o C Steam point

Thermometric property
50o C (physical characteristics of reference
body that changes with temperature) –
rise of mercury in the evacuated tube

0o C

bulb
Steam at
P =1
iceatm T= 30oC
 REASONS FOR NOT TAKING ICE POINT AND
STEAM POINT AS REFERENCE TEMPERATURES
• Ice melts fast so there is a difficulty in
maintaining equilibrium between pure ice and
air saturated water.
Pure ice

Air saturated water

• Extreme sensitiveness of steam point with

pressure
 TRIPLE POINT OF WATER AS NEW
REFERENCE TEMPERATURE
• State at which ice liquid water and water
vapor co-exist in equilibrium and is an easily
reproducible state. This point is arbitrarily
assigned a value 273.16 K
• i.e. T in K = 273.16 X / Xtriple point
• X- is any thermomertic property like P,V,R,rise
of mercury, thermo emf etc.
 OTHER TYPES OF THERMOMETERS
AND THERMOMETRIC PROPERTIES
• Constant volume gas thermometers-
pressure of the gas
• Constant pressure gas thermometers-
volume of the gas
• Electrical resistance thermometer-
resistance of the wire
• Thermocouple-
thermo emf
 CELCIUS AND KELVIN(ABSOLUTE) SCALE
H2
Thermometer
Ar
T in oC
N2
Pg O2

gas

-273 oC
(0 K)

Absolute pressure P
This absolute 0K cannot be obtatined (Pg+Patm)
since it violates third law.
 SYSTEMS, BOUNDARY AND
SURROUNDING
Systems are any matter/ space on which our
attention is focussed
Systems are of three types
• closed system – no matter interaction with the
system, but there is energy interaction.
• Open system – there is matter as well as energy
interaction with the system.
• Isolated system- there is neither matter nor
energy interaction with the system. System and
surroundings together constitutes an isolated
system.
 CONTROL MASS / CLOSED SYSTEM E.G.
moving boundary work output

Surroundings
(piston + cylinder)
system

System (amount of gas)

boundary
Heat input

fuel
 generator
OPEN SYSTEM E.G.
Stationary boundary
Work output System (stationary space) boundary

turbine Hydraulic turbine(pelton wheel)

nozzle penstock

Water + energy
input
Water + energy
output
Control volume/ open system
 PROPERTIES OF A SYSTEM
• Characteristics of a system by which its
physical condition may be described are called
properties of a system. These are macroscopic
in nature(physically measurable).
E.g. pressure, volume, temperature etc
• When all the properties of a system have a
definite value, the system is said to exist at a
definite state.
 STATE OF A SYSTEM
P

Low pressure
Mean pressure P2
High pressure

P1

V2 V1 V

Any operation in which one or more of the properties of a system changes is called a
change of state
INTENSIVE AND EXTENSIVE PROPERTIES
• Intensive- independent of mass in the system
• Extensive- dependent of mass in the system
Mass= m/2
Pressure = P
Temp = T
Volume= V/2
Density,
Mass/Volume = ρ
Specific volume,
Volume /mass =υ

Capital letter denotes Extensive property (except P and T)

and small letter denotes specific property(Extensive property per unit mass)
 THERMODYNAMIC CYCLE
• Cycle consists of a series of change of state
such that final state is same as the initial state
 Homogeneous and Heterogeneous
systems
• A system consisting of only single phase is
called homogeneous system

steam

heterogeneous

water homogeneous

• A system consisting of more than one phase is

heterogeneous system
 ENERGY
ENERGY IN
ENERGY IN STORAGE
TRANSIT/MOTION 1. Energy that is stored in the
1. Energy that crosses the system
boundary of the system 2. Energy in form of KE, PE,
2. Energy in the form of heat or internal energy (sum of all
work. forms of molecular energy)
3. Specified as amount of energy 3. Specify as change in energy
transfer e.g. Change in KE, PE, etc
e.g. amount of heat 4. These are properties of a
transferred, amount of work system like T,P,V, mass etc
transferred. 5. They are point functions
4. They are not properties of a i.e. they are independent of
system. the path followed by the
5. They are path function i.e. system during a process.
amount of energy transfer
depends on the path
followed by the system during
a process
 DEFINING A PATH

100 N
P

10 N
Path unknown
Apiston
=1 m2
(shown by broken line)

P= 110
10 N/m
N/m22
V
Now the system and surroundings Now the system and surroundings are not
are in equilibrium in equilibrium
 SPONTANEOUS PROCESS

• fast process
• Path cannot be defined
• There is dissipation effects like friction
• System or surroundings can be restored to their
initial state.
• System may not follow the same path if we
reverse the process
• Spontaneous process are also called irreversible
process.
 DEFINING A PATH
DECADES ARE
At last on a December 31 st 2090
P PASSING BY

10 N
Path known
Apiston
(shown by a
=1 m2
continuous line)

P= 110
10 N/m
N/m22 2
10.01
10.02 N/m
V
Now also systemand
the system andsurroundings
surroundingsare
arein Departure of
Quasistatic process-
state ofprocess
the system
in which
fromsystem
almost in equilibrium
equilibrium and surroundingsequilibrium
thermodynamic are almostwill
in equilibrium
be
throughout thesmall
infinitesimally process .
 QUASI STATIC PROCESS

• Infinitely slow process

• Path can be defined
• There is no dissipation effects like friction
• Both System and surroundings can be restored to
their initial state.
• System follows the same path if we reverse the
process
• Quasi static process are also called reversible
process
 POINT FUNCTION/STATE FUNCTION
Cyclic integral(integral over a cycle)
of any point function(property) is = 0

P
oʃ dV = 0

V2 dV V1
V
ʃ dV = V2 –V1 = ΔV These are
called exact
∫dP = P2 – P1 = ΔP
differential
∫dT = T2 –T1 = ΔT functions.
 PATH FUNCTION Path B has more area than
curve B so work required in
So heat and work are path functions.
Also they are not exact differentials P path B is more than A even
though the end states are
same for A and B
B

A
P

F
dx

V2 V1
V
P dV

Then the total work required to move

the piston from V1 to V2 , W = ∫ PdV =
Small amount of work required to move the piston area under PV curve
through a distance dx = δW= F dx =P A dx = PdV
 Additional comments on heat and
work transfer
• Heat transfer to a system is taken as positive
• Heat transfer from a system is taken as negative
• Work transfer to a system is taken as negative
• Work transfer from a system is taken as positive

system
 Work o/p

• Law of conservation of energy-

Energy can neither be created
nor destroyed. It can only be
converted from one form to Increase in
another, here Q= W + ΔU internal
energy

Q-W = ΔU Heat i/p

δQ-δW=dU
In differential form
fuel
 Specific heat (c)
• Defined as amount of heat required to raise
the temperature of a unit mass of any
substance through a unit degree. Its SI unit is
J/kg K or J/kgoC
• i.e. c = Q/m ΔT or c = δQ /m dT
• δ Q= m c dT
• Q = m c ΔT
 Specific heat at constant volume(cV)
• Defined as amount of heat required to raise
the temperature of a unit mass of any
substance through a unit degree in a contant
volume process. Its SI unit is J/kg K or J/kgoC
• i.e. cV = Q/m ΔT or cV = δQ /m dT
• δ Q= m cV dT
• Q = m cV ΔT
 final
internal
energy
U2

Initial
internal
energy
U1

δQ-δW=dU
δQ=dU
heat
m cV dT=dU
cV = (du/dT)V
Specific heat at constant pressure(cP)
• Defined as amount of heat required to raise
the temperature of a unit mass of any
substance through a unit degree in a constant
pressure process. Its SI unit is J/kg K or J/kgoC
• i.e. cP = Q/m ΔT or cP = δQ /m dT
• δ Q= m cP dT
• Q = m cP ΔT
Specific heat at constant pressure( cP)
moving boundary work output
W δW=PdV

δQ-δW=dU
P δQ - PdV=dU
m cP dT=dU + PdV
Enthalpy H = U + PV
Heat input h=u+Pv
dh = du +d(pv)
In a constant pressure process
vdP=0
So dh = du + pdv
fuel
cP = (dh/dT)p
AN EXPERIMENT BY JOULES ON FIRST LAW

motor
Work i/p
stirrer 2

Fluid
system Heat o/p

1
Heat insulation
water
Joule found that heat output in process 2-1 was exactly equal to work
input in process 1-2
 Joules experiment cont.
Process 1-2
• Work transfer = W1-2
• heat transfer Q1-2 = 0 J (heat insulation wall)
Process 2-1
• Work transfer W2-1= 0 J (no work done)
• Heat transfer =Q2-1

• He found that W1-2 = Q2-1

• I.e. in the cycle 1-2-1, W1-2 + W2-1 = Q1-2 + Q2-1
• in a cycle net work transfer = net heat transfer
• i.e. in a cycle Σ W = Σ Q
• In differential form , in a cycle
oʃ δW = ∫
o δQ
 INTERNAL ENERGY A PROPERTY?
From the first law we found
that,
In a cycle
P
2 C ΣQ = ΣW
Consider cycle 1-A-2-B-1
QA +QB = WA + WB
QA –WA = - QB + WB
B ΔUA = -ΔUB
Consider cycle 1-A-2-C-1
A QA +QC = WA + WC
QA-WA = -QC + WC
1 ΔUA = -ΔUC

V
i.e. ΔUB = ΔUC
i.e. U is independent of path followed, so U is a
property
 Practice problem 1(p66)
• A stationary mass of gas is compressed
without friction from an initial state of 0.3 m3
and 0.105 MPa to a final state of 0.15 m3 and
0.105 MPa. The pressure remaining constant
during the process. There is a transfer of 37.6
kJ of heat from the gas during the process.
How much does the internal energy of the gas
change?
-21.85 kJ
 Practice problem 2(p66)
• When a system is taken from state a to state b, in the
fig along the path acb, 84 kJ of heat flows into the
system and system does 32 kJ of work.
1. How much will the heat that flows into the system
along the path adb be, if the work done is 10.5 kJ? 62.5 kJ
2. When the system is returned from b to a along the
curved path, the work done on the system is 21 kJ.
Does the system absorb or liberate heat, and how
much of the heat is absorbed or liberated? -73 kJ
3. If Ua= 0 kJ and Ud= 42 kJ, find the heat absorbed in
the process ad and db. 52.5 kJ
10 kJ
P c b

a d

V
 Practice problem 3(p67)
• A piston and cylinder machine contains a fluid
system which passes through a complete cycle
of four processes. During a cycle, the sum of
all heat transfer is -170 KJ. The system
completes 100 cycles per minute. Complete
the following table showing the method for
each item, and compute the net rate of work
input in KW.
Process Q(KJ/min) W(KJ/min) ΔE(KJ/min)
a-b 0 2170 -----
-2170
b-c 21000 0 -----
21000
c-d -2100 -----
34500 -36600
d-a -----
-35900 -53670
----- -----
17770

Wnet = -283.3 kW
 Practice problem 4(p68)
• Internal energy of a certain substance is given by the following
eqn, -----------------u= 3.56 pυ + 84
Where u is in kJ/kg, P in kPa, υ in m3/kg.
A system composed of 3 kg of this substance expands from
initial pressure of 500 kPa and a volume of 0.22 m3 to a final
pressure of 100 kPa in a process in which pressure and
volume is related by Pυ1.2 = Constant.
• If the expansion is quasistatic find Q, ΔU and W for the
process. 36.5 kJ 91 kJ 127.5 kJ
• In another process the same system expands from same initial
state to same final state as in previous part, but the heat
transfer in this case is 30 kJ. Find the work transfer for this
process. 121 kJ
• Explain the difference in work transfer in both processes.
 Practice problem 5(p69)
• A fluid is confined in a cylinder by a spring loaded,
frictionless piston so pressure in the fluid is a
linear function of volume (P= a +bV). The internal
energy of the fluid is given by the equation
U= 34 + 3.15 PV
if the fluid changes from an initial state of 170 kPa,
0.03 m3 to final state of 400kPa, 0.06m3, with no
work other than done on the piston, find the
direction and magnitude of work and heat
transfer.
W= 8.55 kJ
Q= 68.05 kJ
 Practice problem 6(p70)
• A stationary cycle goes through a cycle shown in
the figure comprising the following processes.
• Process 1-2 isochoric (constant Volume) heat
addition of 235KJ/kg.
• Process 2-3 adiabatic (no heat transfer)
expansion to its original pressure with loss of 70
KJ/kg in internal energy.
• Process 3-1 isobaric (constant Pressure)
compression to its original volume with heat
rejection of 200 KJ/kg.
• Check whether this cycle follows 1st law.
Total Q = Total W = 35 kJ/kg
LENOIR CYCLE (PULSE JET ENGINE CYCLE)

P 2

1 3

V
 First law applied to open systems
Q Control surfaces
2

Mass (flow energy +

1 Kinetic energy +
Potential energy +
Internal energy )2

W
mass(flow energy+
Control volume
Kinetic energy + Q + m( FE + KE + PE + U )1 = m( FE + KE + PE + U )2 + W
potential energy +
internal energy)1 In a continuous process let m be the amount of matter passing through
the control volume in time t and Q J and W J be the amount of heat and
work transfer in time t. then above equation becomes.
Q’ +m’(FE+KE+PE+U)1 = m’(FE+KE+PE+U)2 +W’ ----------------(SFEE)
m’= 1 kg/s m’ = ρ A v kg/s = constant
v = 2 m/s
P= 0.3 MPa Law of conservation of mass
1
ρ = 1 Kg/m3
A= 0.5 m2

?
U= 1400 kJ/kg Shaft work
output in
KW

Q’
m’= 1 kg/s
v= 1 m/s
2 P = 0.1 MPa
ρ = 1 Kg/m3
A = 1 m2
U= 420 kJ/Kg
 Practice problem 7(p88)
• Air flows steadily at a rate of 0.5 kg/s through an
air compressor at 7 m/s velocity, 100 kPa
pressure and 0.95 m 3/kg volume and leaving at 5
m/s, 700 kPa and 0.19 m3/kg. internal energy of
air leaving is 90 kJ/kg greater than that of air
entering. Cooling water in the compressor jackets
absorbs heat from the air at the rate of 58 kW.
• Compute the rate of work input to the air in kW
• Find the ratio of inlet pipe diameter to outlet pipe
diameter.
 Practice problem 8(p90)
• In a steady flow apparatus, 135 kJ of work is done
by each kg of fluid. The specific volume of the
fluid, pressure and velocity at the inlet are 0.37
m3/kg, 600kPa and 16 m/s. The inlet is 32m
above the floor and the discharge pipe is at the
floor level. The discharge conditions are 0.62 m3
/kg, 100 kPa, and 270m/s. the total heat loss
between inlet and discharge is 9kJ/kg of the fluid.
In flowing through the apparatus, does the
specific internal energy increases or decreases
and by how much?
 Practice problem 9(p90)
• In a steam power station steam flows steadily
through a 0.2 m diameter pipeline from the
boiler to the turbine. At the boiler end, the
steam conditions are found to be, P=4 MPa,
T=400oc , h (specific enthalpy, u + P/ρ)= 3213.6
kJ/kg and υ= 0.084 m3/kg. there is a heat loss of
8.5 kJ/kg from the pipeline. Calculate the steam
flow rate.
 Practice problem 10(p91)
• A certain water heater operates under steady
flow conditions receiving 4.2 kg/s of water at
75oc temperature, enthalpy 313.93kJ/kg. the
water is heated by mixing with steam which is
supplied to the heater at temperature 100.2 oC
and enthalpy 2676 kJ/kg. the mixture leaves
the heater as liquid water at temperature
100oC and enthalpy 419 kJ/kg. how much
steam must be supplied to the heater per
hour?
 CYCLIC DEVICES
• Heat engine-- is a device working in a cycle in which there is a net
heat transfer to the system and net work transfer from the system.
E.g. IC engines, power plants
• Heat pump – is a device working in a cycle in which there is a net
work transfer to the system and net heat transfer from the system.

FOR CONTINUOUS HEAT OR WORK TRANSFER A DEVICE

SHOULD WORK IN A CYCLE
Hydraulic turbine
 HEAT ENGINE CYCLE e.g.
Heat sink (atm air ) at P
lower temperature T2

Heat supply

V
Heat source at higher temperature T1
 ACTUAL OPERATION OF A

Spark plug
Air +fuel
PETROL ENGINE

ignition

exhaust
Suction

Idealized petrol engine V

cycle (Otto cycle)
 HEAT PUMP CYCLE e.g.
Heat sink (room air ) at P
lower temperature T2

Heat rejection

Heat supplied
AIR at≈ 300 K
Heat source (atm air) at lower temperature T1
V
 KELVIN PLANK STATEMENT OF
SECOND LAW
• It is impossible for a heat engine to produce net work in a
complete cycle. If it exchanges heat only with bodies at a single
fixed temperatures.
T1 –hot body temp
T1 T2 – cold body temp

T1 Q1 – heat supplied
from ignition
Qnet
HE W = Q1 - Q2
HE Wnet
Q2 – heat rejected to
atmospheric air

T2
Impossible according to second law. Possible according to
But possible according to the first law second law as well as first law
 PERFORMANCE PARAMETER OF HEAT
ENGINES
• Ratio of desired effect (net work output) to effort spent
(heat supplied)
• Efficiency
ɳ = (net work output / heat supplied) in a cycle
= W / Q1
= (Q1 - Q2 )/ Q1 = 1- Q2 / Q1
from this we find that no heat engine can have 100%
efficiency.
W is also called available energy i.e. maximum possible
net work that can be obtained from an engine.
 CLAUSIUS STATEMENT OF SECOND
LAW
• It is impossible to construct a device which, operating in a
cycle, will produce no effect other than the transfer of heat
from a cooler to a hotter body.
T2
T2
T1 – cold body temp Q2 – heat rejected
Q T2 – hot body temp to room air
HP W = Q2 – Q1
HP
Q1 – heat supplied from
Q outside air
T1
T1
Impossible according to second law. Possible according to
But possible according to the first law second law as well as first law
PERFORMANCE PARAMETER OF HEAT
PUMPS
• Ratio of desired effect (heat supplied to room) to
effort spent (net work input)
• Coefficient of performance,
COP= (heat rejected by system/ net work input) in a
cycle
= Q2 / W
= Q2 / (Q2 - Q1 )
from this we find that COP of heat pumps is always
greater than unity.
EXPALAINING IRREVERSIBILITY USING
SECOND LAW
• Heat transfer through a finite temperature
difference.

500 K
medium
500 K

possible HP W
Now it is
operating as
100 K 100 K a heat pump
which
doesn’t need
So heat transfer through a finite Possible? work input.
temperature gradient is a
spontaneous process
 EFFICIENCY OF A CARNOT ENGINE
CYCLE (A Reversible Cycle)
• Efficiency of a reversible heat engine in which
heat is received solely at temp T1 from a heat
source reservoir and heat is rejected solely at
temperature T2 to a heat sink reservoir is given
P by ɳ = 1- Q2 / Q1 = 1- T2/T1
Isothermal compression (heat output+ work input) at T2

Adiabatic compression (no heat transfer + work input)

Isothermal expansion ( heat input + work output) at T1

Adiabatic expansion ( no heat transfer + work output)

V
 SOURCE RESERVOIRS AND SINK
RESERVOIRS EXAMPLES
Heat Source reservoir - is defined as a large body of
infinite heat capacity which is capable of supplying an
unlimited quantity of heat without change in
temperature
E.g. Sun

Heat Sink reservoir - is defined as a large body of

infinite heat capacity which is capable of absorbing an
unlimited quantity of heat without change in
temperature
E.g. atmospheric air.
 Practice problem 11(p130)
• A cyclic heat engine operates between a
source temperature of 800oC and sink
temperature of 30oC. What is the least rate of
heat rejection per net output of the engine in
KW ? 0.392 kW
 Practice problem 12(p130)
• A domestic refrigerator maintains a temperature of
-15oC. The ambient air temperature is 30oC. If the
heat leaks into the freezer at a continuous rate of
1.75 kJ/s what is the least power necessary to pump
this heat out continuously? 0.31 kW
 Practice problem 13
• It is proposed that solar energy can be used to
warm a large collector plate. This energy would in
turn be transferred as heat to a fluid within a
heat engine, and the engine would reject energy
as heat to atmosphere. Experiments indicate that
about 1880 kJ/m2 h of energy can be collected
when the plate is operating at 90oC. Estimate the
minimum collector area that would be required
for a plant producing 1kW of useful shaft power.
Atmospheric temperature may be assumed to be
20oC. 10 m2
 Practice problem 14
• A reversible heat engine in a satellite operates
between a hot reservoir at T1. and a radiating
panel at T2 . The radiation from the panel is
proportional to its area and to T24 . For a given
work output and value of T1 show that the area of
the panel will be minimum when T2/T1 = 0.75.
• Determine the minimum area of the panel for an
output of 1 kW if the constant of proportionality
is 5.67 x 10-8 W/m2 K4 and T1= 1000K.
0.1672 m2
 GRADES OF ENERGY
High Grade energy Low grade energy
Mechanical work Heat or thermal
(Because in a heat pump all of the ( because in a heat engine a portion of heat
mechanical work can be converted energy is available as net work- second law)
to heat energy)
Heat derived from nuclear fission or fusion
Electric energy
Heat derived from the combustion of fossil
Water power fuels

Wind power

Kinetic energy of a jet

Tidal power
The bulk of high grade energy is obtained from sources of low grade energy
Complete conversion of low grade energy to high grade energy is impossible by
second law
(Measure of irreversibility of process)
• Efficiency of a Carnot cycle, P
ɳ = 1- Q2 / Q1 = 1- T2/T1
Q1 - Heat supplied to engine
T1 - Constant temperature
at which heat is supplied
Q2 - Heat rejected by engine
T2 - Constant temperature V
at which heat is rejected
Q2 / Q1 = T2 / T1
Q1 / T1 = Q2 / T2
Q1 / T1 - Q2 / T2 = 0

Σ Q/T = 0 for a Carnot engine cycle.

cycle

i.e.
∫ δQ = 0 ( for a Carnot engine cycle)
O T
P Approximation of any
2
reversible process with a
series of infinite number of
c adiabatic and isothermal
b
processes

a
1

V
 Considering any reversible cycle
P

Approximation of any process with

a series of infinite number of
adiabatic and isothermal processes V
• So for this reversible cycle also we can write

∫ δQ = 0 ( for a reversible cycle)

O T
• We know that cyclic integral of any property = 0
• So δQ is a property , this property we call Entropy S.
T T 2

• δQ = T dS
• Q= ∫T ds (area under T-S curve) 1
for a reversible process. S
 CLAUSIUS INEQUALITY

∫ δQ = 0 ( for a reversible cycle)

O T

∫ δQ < 0 ( for an irreversible cycle)

O T

∫ δQ > 0 ( for an impossible cycle, since it

O T
violates second law)
 ENTROPY CHANGE DURING A PROCESS
2

• For a reversible process, dS = δQ

T
∫
1
S2 –S1= δQ S
T 2

•For an irreversible process, dS > δQ

S –S >∫ δQ T
1
2 1
T S
•For an impossible process, dS < δQ
T
∫
S2 –S1 < δQ
T
, since it violates second law)
PRINCIPLE OF INCREASE OF ENTROPY
• For any process we can write dS >= δQ/T
• For an isolated system, there is no energy transfer to or
from the system so δQ=0
• So dS >= 0 for an isolated system
• A system comprising of both system and surrounding is
called isolated system or a universe
• i.e (dS )universe>= 0
• (dS )system + (dS )surrounding >= 0
• ΔS system + ΔSsurrounding >= 0
• i.e Entropy of an isolated system or universe will
never decrese.
• for a reversible process (dS )universe =0
i.e. ΔS system + ΔSsurrounding = 0
EXPALAINING IRREVERSIBILITY USING
ENTROPY PRINCIPLE
• Heat transfer through a finite temperature
difference
Entropy change of
the system,
Hot body T2 surrounding
ΔS system = Q / T1
Entropy change of the
Q
medium

surrounding,
ΔS surroundings = -Q / T2
Entropy change of the universe,
T1 system ΔS system + ΔS surroundings =
Cold body
Q (T2- T1 )/(T1 T2) > 0
So heat transfer through a finite Conversely if we consider Q flowing from
temperature gradient is a T1 to T2 , we will get ΔS universe < 0
spontaneous process which makes it an impossible process
 Practice problem 15(p171)
• One kg of water is brought in contact with a heat
reservoir at 373K. When the water has reached
373 K, find the entropy change of water, the heat
reservoir and of the universe. (take specific heat, c of
the water as 4.187 kJ/kg K) 0.183 kJ/K
• If water is heated from 273 to 373 K by first
bringing it in contact with a reservoir at 323 K and
then with a reservoir at 373 K, what will the
entropy change of the universe be? 0.098 kJ/K
• How will you propose to heat the water from 273
to 373 K to make it a reversible process ?
 WHY WE ARE BOTHERED TO MAKE A
PROCESS REVERSIBLE ?
• Carnot’s theorem- states that all heat engines
operating between a given constant temperature
source and a given constant temperature sink none
has a higher efficiency than a reversible engine.
• Available work, Wnet from a cyclic engine
decreases with irreversibility.
(The reason we are bothered
about irreversibility)
RELATION BETWEEN
AVAILABILITY AND
ENTROPY
A REVERSIBLE ISOTHERMAL PROCESS
T Source T System
T1 =1000 T2=1000

Same
area

S S
1000 K ΔS ΔS’

Q=Heat given by source = Heat absorbed by the system

1000 K Q= T1 ΔS = T2 ΔS’
Since T1 = T2 ΔS = ΔS’
AN IRREVERSIBLE ISOTHERMAL PROCESS
T Source T System
T1=1000

T2=700

Same
area
S S
ΔS ΔS’
700 K
Q=Heat given by source = Heat absorbed by the system
1000 K Q= T1 ΔS = T2 ΔS’
Since T1 > T2 ΔS’ > ΔS
 AVAILABLE WORK FROM A
REVERSIBLE CARNOT CYCLE

T1 =1000 T2=1000

Available
work

T0=300

300K ΔS ΔS’

Let Heat given by source = Heat absorbed by the system

1000 K = Qi = 14000 J
i.e. Qi= T1 ΔS = T2 ΔS’ = 14000 J
ΔS=14 J/K and ΔS’= 14 J/K
300 KK
1000 In this case heat rejected Qo = To ΔS’ = 4200 J
In this case W = Qi – Qo = 14000 - 4200 = 9800 J
 AVAILABLE WORK FROM AN
IRREVERSIBLE CARNOT CYCLE
AVILABILITY DECREASES WITH IRREVERSIBILITY

T1=1000
T2= 700
Available
work
T0=300

300K ΔS ΔS’

Let Heat given by source = Heat absorbed by the system

700 K = Qi = 14000 J
i.e. Qi= T1 ΔS = T2 ΔS’ = 14000 J
ΔS=14 J/K and ΔS’= 20 J/K
300 KK
1000 In this case heat rejected Qo = To ΔS’ = 6000 J
In this case W = Qi – Qo = 14000 - 6000 = 8000 J
 Practice problem 16(p227)
• In a certain process, a vapor while condensing
at 420oC, transfer heat to water evaporating at
250 oC. The resulting steam is used in a power
cycle which rejects heat at 35oC. What is the
fraction of available energy in the heat
transferred from the process vapor at 420oC
that is lost due to irreversible heat transfer at
250oC ? 0.26
 Ideal gas equation
Derived from experiments at macroscopic level
• Avogadro’s law- Equal volumes of all gases under similar conditions of
temperature and pressure contains equal no of molecules, (one mole of any
gas at 1 atm and 273K occupies a volume of 22.4L)
V  n (at constant T and P)
• Boyle’s Law – V  1/P (at constant absolute T and n)
• Charle’s Law – V  T (at constant absolute P and n)
• i.e. P V  n T ,
• PV = n R’ T
• which leads to constant of proportionality, R’- universal gas constant.
• R’= PV / nT = 1 atm 22.4L / 1mole 273K = 8.314 kJ/kmole K
• Pv’ =R’T where v’ is molar specific volume m3/kmol
• P V = m R T R-characteristic gas constant = R’/Molecular mass
• A hypothetical gas which obeys the general gas equation at all ranges of
temperatures and pressures is called an ideal gas.
 KINETIC MOLECULAR(MICROSCOPIC) THEORY
FOR EXPLAINING IDEAL BEHAVIOR (FROM WIKIPEDIA)
• The gas consists of very small particles known as molecules. This smallness of their size is
such that the total volume of the individual gas molecules added up is negligible compared to
the volume of the smallest open ball containing all the molecules. This is equivalent to stating
that the average distance separating the gas particles is large compared to their size.
• These particles have the same mass.
• The number of molecules is so large that statistical treatment can be applied.
• These molecules are in constant, random, and rapid motion.
• The rapidly moving particles constantly collide among themselves and with the walls of the
container. All these collisions are perfectly elastic. This means, the molecules are considered
to be perfectly spherical in shape, and elastic in nature.
• Except during collisions, the interactions among molecules are negligible. (That is, they exert
no forces on one another.)
• The average kinetic energy of the gas particles depends only on the absolute temperature of
the system. The kinetic theory has its own definition of temperature, not identical with the
thermodynamic definition.
• The time during collision of molecule with the container's wall is negligible as compared to
the time between successive collisions.
• Because they have mass, the gas molecules will be affected by gravity.
CAUSES OF DEVIATION OF A REAL GAS
FROM IDEAL BEHAVIOR At high temperature
and low pressure
•Total volume of
individual molecules
negligible

•Intermolecular
attraction or repulsion
negligible

At high pressure and

low temperature
•Total volume of
individual molecules
significant

•Intermolecular
attraction or repulsion
significant
 A REAL GAS EQUATION
Van der Walls gas equation
• (P + a/v’2) (v’-b)= R’ T or (P + a/v2) (v-b)= R T
• P is absolute pressure in Pa
• v’- molar specific volume m3/kmol
• v- specific volume m3/kg
• a/v’2- force of cohesion
• b- co-volume
• R’- universal gas constant-8.314 kJ/kmol K
• R- characteristic gas constant- R’ / molecular mass in kg/kmol
• Real gas conforms more closely with van der Walls Equation of
state, particularly at higher pressures, but is not obeyed at all
ranges of pressure and temperatures.
 COMPRESSIBILITY FACTOR
• Z = Pv’/R’T
• Z- compressibility factor
• P- absolute pressure, Pa
• v’- molar specific volume, m3/mol
• R’- universal gas constant, 8.314 J/mol K
• T- absolute temperature, K
• For an ideal gas Z=1
• But for real gas Z not=1,
Real gas equation can be used that time but we need detailed data
like value of a and b.
• when detailed data on a particular gas is not available we can use
experiment data charts called “Generalized Compressibility chart”.
 GENERALIZED COMPRESSIBILITY
CHART
• Reduced property of a substance is the ratio of a property to its
critical property.
• Reduced pressure Pr = P/PC
• Reduced temperature Tr= T/Tc
• Reduced molar specific volume v’r= v’/v’C
• Reduced specific volume vr= v/vC
• Where subscript C denotes critical point(pressure and temperature at
which latent heat=0) which is a unique property for a substance.
• Compressibility factor Z= P v’/R’ T or Z= P v/R T
• Plot of Z versus Pr for different values of Tr for different gases is
called Generalized compressibility chart.
• A single Generalized compressibility chart can be used for almost all
gases.
GENERALIZED COMPRESSIBILITY
CHART
 Practice problem 17(p346)
• A gas Neon has a molecular weight of 20.183
kg/kmol and its critical temperature, pressure and
volume are 44.5 K, 2.73 MPa and 0.0416 m3/kg
mol. [Reading from the compressibility chart given
for a reduced pressure of 2 and a reduced
temperature of 1.3, the compressibility factor Z is
0.7]. what are the corresponding specific volume,
pressure, temperature and reduced volume?
P= 5.46 MPa, T= 57.85 K, v=3.05 x 10 -3 m3/kg, vr=1.48
Z

0.7

Pr
2
INTERNAL ENERGY AND ENTHALPY OF
AN IDEAL GAS
• Internal energy U and enthalpy H of an ideal gas is a function of
temperature alone
cP /cV = ɣ
• U =f(T)
given by, U= m cV T and u = cV T
cP - c V = R
i.e. change in internal energy of an ideal gas, cV = R/(ɣ-1)
ΔU = m cV ΔT and Δu = cV ΔT
dU = m cV dT and du = cV dT cP = ɣR/(ɣ-1)
• H= U +PV = m cV T + m R T = f(T)
given by, H = m cP T and h= cP T
i.e. change in enthalpy of an ideal gas,
ΔH = m cPΔT and Δh = cP ΔT
dH = m cP dT and dh = cP dT
 WORK DONE
HEAT TRANSFER
AND
CHANGE IN PROPERTIES
DURING A
REVERSIBLE PROCESS
UNDERGONE BY AN
IDEAL GAS
A CONSTANT VOLUME PROCESS
(ISOCHORIC, V=C, dV=0)
P T
b b

a a
V S
Pa Va /Ta = Pb Vb/Tb
Pa/Pb = Ta / Tb
SOURCE Applying first law δQ - δW = dU
Here δW= P dV =0, so δQ= dU= m cV dT
Qab = m cV (Tb –Ta)
TdS = m cV dT
dS = m cV dT/T
i.e. ΔS =Sb – Sa = m cV ln (Tb/Ta)
A CONSTANT PRESSURE PROCESS
(ISOBARIC, P=C, dP=0)
P T

a b
a

V S
Pa Va /Ta = Pb Vb/Tb
Va/Vb = Ta / Tb
SOURCE Applying first law δQ - δW = dU
δW= pdV i.e. Wab = P(Vb – Va)
δQ= pdV + dU= dh = m cP dT i.e. Qab = m cP (Tb – Ta)
Tds = m cP dT
dS = m cP dT/T
i.e. ΔS = Sb – Sa = m cP ln (Tb/Ta)
A CONSTANT TEMPERATURE PROCESS
(ISOTHERMAL, T=C, dT=0, dU=0)
P T

a
a b

Pa Va /Ta = Pb Vb/Tb V S
Pa/Pb = Vb / Va i.e PV =PaVa = PbVb =C i.e. P=V/C
Applying first law δQ - δW = dU=0
SOURCE δW= PdV
δQ= PdV i.e. Qab = C ∫ abdV/V = PV ln (Vb / Va) =
Qab = mR T ln(Vb / Va) = Wab
TdS = PdV = C dV/V
dS = C/T dV/V
i.e. ΔS = Sb – Sa = mR ln(Vb / Va)
A CONSTANT ENTROPY PROCESS
(ISENTROPIC, S=C, dS=0, δQ=0)
P T
a
a

b b
V S
Pa Va /Ta = Pb Vb/Tb
PVɣ =PaVaɣ = PbVbɣ =C i.e. P=Vɣ/C
Applying first law δQ - δW = dU
δQ= 0
δW= PdV=dU i.e. Wab = C ∫ab dV/V = PV
ɣ ɣ (Vb-ɣ+1 -Va-ɣ+1)
Wab = mR (Tb - Ta)
TdS = 0
dS = 0
i.e. ΔS = Sb – Sa =0
 IDEAL GAS P-V-T RELATIONSHIPS FOR
ANY REVERSIBLE PROCESS a –b
• Any reversible process can be represented by
relation PVn= C
• Pa /Pb =(Vb /Va)n
• From ideal gas relation, Pa Va /Ta = Pb Vb /Tb
• Ta/ Tb = (Pa / Pb) (Va /Vb)
• i.e. Ta /Tb = (Vb /Va)n (Va /Vb) = (Vb /Va)n-1
Va / Vb = (Tb /Ta)1/(n-1)
• Also Ta /Tb = (Pa /Pb )(n-1)/n
(Pa /Pb ) = (Ta /Tb) n/(n-1) n=0 , for isobaric process
n= 1, for isothermal process
n= ɣ , for adiabatic(isentropic process)
n= α , for isochoric process
 P-V AND T-S DIAGRAM FOR VARIOUS
REVERSIBLE PROCESSES, PV n= C
COMPRESSION EXPANSION
P T
n= α n= ɣ n= α
n= ɣ

n= 1 n= 0

n= 0 O n= 1
O

HEAT REJECTION HEAT ADDITION

V S
Consider processes starting from O
 POLYTROPIC PROCESS PVn=C
(generalized Process)
• PVn = C Pa Van = Pb Vbn Polytropic index, n=(log Pa – log Pb)/(log Vb –log Va)
• P=C/Vn
• Wab = ∫ab PdV =∫ab C dV/Vn =C∫ab dV/Vn = P Vn (Vb-n+1 - Va-n+1) /(1-n)
i.e. Wab = m R (Tb – Ta)/(1-n) n not=1
• Applying first law Qab –Wab = ΔUab = m cV (Tb –Ta)
• Qab =Wab + ΔUab =m R (Tb – Ta)/(1-n) + m cV (Tb –Ta)
• For an ideal gas cV = R/(ɣ-1)
• i.e. Qab = m R (Tb – Ta)/(1-n) + m R (Tb –Ta)/(ɣ-1)
• = mR (Tb – Ta) [1/(1-n) + 1/(ɣ-1)]
i.e. Qab = m R (ɣ-n) (Tb – Ta ) / (1-n) (ɣ-1) n not=1
δQ – δW = dU
• δQ = δW + dU = PdV + m cV dT
• i.e TdS =PdV + m cV dT i.e. dS = PdV/T + m cV dT/T = m R dV/V +m cV dT/T
• ΔS = Sb – Sa = m R ln(Vb/Va) + m cV ln(Tb/Ta)
• cV = R /ɣ-1 also Vb/Va = (Tb/Ta) 1/(1-n)
• So ΔS = Sb – Sa = m R ln(Tb/Ta) /(1-n) + m R ln(Tb/Ta) /(ɣ-1) =
• m R ln(Tb/Ta) [1/(1-n) + 1/(ɣ-1) ]
• i.e. Sb – Sa = m R (ɣ-n) ln(Tb/Ta) / (1-n) (ɣ-1 ) n not=1
 Practice problem 18(p337)
• A certain gas has cP =1.968 and cV = 1.507 kJ/kg K. find its
molecular weight and characteristic gas constant.
• A constant volume chamber of 0.3 m3 capacity contains 2
kg of this gas at 5oC. Heat is transferred to the gas until
temperature is 100oC. Find the work done, the heat
transferred, and the change in internal energy enthalpy and
entropy.

R= 0.461 kJ/kg K, M= 18.04 kg/kg mol, W=0, Q= 286.33 kJ, ΔU = 286.33 kJ

ΔH = 373 kJ, ΔS = 0.921 kJ/K
 Practice problem 19(p338)
• Show that for an ideal gas, the slope of the
constant volume line on the T-S diagram is
more than that of the constant pressure line.
Hint: Tds = du + PdV = cV dT + PdV
i.e. (dT/dS)v = T/cV
(dT/dS)P= T/cP
since cV < cP (dT/dS)v > (dT/dS)P
 Practice problem 20(P339)
• 0.5 kg of air is compressed reversibly and
adiabatically from 80kPa, 60oC to 0.4 Mpa, and is
then expanded at constant pressure to the
original volume. Sketch these processes on the
P-V and T-S diagram. Compute the heat transfer
and work transfer for the whole path.

W total = 93.6 kJ, Qtotal = 527.85 kJ

 Practice problem 21(p342)
• A mass of 0.25 kg of an ideal gas has a pressure of
300kPa, a temperature of of 80oC, and a volume of
0.07 m3. the gas undergoes an irreversible adiabatic
process to a final pressure of 300 kPa and a final
volume of 0.10 m3, during which the work done on
the gas is 25 kJ. Evaluate the cP and cV of the gas
and increase in entropy of the gas.
cV = 0.658 kJ/kg K cP = 0.896 kJ/kgK
ΔS = 0.08 kJ/kgK
ANALYSIS OF CARNOT CYCLE AND
EFFICIENCY
P 3

❶ 4

❹
2
❷

1-2 ISOTHERMAL COMPRESSION

❸
2-3 ADIABATIC COMPRESSION 1
3-4 ISOTHERMAL EXPANSION
SOURCE
SINK 4-1 ADIABATIC EXPANSION

V
 EFFICIENCY OF A CARNOT CYCLE
• ɳ = Wnet/Qi = (Qi + Qo)/Qi = 1+ Qo /Qi
= 1+ [ m R T1 ln(V2/V1)] / [ m R T3ln(V4/V3)]
=1 - [ T1 ln(V1/V2)] / [ T3 ln(V4/V3)]

• In process 1-2 T1 = T2
• In process 2-3 T2/T3 = (V3/V2)(ɣ-1)
• In process 3-4 T3 = T4
• In process 4-1 T1/T4 = (V4/V1) (ɣ-1)
• i.e. V3/V2 = V4/V1 i.e. V1/V2 = V4/V3

• i.e. ɳ =1-T1 /T3 = 1- T2 /T4

 Practice Problem 22(p132)
• Which is the more effective way to increase the efficiency of a Carnot
engine: to increase T1 keeping T2 constant ; or to decrease T2, keeping T1
constant ?
• HINT : efficiency is given by ɳ= 1-T2/T1
Differentiating ɳ keeping T1 constant,
[dɳ/dT2] T1= -1/T1
i.e. as T2 is decreased efficiency increases(-ve sign)

Differentiating ɳ keeping T2 constant,

[dɳ/dT1] T2= T2/T12
i.e. as T1 is increased efficiency increases
Since T1 > T2 , 1/T1 > T2/T12
i.e. [dɳ/dT2] T1 > [dɳ/dT1] T2
so more effective way for increasing efficiency of Carnot cycle is decrease
T2, keeping T1 constant.
 ANALYSIS OF OTTO CYCLE AND
EFFICIENCY
Compression ratio, rk= V1 /V2
P 3 Expansion ratio, re= V4 / V3
Swept volume
(STROKE VOLUME) = V1-V2

❶❹
2
4
❷❸

1-2 ADIABATIC COMPRESSION

2-3 ISOCHORIC HEAT ADDITION
3-4 ADIABATIC EXPANSION
SOURCE
SINK 4-1 ISOCHORIC HEAT REJECTION 1
V
 EFFICIENCY OF AN OTTO CYCLE
• ɳ = Wnet/Qi = (Qi + Qo)/Qi = 1+ Qo /Qi
= 1+ [ m cV (T1-T4)/mcV(T3-T2) ]
=1+ (T1-T4)/(T3-T2) = 1-(T4-T1)/(T3-T2)
• Let us try to rewrite this equation in terms of
compression OR expansion ratio
ɳ =1- (T4/T3) (1-T1/T4)/(1-T2/T3)
• In process 1-2 T1/T2 = (V2/V1)(ɣ-1)
• In process 3-4 T3/T4 = (V4/V3) (ɣ-1) = (V1/V2) (ɣ-1)
• i.e. T1/ T2 = T4/T3 i.e T1/T4 =T2/T3
• ɳ =1-T4/T3 = 1- (V3/V4)(1-ɣ)
• ɳ= 1- 1/rk(ɣ-1) Mean effective pressure ,
Pm = Wnet / swept volume
 Practice problem 23(p523)
• An engine working on the Otto cycle is
supplied with air at 0.1 MPa, 35oC. The
compression ratio is 8. Heat supplied is 2100
kJ/kg. calculate the maximum pressure and
temperature of the cycle, the cycle efficiency,
and the mean effective pressure ( for air cP =
1.005 kJ/kg K, cP= 0.718 kJ/kg K ) ? Also draw
T-S diagram for the cycle.
Pmax = 9.426 Mpa Tmax = 3633 K ɳ= 56.5 %
Pm=1.533 MPa
 ANALYSIS OF DIESEL CYCLE AND
EFFICIENCY Compression ratio r = V /V k 1 2

P 2 3
Cut-off ratio rc =
V3/V2
Expansion ratio re = V4/V3
rk = re rc
Swept volume
(STROKE VOLUME) = V1-V2
❶❹

4
❸

1-2 ADIABATIC COMPRESSION

❷
2-3 ISOBARIC HEAT ADDITION
3-4 ADIABATIC EXPANSION
SOURCE
SINK 4-1 ISOCHORIC HEAT REJECTION 1
V
 EFFICIENCY OF A DIESEL CYCLE
• ɳ = Wnet/Qi = (Qi + Qo)/Qi = 1+ Qo /Qi
= 1+ [ m cV (T1-T4) / mcP(T3-T2) ] cP/cV = ɣ
=1+ (1/ɣ ) (T1-T4)/(T3-T2) = 1- (1/ɣ )(T4-T1)/(T3-T2)
• Let us try to rewrite this equation in terms of compression, expansion and
cutoff ratios.
• In process 3-4 T4/T3 = (V3/V4)(ɣ-1) =1/re(ɣ-1)
i.e. T4=T3/re(ɣ-1) = T3 rc(ɣ-1) /rk(ɣ-1)
• In process 2-3 T2/T3 = (V2/V3) = 1/rc
i.e. T2=T3/rc
• in process 1-2 T1/T2 = (V2/V1)(ɣ-1) =1/rk(ɣ-1)
i.e. T1=T2 /rk(ɣ-1)
i.e T1=T3 /(rc rk(ɣ-1) )----sub for T2
• Now we got T1 T2 and T4 in terms of T3. substituting these values in ɳ
• ɳ =1- (1/ɣ ) [ T3 rc(ɣ-1) /rk(ɣ-1) - T3 /(rc rk(ɣ-1) ) ] / [ T3 -T3/rc ]
• Cancelling all T3 , ɳ =1 - (1/ɣ ) [rc(ɣ-1) /rk(ɣ-1) - 1/(rc rk(ɣ-1) )] / [1 -1/rc]

• ɳ =1- [1/(ɣ rk(ɣ-1))] [rcɣ – 1] / [rc - 1]

 Practice problem 24(p524)
• A Diesel engine has a compression ratio of 14 and
cut off takes place at 6% of the stroke (max volume –
min volume) . Find the air standard efficiency. Also
draw T-S diagram for the cycle.
• If an Otto cycle engine(pertol engine) is used with
same compression ratio, prove that efficiency of
Otto cycle is more. (take ɣ= 1.4)
Diesel = 60. 5 %
Otto = 65.2 %
 Practice problem 25(p525)
• In an air standard diesel cycle the compression
ratio is 16 and at the beginning of isentropic
compression the temperature is 15 oC and
pressure is 0.1 MPa. Heat is added until the
temperature at the end of the constant
pressure process is 1480 oC .
16
• Calculate cutoff ratio
• Calculate heat supplied per kg of air 884.4 kJ/kg
• Calculate the cycle efficiency and MEP 61.2 %
698 45 kPa
ANALYSIS OF BRAYTON CYCLE AND
EFFICIENCY
P 2 3 Compression Ratio, rk = V1/V2
Expansion ratio, re = V4/V3
Pressure ratio, rp = P2/P1= P3/P4

❸ 1 4
1-2 ADIABATIC COMPRESSION
❷ 2-3 ISOBARIC HEAT ADDITION
3-4 ADIABATIC EXPANSION
SOURCE
SINK 4-1 ISOBARIC HEAT REJECTION

V
 EFFICIENCY OF A BRAYTON CYCLE
• ɳ = Wnet/Qi = (Qi + Qo)/Qi = 1+ Qo /Qi
= 1+ [ m cp (T1-T4)/mcp(T3-T2) ]
=1+ (T1-T4)/(T3-T2) = 1-(T4-T1)/(T3-T2)
• Let us try to rewrite this equation in terms of compression,
expansion and pressure ratios
• In process 1-2 T2/T1 = (P2/P1)(ɣ-1)/ɣ
• In process 3-4 T3/T4 = (P3/P4) (ɣ-1)/ɣ = (P2/P1)(ɣ-1)/ɣ
• i.e. T1/ T2 = T4/T3 i.e. T1/T4 =T2/T3
• ɳ =1-T4/T3 = 1- (P4/P3) (ɣ-1)/ɣ = 1-1/rp(ɣ-1)/ɣ = 1- (V3/V4)(1-ɣ)

• ɳ= 1- 1/rk(ɣ-1)
• ɳ= 1- 1/rp(ɣ-1)/ɣ
 BRAYTON CYCLE POWER PLANT

Combustion chamber
P ( isobaric heat addition)
❸
❷
2 3

Compressor 1 4 Turbine
(adiabatic (adiabatic
❶ compression)
cooling chamber
V Expansion) ❹
( isobaric heat rejection)
 Practice problem 26(p530)
• In an ideal Brayton cycle air from the atmosphere at
1 atm, 300K is compressed to 6 atm and maximum
cycle temperature is limited to 1100 K by using a
large air fuel ratio. If the heat supplied is 100 MW
find,
• Thermal efficiency of the cycle 40.1%
• Work ratio= (Wturb – Wcomp)/Wturb 0.545
• Power output 40.1 MW
• Also draw the T-S diagram for the cycle
 Module II
ENERGY CONVERSION
DEVICES
REFERENCES:
ENGINEERING THERMODYNAMICS by P.K.NAG 3RD EDITION
POWER PLANT ENGINEERING by P.K.NAG 3RD EDITION
 BOILERS
Boiler is an apparatus to produce steam
Thermal energy released by combustion of fuel is
used to make steam at desired temperature and
pressure.
The steam produced is used for,
1. Producing mechanical work by expanding it in a
steam engine or steam turbine.
2. Heating the residential and industrial buildings.
3. Performing certain processes in the sugar mills,
chemical and textile industries.
 PROPERTIES OF A GOOD
BOILER
1. Safety – boiler should be safe under operating conditions
2. Accessibility - the various parts of the boiler should be
accessible for the repair and maintenance.
3. Capacity- should be capable of supplying steam according
to the requirement.
4. Efficiency- should be able to absorb a maximum amount of
heat produced due to burning of fuel in the furnace
5. Construction simplicity.
6. Low initial and maintenance cost.
7. Boiler should have no joints exposed to flames.
8. Should be capable of quick starting and loading.
 CLASSIFICATION OF BOILERS
• WATER TUBE BOILERS- if water is inside the tube and hot gases
are outside the tube.
e.g. Babcock and Wilcox
• FIRE TUBE BOILERS- if hot gases are inside the tube and water is
outside the tube.
e.g. Cochran, Lancashire and locomotive boilers
• EXTERNALLY FIRED - if furnace is outside the shell
e.g. Babcock and Wilcox
• INTERNALLY FIRED - if furnace is located outside the boiler shell
e.g. Cochran, Lancashire and locomotive boilers
• HIGH PRESSURE – produce steam at and above 80 Bar
e.g. Babcock and Wilcox
• LOW PRESSURE- produce steam below 80 Bar
e.g. Cochran, Lancashire and locomotive boilers
 CLASSIFICATION OF BOILERS
• FORCED CIRCULATION BOILERS- if circulation of water is done by
pumps
e.g. Benson boilers
• NATURAL CIRCULATION BOILERS- if circulation of water is due to
density difference by application of heat.
e.g. Cochran, Babcock and Wilcox
• POTRABLE – locomotive type or used for temporary use in sites
e.g. Locomotive boilers (steam engine trains)
• STATIONARY – used in powerplants
e.g. Cochran, Babcock and Wilcox
• HIGH PRESSURE – produce steam at and above 80 Bar
e.g. Babcock and Wilcox
• LOW PRESSURE- produce steam below 80 Bar
e.g. Cochran, Lancashire and locomotive boilers
 PRESSURE GAUGE SAFETY VALVE
STEAM STOP VALVE
MAN HOLE

STEAM SPACE

FEED CHECK VALVE

SMOKE BOX
FIRE TUBE

BOILER SHELL

FUSIBLE PLUG

FIRE BOX
BLOW OFF COCK
FIRE DOOR
MUD COAL
GRATE (FIRE BED)
AIR INTAKE AIR INTAKE
ASH PIT
 COAL HOOPER

FIRE BOX
HOT FLUE GASES OUT

ASH

AIR INTAKE FOR COMBUSTION

STOKER FEED CHAIN CONVEYOR

ASH PIT
 PRESSURE SAFETY SUPERHEATED STEAM OUT
GAUGE VALVE

STEAM IN

STEAM BUBBLES OUT

SUPER
HEATING WATER IN
FEED TUBE
CHECK
VALVE

FIRE
DOOR

BLOW
AIR OFF
INTAKE GRATE VALVE

ASH PIT
 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN WATER AND
FIRE TUBE BOILERS
FIRE TUBE WATER TUBE
• Construction is difficult • Construction is simple
• Hot gas inside the tube and water • water inside the tube and hot
outside the tube gas outside the tube
• Internally fired • Externally fired
• Operating pressure limited to 20 • Operating pressure can go up to
bar 200 bar
• Less risk of explosion • More risk of explosion
• Not suitable for large power plants • Suitable for large power plants
• Rate of steam production lower • Rate of steam production higher
• For same power it occupies more • For same power it occupies less
floor area and big boiler shell floor area and small boiler shell.
• Transportation difficult • Transportation simple.
• Water treatment not necessary • Water treatment necessary
• Less accessibility to boiler parts • More accessibility to boiler parts
• Requires less operating skill • Requires more operating skill
• A turbine is a Roto-dynamic device that
extracts energy from a flowing fluid and
converts it into useful work. the fluid may
be compressible (vapor, gas etc) or
incompressible (liquids)
 TURBINES CLASSIFICATIONS
BASED ON WORKING FLUID
• HOT COMBUSTION GAS- Gas turbine
• STEAM – Steam turbine
• WATER- Hydraulic turbine
• MERCURY- Mercury turbine

BASED ON ACTION OF WORKING FLUID ON TURBINE

• IMPULSE TURBINE – Torque produced by change in momentum of the
flowing fluid
• REACTION TURBINE – Torque produced by change in momentum as well as
change in pressure of flowing fluid

BASED ON THE DISCHAGE QUANTITY OF WORKING FLUID

• LOW DISCHARGE- Pelton wheel
• MEDIUM DISCHARGE – Francis turbine
• HIGH DISCHARGE- Kaplan turbine
 TURBINES CLASSIFICATIONS
BASED ON THE NET HEAD AVAILABLE AT TURBINE INLET
• HIGH HEAD- Pelton wheel
• MEDIUM HEAD – Francis turbine
• LOW HEAD- Kaplan turbine

BASED ON THE SPECIFIC SPEED, Ns (SPEED OF A TURBINE FOR UNIT POWER OUTPUT
FOR A UNIT HEAD)
• 10 TO 50 RPM – Pelton wheel
• 50- 250 RPM – Francis turbine
• 250- 850 RPM – Kaplan turbine

BASED ON FLOW OF THE WORKING FLUID TRHOUGH THE TURBINE RUNNERS

• TANGENTIAL FLOW- fluid hits the turbine tangentially
• RADIAL FLOW - fluid enters radially and leaves radially(Francis turbine)
• MIXED FLOW- fluid enters radially and leaves axially(Francis turbine)
• AXIAL FLOW- fluid enters axially and leaves axially(Kaplan turbine)
 IMPULSE MOMENTUM PRINCIPLE
(principle of impulse turbines)
ACCORDING TO NEWTONS SECOND LAW ,
FORCE IS DIRECTLY PROPORTIONAL TO RATE OF CHANGE OF MOMENTUM

IMPULSE in this direction =

change in momentum of ball in
this direction
φ = 1 kg (2 m/s cos θ - -1 m/s cos φ )

If the ball is hitting on the surface at a rate of 6 hits / second

1 kg Then force on the surface is, F= 6 x IMPULSE Newtons
 REACTION PRINCIPLE
(principle of reaction turbines)
HIGH PRESSURE
LOW VELOCITY

ACCORDING TO NEWTON’S
THIRD LAW, FOR EVERY LOW PRESSURE
ACTION THERE IS AN EQUAL HIGH VELOCITY
AND OPPOSITE REACTION.

HERE THE ACTION IS

ACCELERATION OF
COMBUSTION PRODUCTS BY
NOZZLE IN DOWNWARD
DIRECTION.

EQUAL AND OPPOSITE Mass flow rate of combustion product

REACTION IS THE THRUST. x (high velocity – low velocity)
HYDRAULIC TURBINES

IMPULSE REACTION
TURBINE TURBINE
• Pelton • Francis
•Kaplan
 HYDRAULIC IMPULSE TURBINES
• High head turbines-
Net Head available at the inlet of the
turbine is more than 250 m. These are
low discharge type turbines (because
discharge through the impulse turbine nozzle is less).
e.g. Pelton wheel
H>250 m
PELTON WHEEL BUCKET SHAPED
VANES
PELTON WHEEL HOUSING WITH
WATER JET NOZZLE
ACTION OF HIGH VELOCITY WATER JET
ON BUCKETS
 BUCKET CROSS SECTION
SCHEMATIC
WATER JET CHANGES DIRECTION WHILE
HITTING THE BUCKET
AND SO THERE IS A CHANGE IN MOMENTUM
(DUE TO CHANGE IN DIRECTION OF VELOCITY)

HIGH VELOCITY WATER JET OUT OF THE NOZZLE FORCE

ACCORDING TO NEWTON’S SECOND LAW,

FORCE IS DIRECTLY PROPORTIONAL TO RATE OF CHANGE OF
MOMENTUM
i.e. FORCE = mass flow rate of water (change in velocity)
 HYDRAULIC REACTION TURBINES
• FRANCIS TURBINE(medium head)- Net head
available at the inlet of the turbine is between 60
and 250 m. These turbines are of medium
discharge. Specific speed ranges from 50- 250 rpm.

• KAPLAN TURBINE(low head)- Net head available at

the inlet of the turbine is below 60 m. This turbine
requires high discharge. Specific speed ranges from
250- 850 rpm.
FRANCIS TURBINE RUNNER
 FRANCIS TURBINE
SCHEMATIC
FRONT VIEW
POWER
VOLUTE CASING
OUTPUT
SHAFT

GUIDE VANE

height of the
turbine above DRAFT TUBE
tailrace, is (A tube of increasing cross
provided for section area connecting the
inspection and exit of the turbine runner
maintenance, and tail race, decreases
but decreases pressure at exit of the
efficiency turbine runner thereby
increasing efficiency)
TAIL RACE
 FRANCIS
TURBINE
HIGH PRESSURE
SCHEMATIC
INLET

GUIDE VANES
(adjustable)-
for guiding the
To draft
Runner tube
blades high pressure
water to the
turbine blades at
desired angle and
Nozzle velocity of impact.
shaped
blade outlet

CROSS
SECTION VOLUTE CASING - for entry of water
to each blade at even velocity
TOP VIEW (decreasing cross section area)
 REACTION ON FRANCIS TURBINE

HIGH PRESSURE
WATER INLET LOW PRESSURE
WATER OUT OF
NOZZLE SHAPED
BLADES
GUIDE VANES
KAPLAN TURBINE
POWER KAPLAN (PROPELLER)
OUTPUT TURBINE cross sectional
SHAFT
front view

GUIDE VANES

VOLUTE CASING
PROPELLER

DRAFT TUBE

TAIL RACE
GUIDE VANES

HIGH PRESSURE WATER

NOZZLE SHAPED GAP

TURBINE CASING

ADJUSTABLE BLADE

LOW PRESSURE WATER HUB

DRAFT TUBE
IMPULSE REACTION
TURBINE TURBINE
IMPULSE STEAM/GAS TURBINE
(DE LAVAL TURBINE)
BUCKET SHAPED SYMMITRICAL BLADES
 PRESSURE

VELOCITY
FIXED BLADES (NOZZLES)

MOVABLE BLADES
 LOW P
HIGH V
LOW P
LOW V

HIGH P
LOW V

MOVABLE BUCKET SHAPED BLADES

FIXED BLADES (NOZZLES)

 REACTION STEAM/GAS TURBINE
(PARSONS TURBINE)
AEROFOIL SHAPED
UNSYMMITRICAL
BLADES

NOZZLES TURBINE
BLADES
 PRESSURE

VELOCITY
FIXED BLADES (NOZZLES)

MOVABLE BLADES
 MID P
HIGH V

LOW P
LOW V

HIGH P
LOW V
 IMPULSE TURBINE v REACTION TURBINE
• An impulse turbine has fixed nozzles or stator blades
in which pressure energy of fluid is converted to
kinetic energy (high velocity).
• This high velocity fluid then hits the bucket shaped
rotor blades and changes its flow direction and leaves
the bucket at low velocity (low KE) without change in
pressure and as a result an impulsive force is
imparted on the buckets.
• Reduction in pressure takes place only in the nozzle
• They operate at atmospheric pressure.
• These are low discharge type but high head is needed
for efficient working.
• Draft tube is useless.
 IMPULSE TURBINE v REACTION TURBINE
• A reaction turbines develops torque because of reaction of
blades to change in fluid pressure during its passage through the
rotor blades.
• Reaction force is imparted on the blades as the fluid accelerates
through these nozzle shaped rotor blades.
• Also impulsive force is imparted on the blades when the high
velocity fluid from the nozzles(in gas turbine) or guide vanes (in
hydraulic turbine) hits the blades.
• Reduction of pressure takes place in nozzles(gas turbine) and
guide vanes(hydraulic turbine) as well as in the runner blades.
• They operate at pressure above atmospheric.
• These are low head type but high discharge is needed for
efficient working.
• Draft tube is needed in hydraulic turbines for increasing
efficiency.
4 STROKE PETROL ENGINE PARTS
 WORKING OF A 4 STROKE
Air

Spark plug
+fuel PETROL ENGINE

ignition
TDC
STROKE

exhaust
BDC

Suction
STROKE
Idealized petrol engine V
cycle (Otto cycle)
4 STROKE PETROL ENGINE WORKING
4 STROKE DIESEL ENGINE PARTS
FRESH AIR INLET FUEL INJECTOR

CYLINDER
WATER JACKET
PISTON

TIMING GEARS
(for rotating cam FLYWHEEL
shafts) (heavy)

CRANK CASE
4 STROKE DIESEL ENGINE WORKING
 WORKING OF A 4 STROKE

Fuel injector
Air DIESEL ENGINE

P
ignition
TDC
STROKE

exhaust
BDC Suction
STROKE

Idealized Diesel engine V

cycle (Diesel cycle)
PETROL ENGINES v DIESEL ENGINES
PETROL ENGINE V DIESEL ENGINES
 QUANTITY AND QUALITY CONTROL
OF ENGINE
Throttle valve

Constant DIESEL
AIR PETROL Amount of INJECTOR
MIXTURE
AIR

In COMPRESSION IGNITION
engines speed is controlled by
In SPARK IGNITION engines speed is adjusting the injection rate .
controlled by adjusting the throttle valve. i.e. i.e. adjusting the quality of air
adjusting the quantity of air fuel mixture. fuel mixture.
2 STROKE ENGINE PARTS
 2 STROKE ENGINES
cross section schematic
PETROL ENGINE DIESEL ENGINE
SPARK PLUG FUEL INJECTOR

EXHAUST TRANSFER EXHAUST TRANSFER

PORT PORT PORT PORT

INLET INLET
PORT PORT
AIR + FUEL AIR

CRANK CASE
 PETROL ENGINE DIESEL ENGINE

EXHAUST TRANSFER EXHAUST TRANSFER

PORT PORT PORT PORT

INLET INLET
PORT PORT
AIR + FUEL AIR
2 STROKE ENGINE WORKING(petrol)
4 STROKE VS 2 STROKE ENGINES
4 STROKE VS 2 STROKE ENGINES
4 STROKE VS 2 STROKE ENGINES
A DEVICE USED TO INCREASE
THE PRESSURE AND FOR
DISPLACEMENT OF A LIQUID

ROTARY ROTO-DYNAMIC
PUMPS PUMPS
 ROTARY PUMPS
E.g. Plunger pumps, Reciprocating pumps, Gear
pumps, Screw pumps etc
• These are called positive displacement pumps
• while working of the pump there is always discharge
of the fluid. When discharge valve is closed, pump
stops working or there will be failure of system. i.e.
Discharge of fluid cannot be controlled by adjusting
the discharge valves.
• These pumps are used for low discharge and high
pressure.
• They can be used for high viscosity fluids.
 ROTARY PUMPS
• Priming (filling pump casing and suction pipe with
working fluid) rarely needed.
• Cannot be directly coupled to motors because of high
torque requirement and low speed, fly wheel is needed
because rotation speed is not uniform(high torque
during discharge stroke and low torque during suction
stroke). E.g. reciprocating pump.

Applications: Pumping small quantities of viscous liquid

fuels into high pressure combustion chambers.
Sucking petroleum products and mud out from deep oil
rigs.
 ROTO-DYNAMIC PUMPS
E.g. centrifugal pumps
• They are called non- positive displacement pumps
• while working of the pump there may or may not be a
discharge of the fluid. i.e. Discharge of the fluid can be
controlled by adjusting the discharge valves.
• These pumps are used for high discharge and low
pressure. They are less efficient at low discharge and
high pressure.
• Priming is necessary. Because suction pressure depends
on the density of working fluid. So if any low density
fluid (like air) is present in the pump casing or at
suction side, suction pressure will be less and high
density working fluid cannot be pumped.
 ROTO-DYNAMIC PUMPS
• Max suction pressure is limited by a phenomenon
called cavitations which damages the impellers. So
it cannot be used for deep sumps.
• Can be directly coupled to motors because of low
torque and high speed operation and no need of a
fly wheel because rotation speed is uniform.

Applications: pumping large quantities of low viscous

fluids(water) at low pressure from shallow sumps
for house hold and industrial uses.
 DISCHARGE PIPE
RECIPROCATING
PUMP cross section CRANK SHAFT
schematic CRANK
PLUNGER

CONNECTING ROD

CYLINDER

DRIVER PULLEY

DRIVEN PULLEY

BELT POWER TRANSMISSION

MOTOR
SUCTION PIPE

SUMP
 DISCHARGE PIPES CRANK SHAFT

CRANK
PLUNGER

CONNECTING ROD

CYLINDER

RECIPROCATING BELT
PUMP(double acting) DRIVEN
PULLEY
SUCTION PIPES

SUMP
 RECIPROCATING PUMP
AIR VESSELS AT SUCTION
AND DISCHARGE SIDE

FLY WHEEL

MOTOR AND
BELT DRIVE

AIR VESSELS ARE PROVIDED TO OBTAIN CONTINUOUS FLOW.

DURING DISCHARGE SOME WATER GETS INTO AIR VESSEL AND AIR IN THERE
GET COMPRESSED.
DURING SUCTION AIR INSIDE THIS VESSEL PUSHES THE WATER UNDER IT
THROUGH DISCHARGE PIPE.
THUS FLOW CAN BE OBTAINED EVEN DURING THE SUCTION
 GEAR PUMP
cross section
schematic
DRIVING
GEAR

SUCTION
DISCHARGE
DRIVEN
GEAR

PUMP
CASING
 SUCTION PIPE
ROTARY SCREW PUMP
cross section schematic

TO DISCHARGE PIPE
MOTOR

THREADED SHAFT

SUCTION PIPE
 ROTARY VANE PUMP
cross section
schematic

CASING WITH
ECCENTRIC ROTOR
AND SLIDER(vanes)
ASSEMBLY

SLIDERS (vanes) are

pushed on to casing
by means of springs

SUCTION DISCHARGE
 CENTRIFUGAL PUMP PARTS
EYE

IMPELLER

SCROLL CASING

IMPELLER and
SCROLL CASING
ASSEMBLY
 High pressure discharge pipe

Scroll casing
(to convert KE
of liquid to
pressure
Impeller
energy) (to impart KE to liquid)

Suction pipe
 HIGH VELOCITY WATER
OUT FROM IMPELLER

LOW VELOCITY
HIGH PRESSURE
DELIVERY

VOLUTE CASING
(INCREASING CROSS SECTION AREA)

SUMP
 NPSH(NET POSITIVE SUCTION HEAD)
• when pressure of a liquid decreases its boiling point decreases and it
starts to boil even at room temperature.
• In centrifugal pump suction pressure(below atmospheric pressure or
-ve pressure) is created at the eye of the rotating impeller.
• when this pressure falls below a particular level liquid starts boiling to
form vapor bubbles, when this vapor bubbles reaches any high
pressure side it collapses producing pressure waves. This phenomenon
is called Cavitation.

CAVITATION
PHENOMENON

• when this pressure waves hits impeller or casing they get eroded and
decreases life of the pump.
• To avoid this suction pressure should be decreased.
• NPSH is the max possible suction pressure (in meters of liquid) to avoid
Cavitations.
 HIGH VELOCITY WATER
OUT FROM IMPELLER

LOW VELOCITY
HIGH PRESSURE
DELIVERY

FORMATION OF
VOLUTE CASING VAPOR BUBBLES
(INCREASING CROSS SECTION AREA)
AT THE
IMPELLER EYE
 COMPRESSORS
A DEVICE USED TO INCREASE THE
PRESSURE AND FOR
DESPLACEMENT OF A GAS

ROTARY ROTO-DYNAMIC
COMPRESSORS COMPRESSORS
 ROTARY COMPRESSORS
• E.g. reciprocating compressors, screw compressors, vane
compressors etc

• Positive displacement type

• Are usually used for high pressure low discharge applications
• Many machine components and complex construction
• Runs at low speed.
• Cannot be directly connected to motor without any power
transmission medium (gears, belts etc)
• Large space is required for installation compared to Roto-
dynamic compressors
• Fluid flow is intermittent or pulsating
• Fly wheel is necessary for reciprocating compressors because
of uneven torque(less torque during suction and high torque
during compression)
 APPLICATIONS OF ROTARY COMPRESSORS
• AUTOMATED CONTROL SYSTEMS-
To remove dust particles from sophisticated electronic instruments
• PNEUMATIC MACHINERIES AND MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES –
Casting, sand blasting etc
• IN STEEL MANUFACTURING-
For supplying air into the burners and for cooling down of rolled steels.
• CHEMICAL INDUSTRIES-
Ammonia synthesis, molding plastics, storage and transport of gases
• FOOD PROCESSING-
Agitation, pressurized food transport, cooling and packing
• MACHINERIES-
Pneumatic robotic actuators, power screws etc,
• MINES-
Used for pneumatic machines and for supplying oxygen

e.g. Reciprocating compressors(low speed), screw compressors etc

 ROTODYNAMIC COMPRESSORS
E.g. centrifugal compressors, axial compressors
• Non- positive displacement type.
• Are usually used for low pressure high discharge
applications.
• Less machine components and simple in
construction.
• Gas flow is continuous.
• Requires less space for installation compared to
rotary compressors.
• discharge pressure can be increased by multi stage
compression without much wastage of space.
 APPLICATIONS OF ROTODYNAMIC
COMPRESSORS
• Petroleum and chemical industries- boosting
pressures of gases for various applications like
promoting catalytic reactions, thermal
decompositions, separation of gases etc.
• Turbo-charging and super-charging in automobile
engines.
• Directly connected to turbines to draw power in
gas turbine engines and jet engines.
 LOW PRESSURE
INLET SIDE
HIGH PRESSURE
EXHAUST SIDE
MOTOR
PISTON AND
CYLINDER

RECIPROCATING
COMPRESSOR BELT DRIVE
POWER
SCHEMATIC TRANSMISSION
CONNECTING ROD

CRANK CASE
CRANK

DRIVEN PULLEY
 RECIPROCATING
COMPRESSOR
FILTER AND LOW
PRESSURE INLET
HIGH PRESSURE
OUTLET

MOTOR

DRIVING PULLEY
+ FLY WHEEL
+ COOLING FAN
SUCTION ROTARY VANE
COMPRESSOR
SCHEMATIC
MAXIMUM
VOLUME
REGION

CASING WITH
ECCENTRIC
ROTOR AND
SLIDER

MINIMUM
VOLUME
REGION
DISCHARGE
CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSOR PARTS

IMPELLER SCROLL
CASING ASSEMBLY

IMPELLER
 HIGH VELOCITY GAS
OUT FROM IMPELLER

LOW VELOCITY
HIGH PRESSURE
DELIVERY

VOLUTE CASING
(INCREASING CROSS SECTION AREA)

CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSOR SCHEMATIC

FANS AND BLOWERS
Devices used to displace or convey gases from
one place to another, against some
obstructions or frictions.
 TYPES OF FANS

PROPELLER TYPE

VANE AXIAL TYPE

CENTRIFUGAL TYPE TUBE AXIAL TYPE

 AIR MOTORS
• Air motors are used where electric motors cannot be used.
Like in mines and oil rigs where electric sparks should be
avoided.
• Used in Portable tools like pneumatic nut tighter, pneumatic
screw drivers where usage of electric motors can be heavy
and bulky.
• Air motors are supplied with high pressure air from high
capacity storage tanks via high pressure tubes.
• The storage tanks are usually placed in remote areas (away
from air motors) and are continuously filled with high
pressure air by using any type of Rotary (positive
displacement) compressors.

Main types of air motors are :-

• Turbine type
• Reciprocating piston type
• Rotary vane type
PNEUMATIC HAMMER

PNEUMATIC NUT RUNNER

PNEUMATIC RECIPROCATING
ACTUATORS
 HIGH PRESSURE LOW PRESSURE
INLET FROM EXHAUST SIDE
CONSTANT
STORAGE TANK LOW TORQUE HIGH SPEED
POWER

PISTON AND
CYLINDER
DRIVEN PULLEY
RECIPROCATING
AIR MOTOR BELT DRIVE
POWER
SCHEMATIC TRANSMISSION
CONNECTING ROD

CRANK CASE
CRANK

VARIABLE
HIGH TORQUE LOW SPEED
POWER
 ROTARY VANE TYPE AIR MOTOR
SCHEMATIC
Max volume
section
Low pressure air outlet

Casing with
eccentric rotor
and slider(vanes)
assembly

Min volume
section

High pressure air inlet

 ROTARY VANE
AIR MOTOR

CASING

ECCENTRIC
ROTOR
HIGH
PRESSURE
LOW INLET
PRESSURE
OUTLET

ECCENTRIC ROTOR
AND SLIDING VANES
ASSEMBLY
TURBINE TYPE AIR MOTOR

CASING

TURBINE RUNNER
 MODULE III
REFRIGERATION AND AIR
CONDITIONING
REFERENCES:
Refrigeration And Air Conditioning, by Stoecker and Jones
NPTEL lecture notes, IIT Kharagpur
 REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING

REFRIGERATION is the process of taking away heat from a medium continuously

thereby maintaining a temperature below that of the surrounding.
• Preserving perishable products like food, blood, medicines, chemicals etc at low
temperature
• Ice making.
• Liquefaction of gases.

REFRIGERANTS- Working fluid used in the refrigeration systems .

• These fluid usually absorbs heat from a medium by evaporation and rejects heat to
surrounding by condensation.

AIR CONDITIONING refers to the treatment of air by controlling its temperature,

moisture content, cleanliness, odor and circulation as required by the end user
• For human comfort e.g. window AC, Split AC, centralized AC unit
• For preservation e.g. organic tissues and embryos in lab
• For some processes e.g. egg hatcheries
 REFRIGERATION SYSTEM TYPES
• Natural refrigeration system
• Vapor compression refrigeration system
• Vapor absorption refrigeration system
• Air refrigeration system
• Thermo-electric refrigeration system
• Magnetic refrigeration system
• Acoustic refrigeration system
• Vortex tube refrigeration system
 SIMPLE VAPOR COMPRESSION REFRIGERATION
SYSTEM HEAT REJECTED
TO SURROUNDING

❹ ❸
BP above the temp of
CONDENSER surrounding

COMPRESSOR
EXPANSION DEVICE WORK SUPPLIED
(throttle valve)
EVAPORATOR
1. LOW PRESSURE
LIQUID BP below the temp of
2. LOW PRESSURE medium
VAPOR
3. HIGH PRESSURE
VAPOR ❶ ❷
4. HIGH PRESSURE HEAT ABSORBED
LIQUID FROM MEDIUM
 PRESSURE - ENTHALPY DIAGRAM OF A
REFRIGERANT FOR VAPOR COMPRESSION
SYSTEM
P Critical point
1-2
CONSTANT ❹ Sub cooling
Heat rejected ❸
PRESSURE HEAT
ADDITION Latent heat of condensation
2-3
ADAIBATIC Liquid Mixed Vapor
COMPRESSION region region region
3-4
CONSTANT
PRESSURE HEAT
REJECTION
Heat absorbed
4-1 ❶ ❷
Super heating
ISENTHALPIC (latent heat of vaporization)
EXPANSION

H
 MAJOR COMPONENTS OF A
VAPOR COMPRESSION SYSTEM
COMPRESSOR(outside bottom)

CONDENSER
(outside rear)

bulb
Bulb (connected at exit
EXPANSION VALVE of evaporator) in expansion valve
(connected at inlet of evaporator) is
used to detect change in heat load
of refrigerator.
EVAPORATOR
(inside top / inside freezer) when heat load on the
refrigerator decrease the bulb
detects it and expansion valve will
automatically decrease the flow
rate of refrigerants.
 PROPERTIES OF AN IDEAL
•
REFRIGERANT
Refrigerants should be non toxic and it should not become toxic when
mixed with other substances.
• Refrigerants should not be inflammable
• Refrigerants should have low boiling point at atmospheric pressure.
• Refrigerants should have low freezing point. It should not freeze at low
evaporator temperatures.
• Evaporator and condenser pressure should be higher than atmospheric
pressure. It avoids any air leak into the system.
• Refrigerants should be chemically stable. It should not decompose under
operating conditions.
• Refrigerant should be non corrosive. It increases life of the system.
• Refrigerant should be miscible with lubricating oils and should not
react with the lubricating oils. It
• Refrigerant should be odorless. It maintains the taste of food stuffs
preserved.
 PROPERTIES OF AN IDEAL
REFRIGERANT
• Density of refrigerant should be high. It reduces the size of the compressor.
• Latent heat of evaporation should be high. It increases refrigeration effect
with minimum amount of refrigerant.
• Latent heat of condensation should be high to carry out heat rejection process
in the condenser isothermally. It reduces irreversibility.
• Critical point should be high.
• Specific heat of the refrigerant at liquid state should be low. It increases the
degree of sub-cooling at the exit of the condenser and increases refrigeration
effect.
• Specific heat of refrigerant at vapor state should be high. It decreases the
degree of super- heating at the exit of the evaporator and decreases
compressor work.
• Thermal conductivity of the refrigerants should be higher. It increases the heat
transfer rate at the evaporator and condenser.
• Viscosity of the refrigerant should be low. It reduces frictional pressure drops
and compressor work.
 INFLUENCE OF SPECIFIC HEAT OF LIQUID AND
VAPOR ON CAPACITY AND PERFORMANCE

P Increases
refrigeration
effect available Critical point
1-2
CONSTANT
❹ Sub cooling
Heat rejected ❸
PRESSURE HEAT
ADDITION Latent heat of condensation
2-3
ADAIBATIC
COMPRESSION
3-4
CONSTANT
PRESSURE HEAT ❷ Increases
REJECTION
Heat absorbed compressor
4-1 ❶ Super heating work required
ISENTHALPIC (latent heat of vaporization)
EXPANSION Liquid Mixed Vapor
region region region

H
 HEAT
REJECTED SIMPLE VAPOR ABSORPTION
REFRIGERATION SYSTEM
❹ ❸

CONDENSER GENERATOR (at high pressure)

HEATING
COIL
EXPANSION
VALVE

EXPANSION PUMP
EVAPORATOR
VALVE WORK

❶
HEAT
COOLING
ABSORBED ABSORBER (at low pressure)
COIL
 PARTS AND FUNCTIONS OF A SIMPLE
VAPOR ABSORPTION SYSTEM
• ABSORBER – In this an absorbent liquid is present. It absorbs the refrigerant
vapor (low pressure) at the exit of the evaporator.

• COOLING COIL- The absorption process is exothermic. So heat should be

removed from the absorber to increase the absorption.

• PUMP- To increase the pressure of strong absorbent- refrigerant solution

and pumps it to the generator.

• GENERATOR- In the generator, solution will be at high pressure.

• HEATING COIL – To split the refrigerant from absorbent in the generator by

supplying heat(usually waste heat from industries). Thus high pressure
refrigerant alone enters the condenser.

• EXPANSION VALVE- Remaining high pressure weak absorbent solution in the

generator then flows back to absorber through an expansion valve at low
pressure.
 DESIRABLE PROPERTIES OF
REFRIGERANT-ABSORBENT MIXTURE
• Refrigerant should be highly soluble with the absorbent and heat of
absorption should be low.

• Refrigerant should have very low BP than absorbent. Otherwise some

absorbent will get boiled along with the refrigerants and gets into the
cooling system, which reduces the refrigeration effect.

• Mixture should have high thermal conductivity, low freezing point, low
viscosity, chemically stable, non- corrosive , inexpensive and easily available.

• Commonly used REFRIGERANT - ABSORBENT mixtures are,

1. AMMONIA- WATER (used in refrigeration)
2. WATER – LITHIUM BROMIDE (used in air conditioning)
 PERFORMANCE PARAMETER FOR A
REFRIGERATOR
• FOR VAPOR COMPRESSION SYSTEM
COPR = desired effect / spent effort
= heat absorbed in evaporator / compressor work
= (h2-h1) / (h3-h2)

• FOR VAPOR ABSORPTION SYSTEM

COPR = desired effect / spent effort
= heat absorbed in evaporator/ (pump work + heat supplied in generator)
= (h2-h1) / (h3-h2)

• Advantage of using absorption system is that work required for increasing the
pressure of a liquid(pump) is very less compared to vapor (compressor).
• So a vapor absorption system requires small amount of high grade energy
(pump work) whereas a vapor compression system requires large amount of
high grade energy (compressor work).
• Compared to heat (low grade energy) supplied in the generator, pump work
(high grade energy) is negligible. So majority source of energy input is heat.
• But COP of a vapor absorption system is less than vapor compression system of same
capacity is less because of using large amount of low grade energy.
 Comparison between VC and VA
systems
VAPOR COMPRESSION SYSTEM VAPOR ABSORPTION SYSTEM
• Compressor work operated • Heat operated
• High COP because of using high grade • Low COP because of using low grade
energy(work) energy(heat)
• Performance is very sensitive to • Performance not very sensitive to
evaporator temperature evaporator temperature
• COP reduces considerably at part • COP doesn’t reduce considerably at part
loads loads
• Presence of liquid at the exit of the • Presence of liquid at the exit of the
evaporator may damage compressor. evaporator is not a problem
• Superheating at the evaporator exit • Superheating at the evaporator exit is
increases compressor work not a problem
• Many moving parts • Few moving parts
• Regular maintenance required • low maintenance required
• Higher noise and vibrations • Less noise and vibrations
• Small systems are compact and large • Small systems are bulky and large
systems are bulky (e.g. house hold) systems are compact (e.g. ice plants)
• Economical when electricity is • Economical when waste heat is
available (house, malls etc) available in large quantity (industries)
 CAPACITY OF A REFRIGERATION SYSTEM
• TON OF REFRIGERATION (TR) – latent heat of fusion
absorbed by melting 1 ton of ice in 24 hours.
• 1 TR = 3.5 kW
T2
Q2 – heat rejected
• Maximum possible(ideal) COP to surrounding

a refrigerator can attain R W

= Carnot COP Q1 – heat absorbed from
medium
= Q1 / W T1 T1 – cold body temp
= Q1 /(Q2 - Q1) T2 – hot body temp

= T1 /(T2- T1)
= Evaporator Temperature
Condenser Temperature - Evaporator temperature
FIND RATED COP AND TONNAGE OF THE VAPOR
GIVEN VAPOR COMPRESSION SYSTEM

Rated refrigeration effect (capacity)

= 5400 kJ/h
=1.5 kW
= 0.43 TR

Rated Power input = 0.54 kW

Rated COP = Rated Ref effect = 3

Rated power input

Refrigerant used – R22 (250 g)

Condenser pressure = 21 kg/cm2

Evaporator pressure = 10.5 kg/ cm2
 STUDY OF HOUSEHOLD
REFRIGERATOR
• Home Refrigerator, often called a “fridge”, has become an
essential household appliance.
• Refrigerators are extensively used to store fruits,
vegetables and other edible products which perish if not
kept well below the room temperatures, normally a few
degrees above 0OC, the freezing point of water.
• A refrigerator is a cooling appliance that transfers heat
from its thermally insulated compartment to the external
environment, and thus cooling the stored food in the
compartment.
• It also normally houses a “freezer”, where temperatures
below the freezing point of water are maintained, primarily
to make ice and store frozen food.
• It also have Crisper which draws inside moisture to keep
vegetables and fruits fresh for longer time, is normally
inbuilt in most of home refrigerators.
REFRIGERATOR COMPARTMENTS

FREEZER

LOWER
COMPARTMENT
 TYPES OF HOUSEHOLD
REFRIGERATORS
Two types of home refrigerators are typically available in
market.
1. DIRECT COOL REFRIGERATORS:
• These refrigerators are with or without crisper, ice making
or frozen food storage compartment.
• Cooling of food is primarily obtained by natural
convection within the refrigerator. However, some
refrigerators may have a fan to avoid internal
condensation of water but are not claimed as ‘frost free’.
• Formation of frost/ice in the refrigerator reduces cooling.
Therefore these refrigerators need manual defrosting
periodically.
 ICE BUILT UP IN DIRECT COOLING
REFRIGERATION SYSTEM

The ice built up on the surface of the evaporator coil provides an additional
resistance to heat transfer.
This decreases the heat absorption rate. So this ice should be removed manually
periodically .
 TYPES OF HOUSEHOLD
REFRIGERATORS
2. FROST FREE REFRIGERATORS:
• These refrigerators cool the stored food through
continuous internal movement of air that restricts
the formation of frost and sticking of food items
with each other.
• A frost free freezer has three basic parts a timer, a
heating coil and a temperature sensor. The heating
coil is wrapped around the freezer coils. Every six
hour or so, the timer turns on the heating coil and
this melts the ice off the coil.
• When all the ice is removed, the temperature sensor
senses the temperature rising above 0oC and turns
off the heating coil.
 DEFROST Hot refrigerant
To condenser
MECHANISM
OFF
ON 6:00pm TIMER
12:00am Hot refrigerant
bypass valve
ON
START
-105 OC Heating Coil wrapped
over Evaporator tube

TEMPERATURE
SENSOR

cold refrigerant
to expansion valve Hot refrigerant
From compressor
 BEFORE BUYING A REFRIGERATOR
1. CHOOSE THE RIGHT SIZE
• Make sure you are choosing a refrigerator that is
approximately sized for your storing and cooling
needs.
• If your fridge is too small, you may be overworking
it. If it is too large, you are paying higher initial cost,
and potentially wasting energy and home space.
• Always ascertain the storage volume of the
refrigerator because this is the actual space
available to you for storing food items. Therefore
make a judicious decision while buying the
refrigerator.
 BEFORE BUYING A REFRIGERATOR
2. IDENTIFY THE RIGHT LOCATION
• While placing the refrigerator in home, ensure that it is at
least 100 mm (4 inches away) from the walls to facilitate
effective heat rejection particularly from the rear side.
• Care should be taken that the unit is sufficiently away from
heat sources such as stove, oven and direct solar radiation.
These heat sources affect the heat dissipation from the
fridge condenser, and may force the compressor to run
longer leading to more electricity consumption.
• The refrigerator unit should also be leveled appropriately to
ensure that its door closes easily and tightly after its use to
minimize unwanted warm air infiltration in the cooling
space.
 ENERGY SAVING TIPS
• Make sure that refrigerator is kept away from all sources of heat,
including direct sunlight, and appliances such as cooking range, oven,
radiators, etc.
• Refrigerator motors and compressor generate heat, so allow enough
space for continuous airflow around refrigerator. If the heat does not
escape, the refrigerator’s cooling system will work harder and use more
energy.
• Over filling of the storage capacity of refrigerator with food items should
be avoided, to ensure adequate air circulation inside.
• Do not keep fridge door open for longer period as it consumes more
electricity. Therefore decide what you need before opening the door. By
this practice, you will reduce the amount of time the door remains open.
• Allow hot and warm foods to sufficiently cool down before putting them
in refrigerator. It is also advisable to put them in sealed (air tight)
containers. Refrigerator will use less energy and water condensation will
also be lesser.
 ENERGY SAVING TIPS
• Make sure that refrigerator’s rubber door seals are clean and tight.
They should hold a slip of paper snugly. If paper slips out easily, replace
the door seals. The other way to check this is to place a flashlight inside
the refrigerator when it is dark, and close the door. If light around the
door is seen, the seals need to be replaced.
• When dust builds up on refrigerator’s condenser coils, the compressor
works harder and uses more electricity. Therefore clean the coils
regularly.
• In manual defrost refrigerator, accumulation of ice reduces the cooling
power by acting as unwanted insulation. Therefore, defrost freezer
compartment regularly in a manual defrost refrigerator.
• Give the maintenance contract of refrigerator directly to the
manufacturer or its authorized company which has trained and well-
qualified technical staff.
• If refrigerator is older and needs major repairs, it is likely to become
inefficient after repairs. It may be advisable to replace old refrigerator
with a new and energy-efficient one.
 PSYCHROMETRY
• PSYCHROMETRY is the study of the properties of
mixtures of air and water vapor.

• Atmospheric air makes up the environment in

almost every type of air conditioning system.

• Hence a thorough understanding of the

properties of atmospheric air and the ability to
analyze various processes involving air is
fundamental to air conditioning design.
 PSYCHROMETRIC TERMS
DRY AIR- When the moisture content is 0 , then the air is known as dry air

SATURATED AIR- At a given temperature and pressure the dry air can only hold a
certain maximum amount of moisture. When the moisture content is maximum,
then the air is known as saturated air, which is established by a neutral
equilibrium between the moist air and the liquid or solid phases of water.

DRY BULB TEMPERATURE (DBT)- It is the temperature of the moist air as measured
by a standard thermometer or other temperature measuring instruments.

WET BULB TEMPERATURE(WBT)- Temperature of the moist air as measured by

standard thermometer when its bulb is wound by a wet wick.
for dry air WBT < < DBT
for saturated air WBT = DBT

DEW POINT TEMPERATURE(DPT)- if moist air is cooled at constant pressure the

temperature at which moisture in the air begins to condense.
 DRY BULB AND WET BULB TEMPERATURES
Dry bulb Wet bulb
thermometer thermometer

• For dry air Wet bulb

WBD will be depression
maximum

• For saturated air

WBD will be 0

Heat used for

vaporization of water
to atmospheric air

Heat from Heat from

atmospheric air atmospheric air
Note: If atmospheric air is saturated then vaporization won’t take place so whole of
the heat will be transmitted to the wet bulb. So in case of saturated air DBT = WBT
 PSYCHROMETRIC TERMS
HUMIDITY RATIO (w) - The humidity ratio (or specific humidity) is the mass of
water associated with each kilogram of dry air. i.e. w = mv / ma kg/kg dry air

RELATIVE HUMIDITY (Φ) - It is defined as the ratio of (amount of water vapor in

moist air, w ) to (amount of water vapor in saturated air, wsat) at the same
temperature and pressure. i.e. Φ = w/wsat X 100 %
For saturated air RH= 100 %
For dry air RH = 0 %

ENTHALPY (h)- The enthalpy of moist air is the sum of the enthalpy of the dry air
and the enthalpy of the water vapor. i.e. h = ha + h v kJ/kg dry air
Enthalpy values are always based on some reference value.
At 0oC, ha = 0 and h v = 0

SPECIFIC VOLUME (v)- It is defined as the number of cubic meters of moist air(V)
per kilogram of dry air(ma ). i.e. v = V /ma m3/kg dry air
 PSYCHROMETRIC PROCESSES
1. SENSIBLE HEATING – During this process moisture content of the air remains
constant. But its temperature increases as it flows over a heating coil.

2. SENSIBLE COOLING – During this process moisture content of the air remains
constant . But its temperature decreases as it flows over a cooling coil. For the
moisture to remain constant the surface of the cooling coil should be dry and
DBTin > Tsurface > DPTin to avoid condensation of moisture.
Heating coil Cooling coil (T > DPTin )

Cold air Hot air Hot air Cold air

SENSIBLE HEATING SENSIBLE COOLING

 PSYCHROMETRIC PROCESSES
3. HEATING AND HUMIDIFICATION- in this process air is first sensibly heated by
a heating coil followed by spraying steam via steam nozzle.

4. HEATING AND DEHUMIDIFICATION - This process is achieved by using

hygroscopic materials. Absorption of moisture by hygroscopic
material(liquid/solid) is an exothermic reaction, as a result heat is released
and temperature of air increases.
Heating coil Steam Nozzle
HYGROSCOPIC
Hot MATERIAL
Hot
humid
dry
air
air

Cold Cold
dry air Humid
air
HEATING AND HUMIDIFICATION HEATING AND DEHUMIDIFICATION
 PSYCHROMETRIC PROCESSES
5. COOLING AND HUMIDIFICATION- In this process air is cooled by spraying cold
water into air stream. Also DBTin > Twater > DPTin

6. COOLING AND DEHUMIDIFICATION - In this process air is cooled and

moisture is removed when it flows over a cooling coil whose surface
temperature should be less than the DPT at the outlet state. i.e. T < DPTout

Cold water sprinkler ( T > DPTin ) Cooling coil ( T < DPTOut )

Cold
Cold dry
humid air
air
Hot
Humid
Hot air
dry air
COOLING AND HUMIDIFICATION
COOLING AND DEHUMIDIFICATION
PSYCHROMETRIC CHART
 PSYCHROMERTIC PROPERTY CURVES
• If we know any two
Psychrometric properties we
can locate the state point of
moist air in psychrometric
chart.
•And can easily identify how
much energy (Δh) has to be
supplied or removed to bring
the air to a required state.
DPT w = const
•From these data we can
design an AC system

DBT= const
HEAT LOAD FROM PSYCHROMETRIC CHART

80kJ/kg dry air

1
20 g/kg dry air
Amount of moisture
to be removed =
50kJ/kg dry air
7 g/kg dry air
2 13 g/kg dry air
Cooling Coil surface
temperature = 12 OC
Amount of
sensible heat to
be removed=
CP Δ T = 1 x 14
kJ/kg dry air

20OC 34OC
 PSYCHROMERTIC PROCESSES

O-A SENSIBLE HEATING

O-B SENSIBLE COOLING
O-C HEATING + HUMIDIFICATION
O-D HEATING +DEHUMIDIFICATION
O-E COOLING + HUMIDIFICATION
E C WINTER AC
O-F COOLING + DEHUMIDIFATION
w
B O A

F D
SUMMER AC

DBT
SUMMER AC
SUMMER HEAT LOAD IN A ROOM
 HUMAN THERMAL COMFORT
• As recommended by ASRAE, direct Factors
which affect human thermal comfort are.
1. Activity energy release 70 W/m2 or 1.2 met
2. Clothing resistance 0.007 m2 K/W or 0.6 clo
3. Air DBT 24 OC
4. RH 50 %
5. Air velocity 0.15 m/s
Heat should be continuously carried away from the conditioned space to maintain this
comfort level.
There are many source of heat including heat produced by human metabolism, solar
radiation, heat conduction, moisture infiltration( from outside air and human perspiration),
electrical appliances, cooking appliances etc
WINDOW AC
 WINDOW AC INDOOR HOT HUMID AIR
SCHEMATIC
CONDENSER COIL (outdoor) EVAPORATOR COIL
(indoor)

BLOWER

PARTITION
COMPRESSOR
CONDENSER
COOLING AIR COLD DRY AIR
OUT

FAN EXPANSION VALVE

CONDENSER
COOLING AIR IN CONDENSATE DRAIN OUT
WINDOW AC
SPLIT AC
SPLIT AC for multiple rooms
SPLIT AC duct system for multiple rooms
SPLIT AC for single room
SELECTION CRITERIA FOR AC SYSTEMS
TYPES OF HEAT LOADS
 BEE STAR RATING AND LABELING OF
REFRIGERATORS
• In May 2006, Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE), a
statutory body under Ministry of Power (Government
of India) launched Standard and Labeling Program
of electrical home appliances.

• Under this program, for the benefit of general public,

the appliance manufacturers could voluntarily affix
BEE Star Label on their appliances showing the level
of energy consumption by the appliance both in
terms of absolute values as well as equivalent
number of stars varying from one to five, in
accordance with specific stipulation.
ENERGY EFFICIENCY RATING
ENERGY EFFICIENCY RATING