[CPE 6398 – CpE Design Project 1]

[Methodology]

Module 07 Writing the Methods Section

Course Learning Outcomes:

At the end of this module, the student should be able to:
1. Recite and describe the different approaches in research design.
2. Describe the methods of data collection and data gathering procedures.
3. Create an outline for the method section of the research paper or
proposal.

Method Section of a Research Paper

Kallet as cited in libguides.usc.edu, the methods section describes actions to be taken to
investigate a research problem and the rationale for the application of specific procedures
or techniques used to identify, select, process, and analyze information applied to
understanding the problem, thereby, allowing the reader to critically evaluate a study’s
overall validity and reliability. The methodology section of a research paper answers two
main questions: How was the data collected or generated? And, how was it analyzed? The
writing should be direct and precise and always written in the past tense.
The Importance of the methodology section
You must explain how you obtained and analyzed your results for the following
reasons:
(i) Readers need to know how the data was obtained because the method
you chose affects the results and, by extension, how you interpreted
their significance.
(ii) Methodology is crucial for any branch of scholarship because an
unreliable method produces unreliable results and, as a consequence,
undermines the value of your interpretations of the findings.
(iii) In most cases, there are a variety of different methods you can choose
to investigate a research problem. The methodology section of your
paper should clearly articulate the reasons why you chose a particular
procedure or technique.
(iv) The reader wants to know that the data was collected or generated in
a way that is consistent with accepted practice in the field of study.
For example, if you are using a multiple choice questionnaire, readers
need to know that it offered your respondents a reasonable range of
answers to choose from.
(v) The method must be appropriate to fulfilling the overall aims of the
study. For example, you need to ensure that you have a large enough

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sample size to be able to generalize and make recommendations

based upon the findings.
(vi) The methodology should discuss the problems that were anticipated
and the steps you took to prevent them from occurring. For any
problems that do arise, you must describe the ways in which they
were minimized or why these problems do not impact in any
meaningful way your interpretation of the findings.
(vii) In the social and behavioral sciences, it is important to always provide
sufficient information to allow other researchers to adopt or replicate
your methodology. This information is particularly important when a
new method has been developed or an innovative use of an existing
method is utilized.
(Content pulled from https://libguides.usc.edu/writingguide/methodology)

The Research Design

Research Design refers to the research strategy necessary to complete the research. He/she
should be able to answer the following questions:
(i) How will you do the research?
(ii) What is your theoretical thrust/ approach?
(iii) What kind of data do you want to get? (iv) How will you get this data?
According to Pandey (2015), a research design is simply the framework or plan for a study
that is used as a guide in collecting and analyzing the data. It is a blueprint that is followed
in completing a study. Research design is the blue print for collection measurement and
analysis of data. Actually it is a map that is usually developed to guide the research.

Approaches in Research Design

(i) Quantitative Research. According to Leavy (2017), quantitative research
values breadth, statistical descriptions, and generalizability. Quantitative
approaches to research center on achieving objectivity, control, and precise
measurement. Methodologically, these approaches rely on deductive designs
aimed at refuting or building evidence in favor of specific theories and
hypotheses. Marianne Fallon as cited by Leavy, refers to quantitative
research as a “top down process”. Quantitative approaches are most
commonly used in explanatory research investigating causal relationships,
associations, and correlations.
(ii) Qualitative Research. According to Leavy (2017), qualitative approaches to
research value depth of meaning and people’s subjective experiences and
their meaning-making processes. These approaches allow us to build a
robust understanding of a topic, unpacking the meanings people ascribe to
their lives—to activities, situations, circumstances, people, and objects.
Methodologically, these approaches rely on inductive designs aimed at
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generating meaning and producing rich, descriptive data. Qualitative

approaches are most commonly used in exploratory or descriptive research
(although they can be used in research with other goals).
(iii) Mixed – method research. According to Leavy (2017), mixed methods
research (MMR) involves collecting and integrating quantitative and
qualitative data in a single project and therefore may result in a more
comprehensive understanding of the phenomenon under investigation. This
is a problem-centered approach to research in which methods and theories
are used instrumentally, based on their applicability to the present study.
Mixed methods designs value both quantitative and qualitative approaches
to research. Methodologically, MMR approaches rely on (1) combining
deductive and inductive designs to generate both quantitative and qualitative
data, and (2) integrating the datasets in some way. These approaches are
appropriate when your purpose is to describe, explain, or evaluate, and are
particularly useful for studying complex problems or issues.

Additional recommended reading

John W. Creswell, J. David Creswell; 2018; Research Design Qualitative
Quantitative, and Mixed Method Approaches; California; SAGE
Publication

Population, Sample size and Sampling Technique

This section of the research paper describes the population of the study, and the sampling
procedures done in obtaining the sample size.
The purpose of this section is to describe (a) who participated in the study, including their
characteristics (e.g., age, gender, race/ethnicity), (b) how the participants were selected,
and (c) how many participated in the study (Lunenburg, 2008).
For quantitative research, the Population, Sampling, and Subjects: Describes the population
in which you are interested, the study population, and your sampling procedure (i.e.,
probability or purposeful). Discusses any additional strategies used in experimental
designs such as randomization or matching (Leavy, 2017).
For qualitative research, the Sampling, Participants, and Setting: Describes your desired
participants (demographics and particular experiences), the purposeful sampling strategy
that will be used, and how the process will result in participants able to yield rich data. Also
discuss where the research will occur (Leavy, 2017).
For mixed – method research, the Sampling and Participants: Describes the population in
which you are interested, your study population, and your sampling procedures for both
the quantitative and qualitative samples. (Leavy, 2017).
Additional recommended reading
John W. Creswell, J. David Creswell; 2018; Research Design Qualitative

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Quantitative, and Mixed Method Approaches; California; SAGE Publication

Population
The target population is the group of interest to the researcher, the group to which
you would like the results of the study to be generalizable. Generalizability is the
extent to which the results of one study can be applied to other populations
(Lunenburg, 2008).

Sample
According to Johnson and Christensen (2014), “A sample is a set of elements taken
from a larger population according to certain rules. An element is the basic unit
selected from the population. “Individuals” are the most common element sampled;
however, other types of elements are possible such as “groups” (e.g., schools,
classrooms, clinics) or “objects” (e.g., textbooks, school records, television
commercials). A sample is always smaller than a population, and it is often much
smaller.”
Sampling Technique
According to Johnson and Christensen (2014), “Sampling is the process of drawing
a sample from a population. When we sample, we study the characteristics of a
subset (called the sample) selected from a larger group (called the population) to
understand the characteristics of the larger group. After researchers determine the
characteristics of the sample, they generalize from the sample to the population;
that is, researchers make statements about the population based on their study of
the sample. Sampling technique is the specific method used to draw samples.”

Sampling addresses the questions “Who or what is in your study? Where are you
getting your data or content?” Typically, discussions of sampling center around
who is in your study—the subjects, respondents, participants, or collaborators
(Leavy, 2017).

All sampling procedures fit into two umbrella categories: probability sampling and
purposeful sampling.

Probability Sampling
Probability sampling relies on probability theory and involves the use of any
strategy in which samples are selected in a way that every element in the
population has a known and nonzero chance of being selected.

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Simple Random Sampling (SRS)

This is a sampling strategy in which every element in the study population
has an equal chance of being selected.
Systematic Sampling
This is a sampling strategy in which the first element in the study population
is selected randomly and then every kth element, after the first element, is
selected.
Cluster Sampling
This is a multistage sampling strategy. First, preexisting clusters are
randomly selected from a population. Next, elements in each cluster are
sampled (in some cases, all elements in each cluster are included in the
sample).
Stratified Random Sampling
This is a sampling strategy in which elements in the study population are
divided into two or more groups based on a shared characteristic (these
groups are called strata). Then you conduct simple random, systematic, or
cluster sampling on each strata.
Purposeful Sampling
Purposeful sampling (also called purposive or judgment sampling) is based
on the premise that seeking out the best cases for the study produces the
best data, and research results are a direct result of the cases sampled Patton,
2015 as cited by Leavy.
Snowball Sampling
Also called chain sampling, this is a sampling strategy in which one case
organically leads to another (Babbie, 2013; Patton, 2015) as cited by Leavy.
Exemplar of the Phenomenon of Interest
This is a sampling strategy in which a single significant case is selected
because it can provide a wealth of rich data that speak directly to the
research purpose and questions (Patton, 2015) as cited by Leavy.
Homogeneous Sampling
This is a sampling strategy in which cases are sought out because they share
a common characteristic (Patton, 2015) as cited by Leavy.

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Description of Respondents
The respondents are described as a small group or as a big group. Characteristics may
include sex, age level, socio-economic status, marital status, level of intelligence, education,
type of community (urban or rural, barrio or town), ethnic group, and other characteristics
sought by the researcher to describe his respondents. These characteristics of respondents
could be presented in table form.

Research Instruments
Research instruments are the instruments used for gathering or collecting data including
the tools used to measure the variables. This means, for example, detailing the survey used,
own or modified, or an adopted questionnaire with proper acknowledgement.
Methods of Data Collection
According to Lunenburg (2008), “In the “Data Collection” section of the research paper,
describe precisely the physical things you did to obtain data from your participants.
Indicate what steps were taken before, during, and after data collection.”
The Six Major Methods in Data Collection
Methods of data collection is the technique for physically obtaining the data to be analyzed
in a research study (Johnson and Christensen, 2015).
Test
Tests are commonly used data collection instruments or procedures
designed to measure personality, aptitude, achievement, and performance.
Many tests are standardized and come with information on their reliability,
validity, and norms for comparison.

Questionnaire
The second method of data collection is the questionnaire. A questionnaire is
a self-report data collection instrument that is filled out by research
participants. Questionnaires measure participants’ opinions and perceptions
and provide self-reported demographic information. They are usually
paperand-pencil instruments (i.e., participants fill them out), but are
increasingly being placed on the Web for participants to go to and “fill out.”
Questionnaires can include closed ended items (where respondents must
select from the responses given by the researcher) and open-ended items
(where respondents provide answers in their own words).
Interviews
The third method of data collection is the interview method. An interview is a
situation where the interviewer asks the interviewee a series of questions.
Interviews are conducted in face-to-face situations and over the telephone. It

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is also possible to conduct interviews electronically, such as over the

Internet. These interviews can be asynchronous (interaction occurs over
time) or synchronous (interaction happens in real time).
Focus Groups
The fourth method of data collection involves the use of focus groups. A focus
group is a situation where a focus group moderator keeps a small and
homogeneous group (of 6–12 people) focused on the discussion of a research
topic or issue. Focus group sessions generally last between 1 and 3 hours and
are recorded using audio and/or videotapes. A focus group should not be
viewed as a group interview because the emphasis is on small-group
interaction and in-depth discussion among the participants about the issues
being studied. Focus groups are especially useful for exploring ideas and
obtaining in-depth information about how people think about an issue.
Observation
The fifth method of data collection is the observation method, in which the
researcher looks at what people do. Often, it is important to collect
observational data (in addition to attitudinal data) because what people say
is not always what they do! Researchers can observe participants in natural
and/or structured environments. The former is called naturalistic
observation because it is done in real-world settings. The latter is called
laboratory observation because it is conducted in a lab or other controlled
environment set up by the researcher.
Existing or Secondary Data
The sixth and last major method of data collection is the collection of existing
or secondary data. This means that the researcher collects or obtains “data”
that were originally left behind or used for some purpose other than the new
research study. The most frequently used existing data are documents,
physical data, and archived research data. Personal documents are
documents that were written or recorded for private purposes, such as
letters, diaries, and family pictures. Official documents are documents that
were written or recorded for public or private organizations, such as
newspapers, annual reports, yearbooks, and meeting minutes. Physical data
are any material thing created or left that might provide information about a
phenomenon of interest to a researcher, such as the contents of someone’s
trash, wear on the tiles in museums, wear on library books, and soil and DNA
on clothes. Archived research data are secondary research data that were
collected by other researchers for other purposes. When data are saved and
archived, others researchers can later use the data.

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Data Gathering Procedures

According to Creswell (2012), “There are five steps in the process of data collection.
This process involves more than simply gathering information; it includes
interrelated steps. It involves the steps of determining the participants to study,
obtaining permissions needed from several individuals and organizations,
considering what types of information to collect from several sources, locating and
selecting instruments to use that will net useful data for the study, and finally,
administering the data collection process to collect data.”
Determining the participants to study
This involves determining whether you will study individuals or entire
organizations (e.g., schools) or some combination. If you select either
individuals or organizations, you need to decide what type of people or
organizations you will actually study and how many you will need for your
research. These decisions require that you decide on a unit of analysis, the
group and individuals you will study, the procedure for selecting these
individuals, and assessing the numbers of people needed for your data
analysis.

Obtaining permissions needed from several individuals and organizations

After identifying and selecting participants for your study, you next need to
obtain their permission to be studied. This permission will ensure that they
cooperate in your study and provide data. Besides cooperation, their
permission also acknowledges that they understand the purpose of your
study and that you will treat them ethically.
Collecting specific data
With the identification of participants and a procedure for gaining
permission, you next turn to the specific forms of data that will help you
answer your research questions or address your research hypotheses. This
step involves identifying the variables in your questions and hypotheses,
finding definitions for these variables, and considering types of information
that will help you assess these variables,
Locating and selecting instruments
This answer the questions: What instrument will you use to collect your
data? Do you find one to use or develop one yourself? If you search for one to
use, how will you locate this instrument? Once you find the instrument, what
criteria will you use to determine if it is a good instrument to use?
Additional recommended reading:
John W. Creswell (2012). Educational Research. Boston. Pearson

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Statistical Treatment of Data

The kind of statistical treatment depends upon the nature of the problem and the data
gathered.
The statistical manipulations organize raw data systematically; its techniques help the
researcher in determining the validity and reliability of his research instruments and give
meaning and interpretation to data; and statistical treatment is used to test the hypotheses,
which are to be accepted and rejected.
Statistical Tests and their Uses:
(i) Chi Square. Chi Square is used to test independence of group membership. It is
applicable find the independence between two (2) nominal variables. Before using
Chi Square, the researcher must ensure that variables are nominal or ordinal, that
the observed frequencies should be greater than 5, that the sample must be
randomly drawn from population and that the data consists of raw frequencies. The
variables themselves must be independence of each other mutually exclusive and
exhaustive.
Researchers might prefer to use chi square because does not require large sample
size and does not require normality of the sample scores. It also has fewer
assumptions and is, in general, much easier to learn and apply. However, it is less
powerful compared to ANOVA and it is difficult to test complex hypothesis with it.
(ii) Factor Analysis. Factor analysis is the statistical computation used in order to
reduce a great number of variables/factors. The goal is to end up with a smaller
number of variables/factors that encompass all the original variables/factors. It can
be used to establish construct validity of instruments. The specific process is called
Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA). It can also be used to flesh out factors,
especially in exploratory researches. This is called Exploratory Factor Analysis
(EFA).
Before either CFA or EFA can be done, it must be assumed that the data possesses
normality, linearity, factorability of R, absence of multicolinearity and singularity.
There should be a large enough sample size and an absence of outliers among the
sample.
(iii) Regression. Regression is used to determine the degree of how one variable affects
another. It measures how strong or weak the relationship between two or more
variables. A regression equation can explain the relationship of several IV’s on one
DV. The IVs that have the weakest relationships can be omitted as extraneous
variables. The regression equation can serve as predictive equation on how the DV
changes as IVx changes. As such, it can be used for model building and testing. In
order to perform regression, variables must be at the continuous level. Sample must
have no outliers. Data/variables must have normality, linearity, homoscedasticity,
independence of errors, and absence of multicolinearity.

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(iv) T-Test. T-test can determine whether there is a significant difference between two
groups. It is used for interval and/or ratio level data. Assumptions are: data has
normality, homogeneity of variance, the DV is continuous while the IV is discrete.
(v) Analysis of Variance (ANOVA). To test hypotheses that are more complex than what
the t-test can handle, ANOVA can be used. It is used to test differences between
more than 2 groups. It is also used to test differences in 2 or more IVs. ANOVA can
only be used on interval or ratio level of data. Groups must be equal in size. Data
must have normality and homogeneity of variance.
(vi) Frequency and Percentage Distribution. Used to determine the percentage usually
for data on profile (e.g. level, age, gender, etc.).
(vii) Mean. Used to get average or central value (e.g. level, extent, status, etc.).
(viii) Pearson-Product Moment. Used to find the degree of the association of two sets of
variables, X and Y or to test the significant relationship between the two variables.
(ix) Multiple Correlation. Used to test if the independent variables have influence on the
dependent variables.
(x) Multiple Regression. Used to predict, singly or in combination, from among the
independent variables the dependent variables.

References and Supplementary Materials

Books and Journals

1. AMAES Student research manual
2. Fred C. Lunenburg, Beverly J. Irby; 2008; Writing a Successful Thesis or Dissertation;
California; Corwin Press
3. John W. Creswell (2012). Educational Research (4th Edition). Boston. Pearson
Education Inc.
4. Larry B. Christensen et al; 2015; Research Methods Design and Analysis; England;
Pearson
5. Patricia Leavy (2017). Research Design. New York. The Guilford Press
6. Rabhat Pandey, Meenu Mishra Pandey; 2015; Research Methodology Tools and
Techniques; Romania; Bridge Center

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