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in

rectifier can be done on a half-cycle for 7.8 Switching Circuits

the voltage controller. Then, by symmetry,
Switching circuit is an electronic circuit used
the result can be extrapolated to describe
to electrically switch-ON or switch-OFF an
the operation for the entire period.
electronic circuit used for power conversion
Some basic observations about the circuits. An electrical switch is any device used
circuit of Fig 7.12 are as follows: to interrupt the flow of electrons in a circuit.
1. The SCRs cannot conduct Switches are binary devices: either it is in
simultaneously. “ON” (“closed”) state or “OFF” (“open”) state
using timing pulses. Transistor is a simple
2. The load voltage is the same as the
electronic switch, which conducts current
source voltage when either SCR is
across the collector-emitter terminals, when
on. The load voltage is zero when
a voltage is applied to the base, i.e., the switch
both SCRs are off.
is ON or supress the flow of current across
3. The switch voltage-Vsw is zero when the collector-emitter terminal, when there is
either SCR is on and is equal to the no base voltage, i.e., the switch is OFF.
source voltage when neither is on.
4. The average current in the source
7.8.1 NPN Relay Switch Circuit
and load is zero, if the SCRs are
on for equal time intervals. The Relays are electromechanical devices
average current in each SCR is not employing an electromagnet to operate
zero because of unidirectional SCR a pair of movable contacts from an open
current. position to a closed position. A relay
switch circuit shown in Figure 7.13
5. The rms current in each SCR is 1/ 2
consists of a NPN transistor (TR1)
times the rms load current if the
configured as a switch driving the coil of
SCRs are on for equal time intervals.
the relay, when switching pulse is applied
For the circuit of Fig. 7.12, S1 at the base of the transistor. When the
conducts if a gate signal is applied during base voltage of the transistor is zero (or
the positive half-cycle of the source. Just
as in the case of the SCR in the controlled +Vcc

half-wave rectifier, S1 conducts until the

NC NO
current in it reaches zero. Where this Flywheel
circuit differs from the controlled half- diode Relay

wave rectifier is when the source is in its C

negative half-cycle. A gate signal is applied
to S2 during the negative half-cycle of the 1 C
1kΩ NPN
source, providing a path for negative load 0 B BC109
current. If the gate signal for S2 is a half TR1
Output
period later than that of S1, analysis for ports
E
10kΩ
the negative half-cycle is identical to that
for the positive half, except for algebraic 0v
sign for the voltage and current.
FIGURE 7.13 NPN Relay Switching Circuit

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negative), the transistor is cut-off and acts +Vdd

as an open switch. In this condition, no NC NO

collector current flows and the relay coil Flywheel

diode Relay
is de-energised. When a positive voltage is
C
applied to the base, the transistor conducts +5V

and goes to the saturation state. At this D

IRF610
condition, the transistor acts as a closed PA0
G N-channel
S E-MOSFET
switch. Thus, the current flowing from PIC or
Output
TR1
Micro- μC
collector to emitter controls the current controller ports
10kΩ

flowing through the relay coil. PA7

0v

7.8.2 
Microcontroller Relay FIGURE 7.14 Microcontroller Relay Switching
Circuit
Switching Circuit
In microcontroller, the input/output port 7.8.3 
Switching Circuit Using
pins are not able to drive high-current
ULN2003a IC
components such as relays, buzzer, etc.
In such a situation, the output pin of the ULN2003A is a relay driver IC consisting
microcontroller is connected through a of a Darlington array. It is made up of
MOSFET switching circuit as shown in seven open collector Darlington pairs
Figure 7.14. The MOSFET switch is an with common emitter. ULN2003A has
ideal electrical switch as it takes virtually no a capability of handling seven different
gate current to turn “ON”, i.e., converting a relays, simultaneously. A single Darlington
gate voltage into a load current. Therefore, pair consists of two bipolar transistors
a MOSFET can be operated as a voltage- and operates in the range of 500 mA to
controlled switch. 600 mA current.
In many applications, bipolar Figure 7.15 shows a relay driver IC
transistors can be substituted with switching an electro-magnetic relays to
enhancement-type MOSFETs offering switch a light bulb ON and OFF which is
faster switching action, much higher connected to 220V mains supply. The IC
input impedance, and probably less ULN2003A comprises of 7-NPN Darlington
power dissipation. The combination pairs, which is typically configured to switch
of very high gate impedance, very low the inductive loads (dissipates voltage spikes
power consumption in its “OFF” state if any, using suppression diode) and to drive
and very fast switching capability makes stepper motors and lights. For switching
the MOSFET suitable for many digital eight such relays, ULN2803 can be used.
switching applications. Also, with zero This type of relay switching ICs are used to
gate current, its switching action cannot interface the output from microcontrollers
overload the output circuit of a digital to the actuators such as relays, buzzer,
gate or microcontroller. MOSFETs always LED, lamps, etc. Here, the program in the
use a flywheel diode across and relay coil microcontroller switches ON or OFF the
to safely dissipate the back emf generated relays by outputting either 1 or 0 in the
by the transistors switching action. respective output pins.

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ULN2003A
+24VDC AC HOT
RELAY1
IN1 1 16

IN2 2 15 LAMP1

RELAY2
IN3 3 14

IN4 4 13
LAMP2
RELAY3
IN5 5 12

IN6 6 11
LAMP3

IN7 7 10 RELAY4

8 9
LAMP4

AC NEU

FIGURE 7.15 ULN2003A Relay Switching Circuit

7.9 S
 witch Mode Power
Supply (SMPS)
A switched-mode power supply (SMPS)
is an electronic circuit that converts
power using switching devices that are
turned on and off at high frequencies, and
storage components such as inductors
or capacitors to supply power, when the
FIGURE 7.16 External structure of SMPS
switching device is in its non-conduction
state.
They are used in many places in a
computer. In a modern computer, there is
a SMPS that takes rectified AC input from
the wall, performs power factor correction
and then converts the output into one or
more lower voltage DC outputs.
The Figure 7.16 shows the external
structure of SMPS and Figure 7.17 shows
the internal structure of SMPS.
FIGURE 7.17 Internal structure of SMPS

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SMPS is a power supply that uses the addition of a switch operated either
a switching regulator to control and manually or automatically. This feature
stabilize the output voltage by switching permits operation from power sources
the load current on and off. These power that are normally at 115 V or at 230 V.
supplies offer a greater power conversion The rectifier produces an
and reduce the overall power loss. unregulated DC voltage which is then
Voltage regulation is achieved by sent to a large filter capacitor. The current
varying the ratio of on-to-off time. In drawn from the mains supply by this
contrast, a linear power supply regulates rectifier circuit occurs in short pulses
the output voltage by continually around the AC voltage peaks.
dissipating power in the pass transistor.
This higher power conversion efficiency Inverter stage
is an important advantage of a switched-
mode power supply. Switched-mode This section refers to the block marked
power supplies may also be substantially chopper in the diagram.
smaller and lighter than a linear supply The inverter stage converts DC,
due to the smaller transformer size and whether directly from the input or from
weight.
Source
Input
Converter 2
Output
Load
the rectifier stage described above, to AC
Switching regulators are used as by running it through a power oscillator,
replacements for linear regulators when whose output transformer is very small
higher efficiency, smaller size or lighter with few windings at a frequency of tens
weight are required. They are, however, or hundreds of kiloHertz. The frequency
more complicated; their switching currents is usually chosen to be above 20 kHz,
can cause electrical noise problems if not to make it inaudible to humans. The
carefully suppressed, and simple designs switching is implemented as a multistage
may have a poor power factor. Figure 7.18 (to achieve high gain) MOSFET amplifier.
shows the block diagram of SMPS MOSFETs are a type of transistor with a
low on-resistance and a high current-
Mains DC handling capacity.
input input Output output
Inverter Output
rectifier rectifier
“Chopper” transformer
and filter and filter

Regulation
Chopper
controller
This charger for a small device such as a
FIGURE 7.18 Block diagram of SMPS
mobile phone is a simple off-line switching
power supply with a European plug. The
simple circuit has just two transistors, an
Input Rectifier stage
opto-coupler and rectifier diodes as active
If the SMPS has an AC input, then the components.
first stage is to convert the input to DC. A feedback circuit monitors the
This is called rectification. An SMPS with output voltage and compares it with a
a DC input does not require this stage. In reference voltage, as shown in the block
some power supplies (mostly computer diagram above. Depending on design and
ATX power supplies), the rectifier circuit safety requirements, the controller may
can be configured as a voltage doubler by contain an isolation mechanism (such as

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an opto-coupler) to isolate it from the DC of the cost savings (and space savings)
output. Switching supplies in computers, in off-line power supplies result from
TVs and VCRs have these opto-couplers the smaller size of the high frequency
to tightly control the output voltage. transformer compared to the 50/60 Hz
transformers formerly used. There are
Transformer design additional design trade offs. The skin
effect is exacerbated by the harmonics
Any switched-mode power supply that present in the high speed PWM switching
gets its power from an AC power line waveforms. The appropriate skin depth is
(called an “off-line” converter) requires not just the depth at the fundamental, but
a transformer for galvanic isolation. also the skin depths at the harmonics. In
Some DC-to-DC converters may also addition to the skin effect, there is also a
include a transformer, although isolation proximity effect, which is another source
may not be critical in these cases. SMPS of power loss.
transformers run at high frequency. Most

learning outcome
After studying this chapter, students can understand the following
1. Applications of Power Electronics 6. AC to AC amplitude and frequency
2. Converting AC to DC regulators
3. DC TO AC – Inverter 7. Switching Circuits

4. Types of Inverter 8. Switch Mode Power Supply

5. DC to DC Regulators

QUESTIONS
I. C
 hoose the best answer from 3. The Objective of a power electronic
the given four options. circuit is
1. Conversion of alternating current a. To reduce power consumption
into direct current is _____ b. To avoid current shock
a. Rectifier b. Inverter c. 
Match the voltage and current
c. Regulator d. Voltage doubler requirements of the load
d. To minimize expenditure
2. Conversion of direct current into
alternating current is _____ 4. __________ type of power
a. Rectifier
electronics is used in cell phone.
a. AC to AC regulator
b. Inverter
b. DC to AC inverter
c. Regulator
c. DC to DC regulator
d. Voltage doubler
d. AC to DC rectifier

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5. A voltage regulator _____________ 3. What is the objective of power

a. gives a steady, reliable and fixed
electronics?
output voltage 4. Write down the three primary types
b. Unregulated voltage
of inverters.
c. Unregulated current
5. What is the purpose of UPS?

d. Low power output

6. Write about AC to AC Regulator.
7. Write down the pin diagram of
6. In IC7805 Voltage regulator, the input
LM317T.
voltage should always be _________
than the output voltage. 8. Write the advantages of UPS.

a. Less b. Greater 9. Draw the Pin diagram of 7805 IC.

c. Infinity d. Zero 10. What is switching circuits?

7. In single phase AC voltage controller, III. E

 xplain the following
the SCR connection is called as questions.
___________.
1. Write about the DC input/DC output
a. Series connection
and its application.
b. Parallel connection
c. Anti-parallel or inverse parallel 2. Draw the single phase full-wave
connection rectifier.
d. Series and Parallel connection 3. Write short notes on DC to AC-
Inverter.
8. Relay switch circuits are ________
4. Write down the important points on
device.
7805 voltage regulator IC.
a. Electrical b. Electronics
c. Mechanical d. Electromagnet IV. B
 riefly explain the following
9. In ULN 2003A IC the number of questions
Darlington pairs used are_______. 1. Draw the circuit diagram of UPS and
a. 3 b. 4 c. 5 d. 7 explain its working.
2. Explain the working of voltage
10. The function of SMPS is __________.
regulator using IC 7805.
a. Rectification
3. Draw the circuit diagram of switching
b. Inversion circuit using ULN 2003 A –IC.
c. Voltage regulation 4. Draw the block diagram of SMPS
d. All the above and explain each block briefly.

II. Answer in few sentence.

Answers:
1. Define the term power electronics.
1.(a) 2.(b) 3.(c) 4.(c) 5.(a)
2. Write the applications of Power
6.(b) 7.(b) 8.(d) 9.(d) 10.(d)
Electronics.

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08

CHAPTER
Introduction to Biomedical
Instruments

learning objective
The students can understand the following in this chapter
1. Electrocardiograph (ECG)
2. Blood Pressure (BP) Monitor
3. Pulse Oxi-meter
4. Endoscopy
5. Ultrasound Scanner
6. Computed Tomography (CT) Scanner

8.1 Introduction living body. These signals can be picked

up from the surface of the body or from
Human body consists of biological,
within the body.
chemicals, physical, electrical, thermal,
hydraulic, pneumatic, acoustical, magnetic Figure 8.1 shows the biopotential
and mechanical systems, all interacting recorded from nerve and muscle,
with each other. It also contains a respectively. The biopotential was first
powerful computer (brain), several types recorded in the year 1786, by an Italian
of communicating systems (nerves), and a Physician Dr. Luigi Galvani.
great variety of control systems (muscles). Later on, several advancements
Human body is a source of various in electronics, material science and
biopotential signals, which are most useful computing technology shaped the
for estimating the physiological, clinical, biomedical instruments in various forms
therapeutic and biological activities of like dedicated, portable, wearable, PC-

134
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based, MEMS/NEMS-based and wireless TABLE 8.1 T

 ypes of Biopotential Signals
based devices. and their characteristics
Parameter Signal Characteristics

Electro Frequency range: 0.05 to 500 Hz

cardiogram 0.05 to 120 Hz is adequate
(ECG)
Typical signal voltage: 1 mV
Voltage range: 10µV to 5 mV

Electro Frequency: 0.1 to 100 Hz

encephalogram 0.5 to 70 Hz is adequate
(EEG)
Voltage: 2 to 200 µV
Typical voltage: 50 µV

Electromyogram Frequency: 5 to 2000 Hz

(EMG) Voltage: 25 to 5000 µV

FIGURE 8.1 B
 iopotential from nerve and Electro Frequency: DC to 20 Hz
muscle retinogram Voltage: 0.5µV to 1mV
(ERG)
Amplitude: 0.5 mV

8.1.1 Definition of Biopotential: Electro Frequency: DC to 100 Hz

culogram Voltage: 10 to 3500 µV
„ An electric potential that is measured (EOG)
Amplitude: 0.5 mV
between points in living cells, tissues,
and organisms, which accompanies all
8.1.3. Measurement of
biochemical processes.
Biopotential
„ Ionic voltages produced as a result
of the electrochemical activity of Using transducers, the ionic potential
excitable cells. generated by our body is converted into
electrical potential. Bioelectric potential
waveforms generally end with the suffix
The difference between the gram.
electric current and bioelectric
current? For example, Electrocardiogram,
Electric current is due to the movement of Electroencephalogram. Instruments used
electrons in a circuit, whereas bioelectric to measure biopotential generally ends with
current is due to movement of ions across the suffix graph, e.g., Electrocardiograph,
the cell membrane. Echocardiograph.
Biomedical instruments are devices
that can be used to make measurements
8.1.2 Characteristics of
of biologic or medical quantities and give
Biopotential signals quantitative (or sometimes qualitative)
The important characteristics of a results.
biopotential signals recorded from our Have you ever seen a biomedical
body are summarized in Table 8.1 instrument? Some of the simple

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biomedical instruments everybody knows instruments and their working principles

are thermometer, stethoscope, etc. as are discussed.
shown in Figure 8.2. Physiologic Display
Sensor Processor Observer
system storage

FIGURE 8.3 Basic Component of a Biomedical

instrument

8.3 Electrocardiograph
(ECG)
Electrocardiograph records small voltages
of about one millivolt (mV) that appear
on the skin as a result of cardiac activity.
The voltage differences between
electrodes are measured; these differences
directly correspond to the heart’s electrical
activity.

FIGURE 8.2 Basic Medical Instruments The first ECG machine developed
by Augustus Waller in the year 1887 using
capillary electrometer is shown in Fig. 8.4.
8.2 Components of
Biomedical Instrument:
Figure 8.3 shows the basic components of
a biomedical instrument. Any biomedical
instrument comprises of sensor that senses
the physiological parameter of interest such as
temperature, blood pressure, pulse rate, etc.
The sensor’s output signal is
of low-amplitude and comprises of
unwanted signals called noise, artefacts,
etc. Therefore, the sensor output signal FIGURE 8.4 First ECG machine
is processed in the processor unit, which
may be an electronic circuit, or a computer Later, the physician standardized
with related software. the ECG machine, which comprises of 12
standard leads for knowing the different
The processed output signal can perspective of the heart’s electrical activity.
be either stored in the memory for future
usage or it can be shown in a display for The ECG waveforms consist of P
monitoring/diagnosis. wave, QRS complex, and T wave, which
are vary in amplitude and polarity. Typical
In this Chapter, some of basic 12-lead ECG waveforms are shown in
biopotential as well as biomedical imaging Figure 8.5.

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on the four arms of the body viz., Right

Arm (RA), Left Arm (LA), Right Leg (RL)
and Left Leg (LL).
The signals picked up by the four
electrodes are fed into a resistor/switching
network to select one of the 12 leads viz.,
Lead I, Lead II, Lead III, aVR, aVL, aVF,
V1, V2, V3, V4, V5, and V6. The selected/
FIGURE 8.5 Standard 12 leads ECG recordings acquired signals from the switching
network has very low-amplitude and is
amplified by an instrumentation amplifier.
8.3.1 Working Principle of
In analog type of ECG machines,
Electrocardiograph
further processing like noise removal, base
Machine
line correction and final amplification are
Figures 8.6(a) shows a 12 lead ECG performed using complicated circuits.
machine, Figure 8.6(b) depicts the various But, in the digital ECG machine the
electrodes and Figure 8.6(c) illustrates signal from the instrumentation amplified is
the block diagram of the ECG machine, digitised using Analog-to-Digital Converter
respectively. (ADC) and stored in digital form.
For acquiring the ECG signal from The digitized ECG data is further
human body, four electrodes are placed processed for noise removal, base line

(a) 12 Lead ECG Machine (b) Different types of ECG electrodes

RA LA
Resistors
Amp ADC
and switch

Signal
Monitor
processor
RL LL

Printer

(C) Block Diagram of Electro cardiograph Storage

FIGURE 8.6

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in your town or a city. Houses are located

The components of ECG and
their relationship with cardiac in various places and in various elevations
activity? and in different ground levels. But the water
ECG comprises of P, QRS, T and U waves. P has to reach all the houses. Without giving
wave represents the contraction of the atria necessary pressure, is it possible to send the
or the depolarization of atria, QRS complex water to all the houses? No.
corresponds to relaxation of the atria and Certainly we need some pressure
initiation of ventricular contraction or to send the water to all the houses. To do
the depolarization of ventricle, T wave that, we are pumping the water by using a
corresponds to ventricular relaxation and powerful motor.
the U wave origin is unknown. Just like, the blood in our body has
to reach each and every part and corner of
our body. To perform this, its need some
pressure. This is called Blood Pressure (BP).
Here the task of giving enough
pressure is done by our vital and important
organ “The Heart”.
Blood transports O2 and nutrients
to the cells and carries the metabolic
waste and CO2 gas from the cells through
correction and final amplification using a pressurized vessel system comprising
signal processing hardware or software. of arteries, vein, arterioles, venuoles
The processed ECG data is stored and capillaries (covering approximately
for future use or displayed on the monitor 1,00,000 km distance). The pressure is
or printed as hardcopy. provided by the mechanical pump called,
heart. Measuring this pressure at various
Applications of ECG locations of our body reveals significant
clinical information. The Blood Pressure
Diagnosis of (BP) is measured as Systolic (Pressure
1. Ischemia exerted by the heart during pumping) and
2. Arrhythmia Diastolic pressure (Pressure exerted when
the heart relaxes between beats). The
3. Conduction defects
optimal values of Systolic and Diastolic
pressure for an adult should be 120 mm
Hg and 80 mm Hg, respectively. BP can
8.4 Blood Pressure Monitor be measured using direct (invasive) or
indirect (non-invasive) methods.
The abbreviated term ‘BP’ become very
familiar in our life. In every one’s mind a 1. Invasive – Catheter with external or
question may arise. Why the blood needs internal sensor
pressure. Dear students to understand this, 2. Non-invasive – Sphygmomanometer
just you think about the water supply system and Ultrasound Doppler method

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This point is noted and the reading in the

pressure gauge is noted, which corresponds
to the Systolic pressure. This will continue
a while and once again the korotkoff sound
is not heard, that point in the pressure
gauge is noted as a diastolic pressure. In
the case of automatic Sphygmomanometer,
inflation, deflation, pressure sensing, etc.,
are controlled by a microcomputer with
FIGURE 8.7 Working Principle of respective sensors and electronic circuitry
Sphygmomanometer as shown in Figure 8.8.

In this Section, the BP measurement 8.5 Pulse Oximeter

using Sphygmomanometer is presented. This is the most important instrument to
Figure 8.7 shows the Sphygmomanometer identify and diagnose the real situation of
comprises of an inflatable cuff, needle the patient.
valve, pressure gauge, mechanical pump
and Stethoscope. During measurement of Oxygen is carried in the
BP, the cuff is inflated using the mechanical blood by hemoglobin which has
pump and the heart sound called Korotkoff two forms: Hb and HbO2. These two forms
sound is heard, which is listened using a have different absorptions at different
stethoscope placed on the hand below the wavelengths in the red to infra−red
cuff. In the inflation phase, if the korotkoff frequency band.
sound is not heard, the physician stops By measuring the absorption of
pressurizing the cuff. Then, the needle the two different wavelengths and taking
valve is opened for deflation and pressure appropriate ratios, it is possible, in theory,
across cuff decreases and once again the to evaluate the percentage of hemoglobin
korotkoff sound is heard in the stethoscope. carrying oxygen.
External Internal Cuff pressure

Pressure
Auto-zero
tensor
valve
Cuff pressure Multiplexer
Bp cuff oscillations and analog
to digital
Inflation converter
system

Deflate valve
Microcomputer
with memory
Dump
and I/O
valve
Over-
pressure
switch
MAP SYS

HR DYS

FIGURE 8.8 Components of Automatic BP Monitor: Here, MAP-Mean Average Pressure, SYS-Systolic
Pressure, DYS-Diastolic Pressure and HR- Heart Rate

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The principle of pulse oximetry 94%, for Moderate Hypoxemia, it will

is based on the red and infrared light be in the range of 86-90% and for severe
absorption characteristics of oxygenated Hypoxemia, it will be in the range of <85%.
and deoxygenated hemoglobin.
Oxygenated hemoglobin absorbs more
8.6 Biomedical Imaging
infrared light and allows more red-light
Instruments
to pass through, whereas deoxygenated
hemoglobin absorbs more red-light and The earliest medical images used light
allows more infrared light to pass through. to create photographs, either of the
Red-light is in the 600-750 nm anatomic structures, or of the histological
wavelength light band, whereas infrared specimens using microscopes. Light is
light is in the 850-1000 nm wavelength light still an important source for the creation
band. The figure 8.9 (a) shows the image of of images. However, visible light does not
Pulse Oximeter and the figure 8.9 (b) shows allow us to see inside the body.
the absorption relationship of Hb and HbO2. X-rays were first discovered in 1895
by Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen, who was
awarded the 1901 Nobel Prize in physics
for this achievement. This discovery
caused worldwide excitement, especially
in the field of medicine, since then,
diagnostic X-ray technology has evolved
from film-based to completely digital,
where images are manipulated and viewed
in a digital data format.
10 (RED) (INFRARED)
600nm 910nm Advanced imaging modalities such
as computed tomography (CT), endoscopy
- ultrasonagraphy were developed late in
HbO2
the 20th century and in the 21st century.

Hb
What is the first X-ray taken by
Rontgen?
0.1
600 700 800 900 1000 Wave length (nm)
The first X-ray image of Rontgen’s wife
FIGURE 8.9 (a) Pulse Oximeter, (b) Absorption was taken in the year 1985 and is shown here.
Characteristics of HbO2 and Hb

8.5.1 Applications of Pulse

Oximeter
The SpO2 values are used to diagnose
the conditions such as Apnea,
Bronchopulmonary dysphasia and cardiac
diseases. For normal patients, the SpO2
will be in the range of 95-100 %, for Mild
Hypoxemia, it will be in the range of 91-

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8.6.1 Endoscopy purposes. Figure 8.10 shows the various

Endoscopy is the insertion of a long, thin components of an Endoscope.
tube directly into the body to observe an
internal organ or tissue in detail.
The first real endoscope that was
developed was made by Phillip Bozzini in
the year 1805 to examine the urethra, the
bladder and vagina. It can also be used to
carry out other tasks including imaging
and minor surgery.
Endoscopes are minimally invasive
and can be inserted into the openings
of the body such as the mouth or anus.
Alternatively, they can be inserted into
small incisions, for instance, in the knee FIGURE 8.10 Endoscopy machine and its
or abdomen. Surgery completed through components
a small incision and assisted with special
instruments, such as the endoscope, is 8.6.3 Types of Endoscopy
called keyhole surgery. Endoscopy is most useful for investigating
Since modern endoscopy has many systems within the human body and
relatively few risks, which delivers detailed is named based on the applications. They
images in a reasonably quicker time and are summarized in Table 8.2.
hence it has proven incredibly useful in
What is Capsule Endoscopy?
many areas of medicine.
Recently a disposable flash camera
8.6.2 Components of an slightly larger than a vitamin pill was
Endoscopy devised to perform imaging of the small
intestine. This procedure is called capsule
The endoscope consists of a slender, endoscopy in which the patient swallows the
flexible or rigid tube equipped with minicam, which then takes pictures inside
lenses and a light source. CCDs are used the small intestine. On its journey through
as detector to acquire the video from the the digestive tract, the tiny tumbling camera
respective organs and display in a monitor. transmits images that are stored in a recorder
Through the accessory channels of that the person wears around the waist.
the endoscope, water and air is supplied After 8 hours, the camera’s battery runs out,
to wash and dry the surgical site. Also, and the capsule is eliminated in the faeces.
it has a channel through which surgeons
can manipulate tiny instruments, such
as forceps, surgical scissors, and suction
devices.
A variety of instruments can be
fitted to the endoscope for different

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