Diagrammatic and graphical Presentation of Data

Diagrams play an important role in statistical data presentation. Diagrams are nothing
but geometrical figures like lines, bars, circles, squares, etc. Diagrammatic data
presentation allows us to understand the data in an easier manner.

Advantages of Diagrammatic Data Presentation

 Easy to understand – Diagrammatic data presentation makes it easier for a common

man to understand the data. Diagrams are usually attractive and impressive and
many newspapers and magazines use them frequently to explain certain facts
or phenomena. Modern advertising campaigns also use diagrams.

 Simplified Presentation – You can represent large volumes of complex data in a

simplified and intelligible form using diagrams.

 Reveals hidden facts – When you classify and tabulate data, some facts are not
revealed. Diagrammatic data presentation helps in bringing out these facts and
also relations.

 Quick to grasp – Usually, when the data is represented using diagrams, people can
grasp it quickly.

 Easy to compare – Diagrams make it easier to compare data.

 Universally accepted – Almost all fields of study like Business, economics, social
institutions, administration, etc. use diagrams. Therefore, they have universal
acceptability.

Limitations of Diagrammatic Data Presentation:

 Provides vague ideas – While diagrams offer a vague idea about the problem, it is
useful only to a common man. An expert, who seeks an exact idea of the problem
cannot benefit from them.

 Limited information – Classified and tabulated data provides more information than
diagrams.

 Low precision – Diagram offer a low level of precision of values.

 Restricts further data analysis – Diagrams do not allow the user to analyze the data
further.

 Portrays limited characteristics – Diagrams tend to portray only a limited number of

characteristics. Therefore, it is difficult to understand a large number of characteristics
using diagrams.
  A possibility of misuse – Sometimes diagrams are misused to present an illusory
picture of the problem.

 Fail to present a meaningful look in certain situations – If the data has various
measurements and wide variation, then diagrams do not present a meaningful look.

 Careful usage – If diagrams are drawn on a false baseline, then the user must analyze
them carefully.

General Principles of Diagrammatic Presentation of Data

A diagrammatic presentation is a simple and effective method of presenting the

information that any statistical data contains. Here are some general principles of
diagrammatic presentation which can help you make them a more effective tool of
understanding the data:

 Write a suitable title on top which conveys the subject matter in a brief and
unambiguous manner. If you want to provide more details about the title, then you can
mention them in the footnote below the diagram.

 You must construct a diagram in a manner that immediately impacts the viewer.
Ensure that you draw it neatly with an appropriate balance between its length and
breadth. Further, make sure that the diagram is neither too large nor too small. You
can also use different colors or shades to emphasize different aspects of the problem.

 Draw the diagram accurately using proper scales of measurement. You should never
compromise accuracy for attractiveness.

 Select the design of the diagram carefully keeping in view the nature of the data and
also the objective of the investigation.

 If you use different shades or colors to depict the different characteristics in the
diagram, then ensure that you provide an index explaining them.

 If you are using a secondary source, then ensure that you specify the source of data.

 Try to keep your diagram as simple as possible.

Variables
In research, variables are any characteristics that can take on different values, such as
height, age, species, or exam score.

In scientific research, we often want to study the effect of one variable on another one. For
example, you might want to test whether students who spend more time studying get
better exam scores.
The variables in a study of a cause-and-effect relationship are called the independent and
dependent variables.

The independent variable is the cause. Its value is independent of other variables in your
study.
The dependent variable is the effect. Its value depends on changes in the independent
variable.
Independent variables are recorded on the X-axis while dependent variables are recorded
on the Y-axis.

Types of Diagrams

There are many types of diagrams which are used for data presentation. Some popular
types of diagrams are explained below:

Line Diagram

In a line diagram, you can represent different values using lines of varying lengths. Further,
these lines are either horizontal or vertical. Also, there is a uniform gap between successful
lines. You can use this when the number of items is very large. Here is an example:

Example 1

The income of 10 workers in a particular week was recorded as given below. Represent the
data by a line diagram.

Sr. no.
of
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
worker
s

Income 24 35 29 40 42 45 20 30 25
200
(Rs.) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Simple Bar Diagram

In order to draw a simple bar diagram, you construct horizontal or vertical lines who have
heights proportional to the value of the item. You choose an arbitrary width of the bar but
keep it constant. Also, ensure that the gaps between the bars are constant. This diagram is
suitable to represent individual time-series or a spatial series. Here is an example

Years 1993-94 1994-95 1995-96 1996-97

Coffee Exports
13.67 13.73 17.06 18.12
(‘0000 tonnes)

Example 2

Represent the following data using a bar diagram:

Multiple Bar Diagram

You can use a multiple bar diagram or a compound bar diagram when you want to show a
comparison between two or more sets of data. You can draw a set of bars side-by-side,
without gaps and separate the sets of bars with a constant gap. Further, you must color or
shade different bars in a different manner. Here is an example:
Represent the following data on the faculty-wise distribution of students using a

Students

Arts Science Commerce

College

A 1200 600 500

B 1000 800 650

C 1400 700 800

D 750 900 300

Component or Sub-Divided Bar Diagram

In this diagram, you divide the bar corresponding to each phenomenon into various
components. Therefore, the portion that each component occupies denotes its share in the
total. You must ensure that the sub-divisions follow the same order and also that you use
different colors or shades to distinguish them. You can use this diagram to represent the
comparative values of different components of a phenomenon.

Here is an example:

The following table gives the value of (A in Crores) of contracts secured from abroad, in
respect of Civil Construction, industrial turnkey projects and software consultancy in three
financial years. Construct a component bar diagram to denote the share of activity in total
export earnings from the three projects.

Years 1994-95 1995-96 1996-97

Civil Construction 260 312 338

Turnkey Projects 442 712 861

Consultancy Services 1740 1800 2000

Total 2442 2824 3199

Circular or Pie Chart

A pie chart consists of a circle in which the radii divide the area into sectors. Further, these
sectors are proportional to the values of the component items under investigation. Also, the
whole circle represents the entire data under investigation.

Steps to draw a Pie Chart

 Express the different components of the given data in percentages of the whole

 Multiply each percentage component with 3.6 (since the total angle of a circle at the
center is 360°)

 Draw a circle

 Divide the circle into different sectors with the central angles of each component

 Shade each sector differently

Use of Pie Chart
The use of pie charts is quite popular as the circle provides a visual concept of the whole.
Pie charts are simple to use and hence are one of the most commonly used charts.
However, the pie charts are sparingly used only for the following reasons:

 They are the best chart for displaying statistical information when the number of
components is not more than 6. In the case of more components, the chart becomes too
complex to understand.

 Pie charts are not useful when the values of the components are similar. This is
because in the case of similarly sized sectors the viewer can find it difficult to
differentiate between the slice sizes.

Here is an example:
Represent the following data, on India’s exports (Rs. in Crores) by regions from April to
February 1997.

Region Europe Asia America Africa

Exports 32699 42516 23495 5133

Solved Question

Q1. What are the advantages of diagrammatic data presentation?

Answer: The advantages of diagrammatic data presentation are:

 Diagrams are easy to understand

 You can represent huge volumes of data in a simplified manner

 They reveal hidden facts

 They quick to grasp and easy to compare

 Diagrams have a universal acceptability

GRAPHS
Apart from diagrams, Graphic presentation is another way of the presentation of data and
information. Usually, graphs are used to present time series and frequency distributions. In
this article, we will look at the graphic presentation of data and information along with its
merits, limitations, and types.

Construction of a Graph
The graphic presentation of data and information offers a quick and simple way of
understanding the features and drawing comparisons. Further, it is an effective analytical
tool and a graph can help us in finding the mode, median, etc.

We can locate a point in a plane using two mutually perpendicular lines – the X-axis (the
horizontal line) and the Y-axis (the vertical line). Their point of intersection is the Origin.

We can locate the position of a point in terms of its distance from both these axes. For
example, if a point P is 3 units away from the Y-axis and 5 units away from the X-axis,
then its location is as follows:

Some points to remember:

 We measure the distance of the point from the Y-axis along the X-axis. Similarly,
we measure the distance of the point from the X-axis along the Y-axis. Therefore, to
measure 3 units from the Y-axis, we move 3 units along the X-axis and likewise for
the other coordinate.

 We then draw perpendicular lines from these two points.

 The point where the perpendiculars intersect is the position of the point P.

 We denote it as follows (3,5) or (abscissa, ordinate). Together, they are the coordinates
of the point P.
  The four parts of the plane are Quadrants.

 Also, we can plot different points for a different pair of values.

General Rules for Graphic Presentation of Data and Information

There are certain guidelines for an attractive and effective graphic presentation of data and
information. These are as follows:

1. Suitable Title – Ensure that you give a suitable title to the graph which clearly
indicates the subject for which you are presenting it.

2. Unit of Measurement – Clearly state the unit of measurement below the title.

3. Suitable Scale – Choose a suitable scale so that you can represent the entire data in an
accurate manner.

4. Index – Include a brief index which explains the different colors and shades, lines and
designs that you have used in the graph. Also, include a scale of interpretation for
better understanding.

5. Data Sources – Wherever possible, include the sources of information at the bottom
of the graph.

6. Keep it Simple – You should construct a graph which even a layman (without any
exposure in the areas of statistics or mathematics) can understand.

7. Neat – A graph is a visual aid for the presentation of data and information. Therefore,
you must keep it neat and attractive. Choose the right size, right lettering, and
appropriate lines, colors, dashes, etc.

Merits of a Graph

 The graph presents data in a manner which is easier to understand.

 It allows us to present statistical data in an attractive manner as compared to tables.

Users can understand the main features, trends, and fluctuations of the data at a glance.

 A graph saves time.

 It allows the viewer to compare data relating to two different time-periods or regions.

 The viewer does not require prior knowledge of mathematics or statistics to

understand a graph.
  We can use a graph to locate the mode, median, and mean values of the data.

 It is useful in forecasting, interpolation, and extrapolation of data.

Limitations of a Graph

 A graph lacks complete accuracy of facts.

 It depicts only a few selected characteristics of the data.

 We cannot use a graph in support of a statement.

 A graph is not a substitute for tables.

 Usually, laymen find it difficult to understand and interpret a graph.

 Typically, a graph shows the unreasonable tendency of the data and the actual values
are not clear.

Types of Graphs

Graphs are of two types:

1. Time Series graphs

2. Frequency Distribution graphs

Time Series Graphs

A time series graph or a “histogram” is a graph which depicts the value of a variable over a
different point of time. In a time series graph, time is the most important factor and the
variable is related to time. It helps in the understanding and analysis of the changes in the
variable at a different point of time. Many statisticians and businessmen use these graphs
because they are easy to understand and also because they offer complex information in a
simple manner.

Further, constructing a time series graph does not require a user with technical skills. Here
are some major steps in the construction of a time series graph:

 Represent time on the X-axis and the value of the variable on the Y-axis.
 Start the Y-value with zero and devise a suitable scale which helps you present the
whole data in the given space.

 Plot the values of the variable and join different point with a straight line.

 You can plot multiple variables through different lines.

Line Graph
You can use a line graph to summarize how two pieces of information are related and how
they vary with each other.

Advantages

 You can compare multiple continuous data-sets easily

 You can infer the interim data from the graph line

Disadvantages

 It is only used with continuous data.

Use of a false Base Line

Usually, in a graph, the vertical line starts from the Origin. However, in some cases, a false
Base Line is used for a better representation of the data. There are two scenarios where you
should use a false Base Line:

1. To magnify the minor fluctuation in the time series data

2. To economize the space

Net Balance Graph
If you have to show the net balance of income and expenditure or revenue and costs or
imports and exports, etc., then you must use a net balance graph. You can use different
colors or shades for positive and negative differences.

Frequency Distribution Graphs

Let’s look at the different types of frequency distribution graphs.

Histogram
A histogram is a graph of a grouped frequency distribution. In a histogram, we plot the
class intervals on the X-axis and their respective frequencies on the Y-axis. Further, we
create a rectangle on each class interval with its height proportional to the frequency
density of the class.

Frequency Polygon or Histograph

A frequency polygon or a Histograph is another way of representing a frequency
distribution on a graph. You draw a frequency polygon by joining the midpoints of the
upper widths of the adjacent rectangles of the histogram with straight lines.
Frequency Curve
When you join the verticals of a polygon using a smooth curve, then the resulting figure is
a Frequency Curve. As the number of observations increase, we need to accommodate
more classes. Therefore, the width of each class reduces. In such a scenario, the variable
tends to become continuous and the frequency polygon starts taking the shape of a
frequency curve.

Cumulative Frequency Curve or Ogive

A cumulative frequency curve or Ogive is the graphical representation of a cumulative
frequency distribution. Since a cumulative frequency is either of a ‘less than’ or a ‘more
than’ type, Ogives are of two types too – ‘less than ogive’ and ‘more than ogive’.

Example

The following table shows the daily sales of 230 footpath sellers of Chandni Chowk.

Sales in Rs. No. of sellers

0 – 500 12

500 – 1000 18

1000 – 1500 35

1500 – 2000 42

2000 – 2500 50

2500 – 3000 45
 3000 – 3500 20

3500 – 4000 8

Locate the median of the above data using only the less than type ogive.
Solution: To draw ogive, we need to have a cumulative frequency distribution.

Less than type

Sales in Rs. No. of sellers cumulative

frequency

0 – 500 12 12

500 – 1000 18 30

1000 – 1500 35 65

1500 – 2000 42 107

2000 – 2500 50 157

 2500 – 3000 45 202

3000 – 3500 20 222

3500 – 4000 8 230

Scatter Diagram

A scatter diagram or a dot chart enables us to find the nature of the relationship between the
variables. If the plotted points are scattered a lot, then the relationship between the two
variables is lesser.

Solved Question

Q1. What are the general rules for the graphic presentation of data and information?

Answer: The general rules for the graphic presentation of data are:

 Use a suitable title

 Clearly specify the unit of measurement

 Ensure that you choose a suitable scale

 Provide an index specifying the colors, lines, and designs used in the graph

 If possible, provide the sources of information at the bottom of the graph

 Keep the graph simple and neat.