ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

CHAPTER 1: PRINCIPLES AND CONCEPTS a. When there are equal distributions of national
OF DEVELOPMENT income among all the sections of the society. It
raises economic welfare.
Economic Development – programs, policies, or b. When the purchasing power of money goes up,
activities that seek to improve the economic well-being even then there is an increase in the level of
and quality of life of a community. economic welfare. The purchasing power of
- Process of targeted activities and programs that work money can go up when with the increase in
to improve the economic well-being and quality of national income there is also an increase in the
life of a community by building local wealth, prices of goods. That means economic welfare
diversifying the economy, creating and retaining can increase if price stability is ensured.
jobs, and building the local tax base. - Thus, economic welfare can boost with equal
distribution of income and price stability. The higher
Though economic development priorities vary, economic the level of economic welfare, the higher will be the
development strategies often aim for common, positive extent of economic development and vice-versa.
results, such as:
● Creating more jobs and more job variety 4. Comparative Concept
● Keeping businesses and getting new ones - In a simple way, from a comparative concept, we can
● A better quality of life ascertain how much economic development has been
● More people and businesses paying taxes attained in a country.
● More productive use of property The Comparison can be made by 2 methods over a time
● Promoting your community’s assets period:
● Making and selling more local products a. Comparison within the country.
● Getting more skilled workers living in your b. Comparison with other country.
community
5. Measurement through Occupational Pattern
Measures of Economic Development: - Some economists regard the changes in the
- Economic Development is a process of change over occupational structure as a source for measuring the
a long period of time. nature of economic development.
- R.G. Lipsey maintains that there are many possible 3 Sectors of Occupational Structure:
measures of a country’s degree of development. 1. Primary Sector – includes agriculture, fisheries,
forestry, mining, etc.
1. National Income as an Index of Development 2. Secondary Sector – consists of manufacturing,
- Simon Kuznets, Meier and Baldwin, Hicks D. trade, construction, etc.
Samuelson, Pigon and Kuznets are economists 3. Tertiary Sector – includes services, banking,
which maintains the growth of national income transport, etc.
should be considered most suitable index of In under-developed countries, the majority of the
economic development. For this purpose, Net working population is engaged in the primary sector. On
National Product (NNP) is preferred to Gross the contrary, in developed countries, the majority of the
National Product (GNP) as it gives a better idea working population works in the tertiary sector.
about the progress of a nation.
- Therefore, in measurable economic development, 6. Standard of Living Criterion
the most appropriate measure will be to include final - Another method to measure economic development
goods and services produced but we must allow for is the standard of living.
the wastage of machinery and other capital goods - The standard of living and not a rise in per capita
during the process of production. income or national income should be considered an
indicator of economic development.
2. Per Capita Real Income - The very objective of development is to provide a
- Some economists believe that, economic growth is better life to its people though improvement or
meaningless if it does not improve the standard of upliftment of the standard of living.
living of the common masses.
- Economic Development is to increase aggregate Human Development Indices:
output. - Economists have tried to measure social indicators
- Economic Development is defined as a process by of basic needs by taking one, two or more indicators
which the real per capita income increases over a for constructing composite indices of human
long period of time. development.

3. Economic Welfare as an Index of Economic 1. Physical Quality of Life Index (PQLI)

Development - Was the most serious challenge to GNP per capita as
The Term Economic Welfare can be understood in the index of development.
two ways: - Invented by M.D. Morris in 1979.

1
 ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
- Combined 3 component indicators of infant What is Gross Domestic Product (GDP)?
mortality, life expectancy at age one and basic - It is the total monetary or market value of all the
literacy at age 15. finished goods and services produced within a
- Represents a wide range of indicators such as health, country’s borders in a specific time period.
education, drinking water, nutrition and sanitation. - estimate of the total value of all goods and services
- Tries to measure “quality of life” directly. produced within a nation for a set period, usually a
year.
Construction of PQLI:
Infant Mortality GDP vs GNP
Rate- IMRI = Max. IMR – Actual IMR - They are the two of the most commonly used
Range measures of a country’s economy. Both represent the
total market value of all goods and services
Life produced over a certain period
expectancy- LEI = Actual LE – Minimum LE - GDP is the value of the finished domestic goods and
Range services produced within a nation’s borders.
- GNP on the other hand, is the value of all finished
BLI = Actual LI – Minimum LI goods and services owned by a country’s citizens,
Range whether or not those goods are produced in that
country.
2. Human Development Index (HDI)
- Is a Composite index of 3 social indicators: life “Basic-Needs” Attainment
expectancy, adult literacy, and years of schooling. - These economists think that programs to raise
- Considers real GDP per capita. productivity in developing countries are not
adequate unless they focus directly on meeting the
Which is the Best Measure of Economic Development? basic needs of the poorest 40-50 percent of the
- The answer depends on the objective of measuring population – the basic-needs approach.
economic development.
- After considering different point of view, it may be Measures:
concluded that GNP or per capita is the best method Preliminary set of Indicators:
of measuring economic development. a. Food
b. Education
The Classification of Rich and Poor Countries c. Health
- The World Bank groups economies into one of four d. Sanitation
categories: low income, lower-middle income, e. Water Supply
upper-middle income, high income. f. Housing
- Gross National Income (GNI) per capita is the main
indicator of how well off a country is and where it Growth and “Basic Needs”
sits in the four categories. The 2020 GNI per capita - The High basic-needs attainment is positively related
thresholds are: to the rate of growth of per capita GNP, as increased
Low Income: less than $1,036 life expectancy and literacy, together with reduced
Lower-middle Income: between $1,036 and $4,045 infant mortality, are associated with greater worker
Upper-middle Income: between $4,046 and $12,535 health and productivity.
High Income: greater than $12,535
Cost and Benefits of Economic Development
What is Gross National Income (GNI)? - Economic Development and growth have their costs
- It is the total amount of money earned by a nation’s and benefits. Economic growth widens the range of
people and businesses. human choice, but this may not necessarily increase
- Used to measure and track a nation’s wealth from happiness.
year to year. Benefits – What distinguishes people from animals is
- The number includes the nation’s Gross Domestic people’s greater control over their environment and
Product (GDP) plus the income it receives from greater freedom of choice, not that they are happier.
overseas sources. Costs – Growth has its price. One cost may be the
- GNI is an alternative to GDP as a means of acquisitiveness, materialism, and dissatisfaction with
measuring and tracking a nation’s wealth (more one’s present state associated with a society’s economic
accurate indicator for some nation). struggles.

What is Gross National Product (GNP)?

- It is an estimate of the total value of all the final
products and services turned out in a given period by
the means of production owned by a country’s
residents.

2
 ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
combat desertification, and halt and reverse land
CHAPTER 2: HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE OF degradation and halt biodiversity loss
ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT Goal 16. Promote peaceful and inclusive societies for
sustainable development, provide access to justice for all
Perspective in economics is taken to mean the and build effective, accountable and inclusive
application of the principles of maximizing behavior and institutions at all levels
demand and supply to institutions and behavior in the Goal 17. Strengthen the means of implementation and
political world. revitalize the global partnership for sustainable
development
What is Gross National Product (GNP)?
- It is an estimate of the total value of all the final CIRCULAR ECONOMY
products and services turned out in a given period by - is a model of production and consumption, which
the means of production owned by a country’s involves sharing, leasing, reusing, repairing,
residents. refurbishing and recycling existing materials and
products as long as possible.
ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT - is a recently defined phenomenon for greening
- is the process by which the economic well-being and industries.
quality of life of a nation, region, local community,
or an individual are improved according to targeted GLOBALIZATION
goals and objectives. - is a term used to describe how trade and technology
- originated in the post-war period of reconstruction have made the world into a more connected and
initiated by the United States. interdependent place.

KEYNESIAN ECONOMICS
- is a macroeconomic theory of total spending in the
economy and its effects on output, employment, and
inflation.
- It was developed by British economist John
Maynard Keynes during the 1930s

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT GOALS.

Goal 1. End poverty in all its forms everywhere
Goal 2. End hunger, achieve food security and improved
nutrition and promote sustainable agriculture
Goal 3. Ensure healthy lives and promote well-being for
all at all ages
Goal 4. Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education
and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all
Goal 5. Achieve gender equality and empower all
women and girls
Goal 6. Ensure availability and sustainable management
of water and sanitation for all
Goal 7. Ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable
and modern energy for all
Goal 8. Promote sustained, inclusive and sustainable
economic growth, full and productive employment and
decent work for all
Goal 9. Build resilient infrastructure, promote inclusive
and sustainable industrialization and foster innovation
Goal 10. Reduce inequality within and among countries
Goal 11. Make cities and human settlements inclusive,
safe, resilient and sustainable
Goal 12. Ensure sustainable consumption and production
patterns
Goal 13. Take urgent action to combat climate change
and its impacts*
Goal 14. Conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas
and marine resources for sustainable development
Goal 15. Protect, restore and promote sustainable use of
terrestrial ecosystems, sustainably manage forests,

3
 ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
Peasant Agricultural Societies
- Peasant families consume a substantial part of what
they produce, and, while some of their output may
be sold in the market, their total production is
generally not much larger than what is needed for
the maintenance of the family.
CHAPTER 3: CHARACTERISTICS AND Inadequate Technology and Capital
INSTITUTIONS OF DEVELOPING - Lack of equipment, machinery, and other such
COUNTRIES capital and low levels of technology, at least
throughout most of the economy, hinder production.
DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
- are those with low levels of industrialization in Low Saving Rates
comparison to their populations and, typically, a - low adjusted net savings means that capital stock in
medium to low standard of living. low-income countries remains low.
- is one with comparatively low economic output
- Also called “LDCs” or Less Developed Countries A Dual Economy
- A dual economy is the existence of two separate
DEVELOPED COUNTRY economic sectors within one country, divided by
- also called an industrialized country. different levels of development, technology, and
- has a mature and sophisticated economy, usually different patterns of demand.
measured by gross domestic product (GDP) and/or
average income per resident. Rapid Population Growth
- Developed countries have advanced technological - A rapidly growing population has negative economic
infrastructure and have diverse industrial and service effects. It promotes income inequality, slows the
sectors. Their citizens typically enjoy access to growth of the national economy by keeping levels of
quality health care and higher education. savings and capital investments low, puts pressure
on agricultural production and land, and worsens
MEASUREMENTS USED TO CLASSIFY unemployment.
DEVELOPED AND DEVELOPED COUNTRIES:
- GDP (GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT)
- GNI (GROSS NATIONAL INCOME)
Low Literacy and School Enrollment Rates
- Individuals with low levels of literacy are more
- HDI (HUMAN DEVELOPMENT INDEX)
likely to experience poorer employment
opportunities and outcomes and lower income. As a
HDI
result, they often face welfare dependency, low
- HDI quantifies life expectancy, educational
self-esteem, and higher levels of crime.
attainment, and income into a standardized number
between zero and one; the closer to one, the more
developed the country. An Unskilled Labor Force
- unskilled labor force affects the output of the
Concepts of Development for Developing Countries product or service which negatively affects the
Varying Income Inequality economy.
- Income inequality is how unevenly income is
distributed throughout a population. The less equal Institutions of Developing Countries
the distribution, the higher income inequality is. Insufficient State Tax Collections and Provision
of Basis Service
Political Framework - One important institutional capability is the capacity
- Political Framework involved in, or relating to to raise revenue and provide basic services.
government policy-making as distinguished from
administration or law. Lack of Transparency
- Transparency, political accountability, and
Experience of Western Domination knowledge transmission are key ingredients in
- most LDCs have not had the political independence effective development strategy. For a modern
essential for economic modernization. economy to run smoothly and to promote social
well-being, transparency and accountability are
Characteristics of Developing Countries essential
An Extended Family
- An extended family is a family that extends beyond Poor Governance: Democratic and
the nuclear family, including grandparents, aunts, Authoritarian Regimes
uncles, and other relatives, who all live nearby or in - Low regulatory standards, ineffective governments,
one household. and unchecked corruption have all been linked to
poor economic growth.
4
 ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
Rent Seeking
- According to the economics notion of
"rent-seeking," a person or an organization strives to
grow their own riches without contributing to the
welfare of society in any way
- aim to achieve economic rewards and benefits by
influencing the distribution of limited resources.

Inadequate Property and Use Rights for

Traditional Systems
- Many resources that are directly, or indirectly, used
in an exchange have no specific or identifiable
owner, and are collectively available for everyone to
use.
For example, goods transported by ship use the world’s
oceans, but there is no charge because on one owns the
sea. Such resources are called common property
resources, and they are free to use because it is too
expensive, or physically impossible, to establish legal
boundaries.

Insecure Property Rights

- Secure property rights enable landowners to go away
from their property for job purposes and to let their
property generate income.

5
 ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
CHAPTER 4: THEORIES OF ECONOMIC 2. the preconditions for takeoff
DEVELOPMENT - civilization starts to industrialize and adopt a more
national/international perspective than a regional
a theory is a systematic explanation of interrelationships one.
among economic variables, and its purpose is to explain 3. the takeoff
causal relationships among these variables. - is characterized by a brief period of intense
expansion during which industrialization starts to
THE CLASSICAL THEORY OF ECONOMIC take place and institutions and people gather around
STAGNATION a new industry.
MODEL Rostow indicates that three conditions must be satisfied
The classical theory, based on the work of the for takeoff.
19th-century English economist David Ricardo, - Net investment as a percentage of net national
Principles of Political Economy and Taxation (the product (NNP) increases sharply – from 5 percent or
possibility of sustained economic growth.) less to over 10 percent
- At least one substantial manufacturing sector grows
rapidly.
The classical model also took into account:
- A political, social, and institutional framework
(1) the use of paper money,
quickly emerges to exploit expansion in the modern
(2) the development of institutions to supply it in
sectors.
appropriate quantities,
(3) capital accumulation based on output in 4. the drive to maturity
excess of wages, and
(4) division of labor (limited primarily by the - This stage develops gradually over time as living
size of the market). standards rise, technology use rises, and the
country's economy expands and diversifies
law of diminishing returns 5. the age of high mass consumption.
- referring to successively lower extra outputs from - Rostow thought that this final "developed" stage
adding an equal extra input to fixed land. - In a capitalist system, defined by mass production
- diminishing returns from population growth and a and consumerism, a nation's economy thrives in this
constant amount of land threatened economic growth situation.

VICIOUS CIRCLE THEORY

Iron Law of Wages
The vicious circle theory indicates that poverty
- Total wages increase in proportion to the labor force.
perpetuates itself in mutually reinforcing vicious circles
- all attempts to improve the real income of workers
on both the supply and demand sides.
were futile and that wages perforce would remain
near the subsistence level.
SUPPLY SIDE
- Because incomes are low, consumption cannot be
MARX’S HISTORICAL MATERIALISM
diverted to saving for capital formation. Lack of
- based on the premise that social structures rise and
capital results in low productivity per person, which
fall as they promote and then obstruct the growth of
perpetuates low levels of income.
human productive power.

History moves from one stage to another, say, from DEMAND SIDE
feudalism to capitalism to socialism, on the basis of - Lack of investment means low productivity and
changes in ruling and oppressed classes and their continued low income. A country is poor because it
relationship with each other. was previously too poor to provide the market to
Feudalism is undercut by: spur investment.
1. the migration of serfs to the town; BALANCED VERSUS UNBALANCED
2. factory competition with handicraft and GROWTH
manorial production; The meaning of balance can vary from the absurd
3. expanded transport, trade, discovery, and new requirement that all sectors grow at the same rate to the
international markets on behalf of the new more sensible plea that some attention be given to all
business class; and major sectors –industry, agriculture, and services.
4. the accompanying rise of nation-states.
ROSTOW’S STAGES OF ECONOMIC BALANCED GROWTH
GROWTH - The synchronized application of capital to a wide
1. the traditional society range of different industries is called balanced
- A population without a scientific outlook on the growth by its advocates.
world and technology, a subsistence, agriculturally
based economy, arduous work, and low levels of
trading characterize this stage.

6
 ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
BIG PUSH THESIS - (3) Public expenditure priorities. LDCs should
- arguing that a strategy of gradualism is doomed to reduce government spending and redirect
failure. A substantial effort is essential to overcome expenditures from politically sensitive areas such as
the inertia inherent in a stagnant economy. administration, defense, indiscriminate subsidies,
and “white elephants” to infrastructure, primary
Indivisibility in infrastructure. health, and education.
- a major indivisibility is in infrastructure, such as - (4) Tax reform. This includes broadening of the tax
power, transport, and communications. This basic base, improved tax administration, sharpening of tax
social capital reduces costs to other industries. incentives, reduced marginal tax rates, diminished
tax evasion and loopholes, and taxing interest on
Indivisibility in demand assets held abroad.
- This indivisibility arises from the interdependence of - (5) Financial liberalization. The immediate
investment decisions: that is, a prospective investor objectives are to abolish preferential interest rates
is uncertain whether the output from his or her for privileged borrowers and charge nominal interest
investment project will find a market. rates in excess of inflation rates, whereas the
ultimate objective is market-determined interest
HIRSCHMAN’S STRATEGY OF rates to improve capital’s allocative efficiency.
- (6) Exchange rates. Countries need a unified,
UNBALANCE
competitive rate to spur a rapid expansion in exports.
- Albert O. Hirschman (1958) develops the idea of
- (7) Trade liberalization. LDCs should replace
unbalanced investment to complement existing
quantitative restrictions with tariffs, and
imbalances. He contends that deliberately
progressively reduce tariffs until they achieve a
unbalancing the economy, in line with a predesigned
uniform low tariff rate (about 10–20 percent).
strategy, is the best path for economic growth.
- (8) Domestic savings. Fiscal discipline, cutbacks in
government spending, tax reform, and financial
Coordination Failure: The O-Ring Theory of liberalization divert resources from the state to
Economic Development highly productive private sectors, where savings
- Michael Kremer (1993) uses the 1986 space shuttle rates are higher. The neoclassical growth model,
Challenger as a metaphor for coordinating discussed later, emphasizes the importance of
production in “The O-Ring Theory of Economic savings and capital formation for rapid economic
Development.” development.
- Kremer proposes a production function in which - (9) Foreign direct investment. Neoclassicists favor
“production consists of many tasks, [either abolishing barriers to the entry of foreign firms;
simultaneous or sequential], all of which must be additionally, foreign firms should compete with
successfully completed for the product to have full domestic firms on equal terms.
value” - (10) Privatization. State enterprises should be
privatized.
THE LEWIS–FEI–RANIS MODEL - (11) Deregulation. Governments should abolish
- The purpose of the Lewis–Fei–Ranis model is to regulations that impede new-firm entry and restrict
explain how economic growth gets started in a competition unless safety or environmental
less-developed country with a traditional agricultural protection justifies regulations.
sector and an industrial capitalist sector. - (12) Property rights. The legal system should
provide secure property rights without excessive
THE NEOCLASSICAL costs to all land, capital, and buildings (Williamson
1993:1329–1936).
COUNTERREVOLUTION
- In many parts of the world, the neoclassical THE NEOCLASSICAL GROWTH THEORY
counterrevolution in development theory and
- The MIT economist Robert Solow won a Nobel
policy—also referred to as the neoliberal
Prize for his formulation of the neoclassical theory
revolution—reestablished its dominance over
of growth, which stressed the importance of savings
structuralist and other schools of thought in the
and capital formation for economic development,
1980s.
and for empirical measures of sources of growth.
The following are the components of the THE NEW (ENDOGENOUS) GROWTH
neoclassical Washington consensus: THEORY
- (1) Price decontrol. Neoclassicists favor immediate - The University of Chicago’s Robert Lucas finds that
lifting of controls on commodity, factor, and international wage differences and migration are
currency prices. difficult to reconcile with neoclassical theory.
- (2) Fiscal discipline. Budget deficits of governments
or central banks should be small enough to be
financed without using inflationary financing.

7
 ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
CHAPTER 5: POVERTY, MALNUTRITION, 3. K to 12 Basic Education – The K to 12 Program
AND INCOME INEQUALITY covers Kindergarten and 12 years of basic education
(six years of primary education, four years of Junior
poverty High School, and two years of Senior High School
- is the state of one who lacks a usual or socially [SHS]) to provide sufficient time for mastery of
acceptable amount of money or material concepts and skills, develop lifelong learners, and
possessions. prepare graduates for tertiary education,
- Poverty is an economic state where people are middle-level skills development, employment, and
experiencing scarcity or the lack of certain entrepreneurship.
commodities that are required for the lives of human 4. Responsible Parenthood:
beings like money and material things.
● I am against abortion.
● I am in favor of giving couples the right to
Multiple types of poverty: choose how best to manage their families so that
1. Absolute poverty – also known as extreme in the end, their welfare and that of their children
poverty or abject poverty, involves the scarcity are best served.
of basic food, clean water, health, shelter, ● The State must respect each individual’s right to
education, and information. follow his or her conscience and religious
2. Relative Poverty – it is defined from the convictions on matters and issues pertaining to
social perspective that is the living standard the unity of the family and the sacredness of
compared to the economic standards of the human life from conception to natural death.
population living in surroundings. Hence it is a 5. Sin Taxes – House Bill 5727, or the Sin Tax
measure of income inequality. Bill, aims to restructure the existing taxes
3. Situational Poverty – it is a temporary type imposed on alcohol and tobacco goods.
of poverty based on the occurrence of an adverse
event like an environmental disaster, job loss, The Department of Social Welfare and Development
and severe health problems. also offers other ways to alleviate poverty
4. Generational Poverty – it is handed over to 1. Sustainable Livelihood Program - The
individuals and families from one generation to program aims to enhance human assets through
the one. tech-voc and life skills training, enrich natural
5. Rural Poverty – it occurs in rural areas with assets that protect and contribute to community
populations below 50,000. It is the area where livelihoods, extend social assets through
there are fewer job opportunities, less access to membership in SLP associations and network
services, less support for disabilities, and quality linkages, expand financial assets through seed
education opportunities. capital and access to credit, and establish or
6. Urban Poverty – it occurs in metropolitan acquire physical assets for livelihood operations.
areas with a population over 50,000. These are 2. Kapit-bisig Laban sa
some major challenges faced by the Urban Poor: Kahirapan-Comprehensive and
● Limited access to health and education. Integrated Delivery of Social Services
● Inadequate housing and services. (Kalahi-CIDSS) - it is one of the poverty
● Violent and unhealthy environment because alleviation programs of the Philippine
of overcrowding. Government being implemented by the
● Little or no social protection mechanism. Department of Social Welfare and Development
(Kumar, 2018 (DSWD).
To alleviate this, the government has provided programs 3. Social Pension Program - Social Pension is
that could help lessen the rate and prevent its increase. an additional government assistance in the
amount of Five Hundred Pesos Only (P500.00)
1. Human Development and Poverty Reduction monthly stipend to augment the daily
subsistence and other medical needs of indigent
Cluster (HDPRC) – it is mandated to translate the
senior citizens, subject to a review every two
gains of good governance into means for improving
years by Congress in consultation with the
the Filipino people’s overall quality of life. Their
DSWD.
efforts focus on investing and building opportunities
in education, health, social protection, gender
equality, and poverty reduction. Causes of Poverty – The main causes of poverty in
2. Pantawid Pamilyang Pilipino Program the country are:
(CCT) – it is a human development measure of the ● low to moderate economic growth for the past 40
national government that provides conditional cash years;
grants to the poorest of the poor, to improve the ● low growth elasticity of poverty reduction;
health, nutrition, and education of children aged ● weakness in employment generation and the quality
0-18. of jobs generated;
● failure to fully develop the agriculture sector;

8
 ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
● high inflation during crisis periods;
● high levels of population growth;
● high and persistent levels of inequality (incomes and Undernutrition –There are 4 broad sub-forms of
assets), which dampen the positive impacts of undernutrition: wasting, stunting, underweight, and
economic expansion; and deficiencies in vitamins and minerals.
● recurrent shocks and exposure to risks such as
economic crisis, conflicts, natural disasters, and Low weight-for-height is known as wasting. It
“environmental poverty.” usually indicates recent and severe weight loss, because
a person has not had enough food to eat and/or they have
Effects had an infectious disease, such as diarrhea, which has
Poor health, lack of water or housing, child abuse or caused them to lose weight.
violence fuel a cycle of poverty in which so many end up
trapped for life.
Low height-for-age is known as stunting. It is the
result of chronic or recurrent undernutrition, usually
Poverty And Crime
associated with poor socioeconomic conditions, poor
- This has always led experts to study why and what
maternal health and nutrition, frequent illness, and/or
happens in those places where there is a
inappropriate infant and young child feeding and care in
concentration of crime.
early life.
Consequences on people
Children with low weight for age are known as
- To name just a few of these hereditary plagues: no
underweight. A child who is underweight may be
school or education, child labor to help the parents,
stunted, wasted, or both.
lack of basic hygiene, transmission of diseases.
Micronutrient-related malnutrition
Effects on society as a whole
- In the end, poverty is a major cause of social
tensions and threatens to divide a nation because of - Inadequacies in the intake of vitamins and minerals
the issue of inequalities, in particular income often referred to as micronutrients, can also be grouped
inequality. together.

Effects Of Poverty on Children Overweight and obesity – it is when a person is too

- Poor infrastructures, unemployment, lack of basic heavy for his or her height. Abnormal or excessive fat
services and income reflect on their lack of accumulation can impair health.
education, malnutrition, violence at home and
outside, child labor, diseases of all kinds, transmitted Diet-related noncommunicable diseases (NCDs)
by the family or through the environment. – it includes cardiovascular diseases (such as heart
attacks and stroke, and often linked with high blood
Impact Of Poverty On Health pressure), certain cancers, and diabetes.
- No matter if poverty affects someone's mental or
physical health, the end result is the same: on
average the poor live shorter lives than the rich.

Women And Poverty

- There has been an increasing share of women in
poverty in the global worldwide. This trend is also
known as the feminization of poverty.

Malnutrition
- it refers to deficiencies, excesses, or imbalances in a
person’s intake of energy and/or nutrients. The term
malnutrition addresses 3 broad groups of conditions:

- undernutrition, which includes wasting (low

weight-for-height), stunting (low height-for-age)
and underweight (low weight-for-age);
- micronutrient-related malnutrition, which
includes micronutrient deficiencies (a lack of
important vitamins and minerals) or micronutrient
excess; and
- overweight, obesity and diet-related
noncommunicable diseases (such as heart disease,
stroke, diabetes and some cancers).
9
ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

10