policy brief

J RARIEYA,OR
AUTHORS N SANGER and B MOOLMAN
OTHER APPRPRIATE TEXT

February
June 20142012

Gender inequalities in
education in South Africa
Executive summary gender inequalities prevalent in schools
and their impact on the education of
The Constitution of South Africa serves boys and girls.
as a compass for engendering gender
equality in the country. Several policies The brief begins with a general
have been enacted to facilitate gender discussion of the current gender
equality and equity in education. inequalities, as identified in the
These policies have led to gender interviews with stakeholders, as well as
parity in enrolment and increased a review of studies, drawing attention
participation of both boys and girls in to existing gaps in the provision of
school. However, while success has been quality education. Thereafter, it reviews
achieved in terms of access, the quality existing gender policies and outlines
of educational experience for both boys the challenges in implementing them.
and girls remains extremely poor for Finally, the brief makes recommendations
most learners (Moletsane et al. 2010). such as school-specific gender policies;
Schools continue to be the context for enhanced engagement between schools
gender inequalities experienced by both and communities; educator-teacher
boys and girls; these inequalities are development programmes; more
increasingly more subtle, which makes effective coordination of key government
them difficult to deal with. departments and role-players; and, lastly,
consistent monitoring of set targets.
This policy brief emanates from a
qualitative study that examined Context and history
gender equity and equality in basic
education, with the aim of informing Gender impacts differently on girls
the development of a national policy and boys. The gender socialisation of
on gender equity in basic education. girls and boys means that they have
The study involved interviews with different life experiences which play
a cross-section of stakeholders in out in the education system, both
education in three provinces: Gauteng, within the school classroom and later in
KwaZulu-Natal and the Western Cape. higher education institutions. Gender
It also undertook a review of literature, equality means that girls and women
as well as an analysis of policies related have equal learning opportunities with
to gender equality in education. In their male counterparts. However, an
particular, this brief is informed by equity approach to gender in education
an analysis of two broad areas: the suggests that girls may require more
marginalisation of girls in education and in order to reach equality. In other
the gendered culture of educational words, ‘priority assistance’ or identified
www.hsrc.ac.za institutions. It focuses on the nature of affirmative action may be necessary

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policy brief
in order to provide girls with more a drain on household budgets, girls’
opportunities and equal learning aspirations for a better life through
experiences. In terms of education, this education will remain unmet. Children
means taking consideration of the specific from households with few economic and
needs of girls so that their experiences social resources have a smaller chance to
in the schooling system are reflective of enrol in primary school than those from
these needs. These would include facilities more affluent households (Huisman
set up for girls’ sexual and reproductive & Smits 2009). Due to the gendered
health needs (pregnancy and gender and division of roles in the household
sexual violence) and safe and functional and in society at large, which has a
infrastructure and sanitation facilities for considerable bearing on educational
menstruation. access, girls are less likely to enrol in
school, and are more likely to drop out
Moletsane states that ‘the poor quality and more likely to end up illiterate.
of girls’ educational experiences and
the consequent negative impacts on Despite the legal and policy context, the
Gender inequities in everyday South their learning outcomes, including broader social context in which schools
African life filter into the classroom performance in national and are located has a direct impact on the
in multiple and interrelated ways …
international examinations, remain quality of learners’ schooling experiences
These factors impact on learners’ career
problematic’ (2010: iv). So, while gender (Moletsane et al. 2010; Unterhalter
aspirations and achievements, as well
equality and equity in education can et al. 2010). Gender inequities in
as on their sense of agency.
partially be measured by the number everyday South African life filter into the
of girls in school (in terms of access), classroom in multiple and interrelated
another significant measure is the ways: through teachers’ attitudes about
quality of girls’ learning experiences. gender; the curricula in general and
specifically; gender and sexual violence
Negative stereotypical discourses against girls; and learner vulnerability to
about girls’ ability to perform well at unplanned parenthood. These factors
school continue to impact on their impact on learners’ career aspirations
learning opportunities. This ranges and achievements, as well as their sense
from daily school practices that may of agency. A review of the 2012–2013
discourage girls from pursuing studies in Commission for Employment Equity
mathematics, science and other technical Annual Report shows that although
subjects, and the gendered norms the policy and legal context has made
regarding the domestic and physical provisions for girls to remain in school,
labour of keeping the classrooms clean. as well as to achieve in examinations,
As other analysts have suggested, this has not directly translated into
these gender stereotypes are a central more women occupying top positions
characteristic of exclusionary practices of leadership and decision-making in
that result in girls underachieving in, as the employment sector. The report
well as leaving, school (Chabaya et al. shows that despite gender parity at
2009; Mugaga & Akumu 2010). the professional and technical levels,
males continue to dominate managerial
In addition, the impact of poverty on positions. The continuing absence
girls’ schooling experiences cannot be of women from what are considered
overlooked. Warrington (forthcoming) ‘traditionally masculine’ fields such as
reports on a longitudinal study in geology, political science, quantitative
Kenya which clearly illustrates that courses, hard sciences (chemistry and
poverty limits girls’ ability to engage physics), and so forth in higher education
with their schooling. She argues that institutions (Leathwood & Read 2009)
when the direct costs of schooling, further raises questions about the
such as uniform costs, cost of books supposed gender parity at this level.
and examination fees, continue to be

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policy brief
Policies and effectiveness It is possible that the narrowing in
the gender gap in terms of access,
Which policies matter? participation and performance in
school, especially at the primary
The gender policy landscape in level (Moletsane 2010), can partly
education has seen a number of policies be attributed to the aforementioned
enacted that address gender issues policies. However, the fact that both
in education. The 1997 Gender Equity these important policy directions are
Task Team report (Wolpe et al. 1997), referred to as guidelines could perhaps
which lays the foundation for these account for the problems currently
policies, outlined in detail the gender encountered in implementing them.
inequalities that were prevalent in Simply referring to them as guidelines
the pre-1994 South African education denotes a lack of authority and does
sector and which still persist today. It not compel their enforcement. Their
strongly recommended the formulation implementation has therefore not been
of a national policy on gender and consistent, as discussed later in this brief.
education. The absence of such a
policy has resulted in what can best The overarching South African Schools
be described as a reactive response to Act (1996) and the Employment of
gender issues in education. An analysis Educators Act (1998) have also been
of existing gender-related policies key contributors to facilitating gender
revealed several significant insights. equality in schools. The former, which is
premised on the country’s Constitution,
Often, policies to deal with gender issues emphasises the right to education for all
in education have been formulated and therefore outlaws the perpetuation
based on what is perceived to be a of gender inequalities in schools.
prevalent gender issue at the time. For However, one of the major critiques of
example, learner pregnancy has been this Act is that it is applicable to ‘public
identified as a major reason for girls ordinary schools’ (p. 4). The Employment
dropping out of school (SAHRC 2012), of Educators Act (1998), on the other
and therefore the adoption of a ‘return to hand, seeks to address the issue of
school’ policy for girls who fall pregnant sexual abuse of learners by teachers by
while in school is an attempt to ensure making it unlawful to employ a teacher
the retention and equal participation who has been engaged in sexual abuse
of girls in schools. The Measures for the of a learner.
Prevention and Management of Learner
Pregnancy Guidelines (2007) seeks to The adoption of these policies has been
eradicate the expulsion of and unfair accompanied by structural or systemic
discrimination against girls who fall interventions such as the establishment
pregnant while in school. It also allows of the Gender Equity Unit and the
girls to return to school no later than 24 Gender Equity Directorate. The former
months after giving birth. is tasked with the responsibility of
overseeing gender issues in education
Another policy example is the from an advisory perspective, while the
Guidelines for the Prevention and latter is tasked with the responsibility
Management of Sexual Violence and of coordinating and monitoring gender
Harassment in Public Schools (2008), issues in education. There are also
which aims to deal with the pervading the Gender Focal Persons located at
gender violence in schools by enhancing the provincial level who assist the
both teacher and student knowledge of, Directorate with the coordination and
and capacity to deal with, gender-based monitoring of gender issues within the
violence in schools. respective provinces.

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policy brief
In addition to the preceding issues, the gender inequalities, but as separate
introduction of a life skills programme policies dealing with different issues.
in primary schools, which deals with
gender issues such as gender violence, Second, the present approach to dealing
… the present approach to dealing teenage pregnancy and discrimination, with gender inequalities in education
with gender inequalities in education among other concerns, is considered a does not acknowledge other identity
does not acknowledge other identity
key contributor to minimising gender markers that often intersect with
markers that often intersect with
inequalities in schools. The programme gender. Consequently, boys and girls
gender.
aims to promote personal development, are dealt with as homogeneous groups,
self-esteem and self-confidence among yet factors such as culture, race, social
learners (Macleod & Tracey 2009). class, disability, sexual orientation and
However, questions have been raised geographical location often determine
about the effectiveness of an exclusive their experiences of gender. These
and isolationist approach to teaching markers further interact to produce
life skills. It has been argued that inequalities between girls themselves.
an integrated approach that entails For example, the way a black middle-
the inclusion of life skills across the class female teenager in Johannesburg
programme would be more effective experiences gender issues is likely to be
(Mncube & Harber 2013; Moletsane different from that of a poor black girl in
et al. 2010). Further, the effective a deep rural area of Limpopo. Likewise,
implementation of this programme has a white middle-class girl’s experience
been hampered by the conservative of gender is likely to be different from
attitudes of a number of educators that of a middle-class Indian, coloured
who are uncomfortable dealing with or black girl. Culture and race affect how
what they regard as a sexually explicit girls view themselves and how they are
curriculum (Bhana et al. 2005). viewed by their teachers.

Difficulties in implementation of policy Third, in pushing forward policies for

provisions implementation, it is often forgotten
that implementers have attitudes about
From the aforementioned policies and the agenda being propagated by the
programmes, it is evident that there policy. Likewise, part of the difficulty in
have been some steps taken to address implementing these policies has been
gender inequalities in education. brought about by the conservative and
However, the persistence of these moralistic attitudes held by educators
inequalities indicates some difficulties in who are uncomfortable discussing
implementing the policies. Using what issues of sex and sexuality with the
we have gleaned from the interviews youth.
conducted during the study, we discuss
what we view as the primary challenges Fourth, the prevalent bureaucratic
to the effective implementation of these systems in place within the Department
policies and programmes. of Education, as well as the financial
constraints faced by the department,
First, as indicated earlier, the current have constrained the effective
policies/guidelines that address implementation of policies and
individual gender issues represent a programmes intended to address
fragmented approach, as the policies are gender inequalities. Any change towards
viewed as exclusive and delinked from improvement, especially at school
each other. Most educators view them level, is often resource-intensive, and
not as policies that can be implemented the elimination of gender inequalities
jointly with the ultimate aim of reducing through the provision of quality
education is no exception.

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Finally, while a Gender Equity or who gets to study a particular
Directorate and Unit exist, such units subject.
generally lack the authority and clout 2. Establish more meaningful
to enforce gender equality, as their and enhanced engagement
mandate is largely advisory. This between schools and local
‘powerlessness’ is further exacerbated by communities in order to jointly
an incapacitated Gender Equity Unit that and collaboratively address
is staffed mainly by people who have gender issues. Schools are part
no sound knowledge of gender issues and parcel of the communities
and see the implementation of gender in which they are located, and
systems as an added responsibility. most gender issues manifested in
schools, such as gender violence,
Recommendations gender stereotyping and bias, are a
manifestation of social attitudes and
Research undertaken in schools has practices within the wider society.
included studies aimed at finding 3. Identify teacher development
out what keeps girls in schools in programmes that are reflective
challenging contexts despite the odds in nature and deal with gender
they face; studies of teacher knowledge issues in education. Research in
of gender issues in education; and, more South Africa and in other countries
recently, an investigation into gender has pointed out the lack of capacity
equity and equality in basic education that teachers have in dealing with
for the development of a national gender issues in classrooms and
policy on gender equity in education. in the wider school environment
Our findings show that educators are (Farah et al. 2009; Moletsane 2010).
positioned to play a key role in ensuring This is further compounded by the
gender equality in schooling processes, teachers’ often limited pedagogical
but they fail to do so due to their repertoire that is often gendered
own unconscious biases, as well as a and that inhibits them from
lack of capacity in how to address the teaching learners diverse ways of
inequalities encountered by learners in learning.
schools. Premised on our research work, 4. Identify leadership development
the following recommendations are programmes that cultivate
proposed: school leaders’ capacity to
1. Develop explicit school-specific adopt a gender lens to school
gender policy and goals which management. Such an approach
would enable the trickling down is likely to lead to more inclusive
of department/national gender schools for both learners and
policies. School systems and staff, and to a more system-wide
structures often pass on potent understanding of the notion and
gender messages through what is concept of gender. Currently, there
described as the ‘hidden curriculum’ are differing interpretations which
– those things that learners learn in turn affect approaches to dealing
without overtly being taught about with gender issues.
them – in other words, the lessons 5. Improve coordination between
learnt from the way things are done government departments dealing
in school. Based on how structures with girls’ and women’s well-being
are set up and what teachers say/ and development – for example,
do or do not say/do, students get to the departments of education,
‘learn’, for example, whether their health, social development and
voices matter, who gets to lead women’s affairs. This would address
in school or be a leader in future, the current approach that takes

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the form of sporadic interventions 30 developing countries. World
to deal with gender issues and Development 37(1): 179–193
help facilitate a more strategic Leathwood C & Read B (2009) Gender
understanding of how gendered and the changing face of higher
relations in education can be education: A feminized future?
achieved. Berkshire, England: Open University
6. Monitor set targets at all levels Press
of education consistently and Macleod C & Tracey T (2009) Review
with concerted effort. Targets of South African research and
should not be limited only to interventions in the development
access, enrolment and retention, of a policy strategy on teen-
but should extend to areas related aged pregnancy. World Health
to the quality of learning, such as Organization/Department of Health
resources, teachers and teaching, Mncube V & Harber C (2013) The
and leadership structure, among dynamics of violence in South African
others. schools: Report. Pretoria: UNISA
Moletsane R (2010) Gender review in
With these recommendations in South African basic education.
mind, we conclude by stating that the Pretoria: Department of Basic
enactment of an all-encompassing Education
national gender policy in education, the Moletsane R, Mitchell C & Lewin T (2010)
development of a revised teacher and A critical analysis of gender violence
leadership development programme, and inequality in and around schools
and more authority and corresponding in South Africa in the age of AIDS:
penalties in dealing with gender issues Progress or retreat? Presented at
would go a long way in mitigating the Engendering Empowerment:
the current pervasive inequalities that Education and Equality Conference,
otherwise seem irreversible. UNGEI Conference, Dakar, Senegal,
17–20 May 2010
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STUDY AUTHORS
Jane Rarieya, PhD; Senior Research Specialist
and African Research Fellow in the Human and
Social Development Programme at the Human
Sciences Research Council. Dr Rarieya recently
joined the Aga Khan University as Associate
Professor and Assistant Director, Teaching and
Learning Network.
Nadia Sanger, PhD; Research Specialist and
Post-doctoral Fellow in the Human and Social
Development Programme at the Human
Sciences Research Council. Dr Sanger recently
joined the Department of Women’s and
Gender Studies, University of the Western Cape,
as an affiliate.
Benita Moolman, PhD; Research Specialist
and Post-doctoral Fellow in the Human and
Social Development Programme at the Human
Sciences Research Council

Enquiries to: Dr Benita Moolman

email: [email protected]

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