SECTION 7.

0
SNOW LOADS

SECTION 7.1 the CS areas shall be approved by the authority having

SYMBOLS AND NOTATIONS jurisdiction. Ground snow load determination for such sites
shall be based on an extreme-value statistical-analysis of
data available in the vicinity of the site using a value with
β = gable roof drift parameter as determined
a 2% annual probability of being exceeded (50-year mean
from Eq. 7-3
recurrence interval).
Ce = exposure factor as determined from Table 7-2
Snow loads are zero for Hawaii, except in moun-
Cs = slope factor as determined from Figure 7-2
tainous regions as determined by the authority having
Ct = thermal factor as determined from Table 7-3
jurisdiction.
hb = height of balanced snow load determined by
dividing pf or ps by γ , in ft (m)
hc = clear height from top of balanced snow load to SECTION 7.3
(1) closest point on adjacent upper roof, (2) top of FLAT ROOF SNOW LOADS pf
parapet, or (3) top of a projection on the roof,
in ft (m) The snow load, pf , on a roof with a slope equal to or
hd = height of snow drift, in ft (m) less than 5◦ (1 in./ft = 4.76◦ ) shall be calculated in lbs/ft2
he = elevation difference between the ridge line and the (kn/m2 ) using the following formula:
eaves
ho = height of obstruction above the surface of the roof, pf = 0.7Ce Ct Ipg (Eq. 7-1)
in ft (m)
I = importance factor as determined from Table 7-4 but not less than the following minimum values for low-
lu = length of the roof upwind of the drift, in ft (m) slope roofs as defined in Section 7.3.4:
L = roof length parallel to the ridge line, in ft (m)
pd = maximum intensity of drift surcharge load, in where pg is 20 lb/ft2 (0.96 kN/m2 ) or less,
pounds per square ft (kn/m2 ) pf = (I )pg (Importance factor times pg )
pf = snow load on flat roofs (“flat” = roof slope ≤ 5◦ ), where pg exceeds 20 lb/ft2 (0.96 kN/m2 ),
in lbs/ft2 (kn/m2 )
pg = ground snow load as determined from Figure 7-1 pf = 20(I ) (Importance factor times 20 lb/ft2 )
and Table 7-1; or a site-specific analysis, in lbs/ft2
(kn/m2 ) 7.3.1 Exposure Factor, Ce . The value for Ce shall be
ps = sloped roof snow load, in pounds per square determined from Table 7-2.
ft (kn/m2 ) 7.3.2 Thermal Factor, Ct . The value for Ct shall be
s = separation distance between buildings, in ft (m) determined from Table 7-3.
θ = roof slope on the leeward side, in degrees
w = width of snow drift, in ft (m) 7.3.3 Importance Factor, I. The value for I shall be
W = horizontal distance from eave to ridge, in ft (m) determined from Table 7-4.
γ = snow density, in pounds per cubic ft
(kn/m3 ) as determined from Eq. 7-4 7.3.4 Minimum Values of pf for Low-Slope Roofs.
Minimum values of pf shall apply to monoslope roofs
with slopes less than 15 degrees, hip, and gable roofs with
SECTION 7.2 slopes less than or equal to (70/W ) + 0.5 with W in ft (in
GROUND SNOW LOADS, pg SI: 21.3/W + 0.5, with W in m), and curved roofs where
the vertical angle from the eaves to the crown is less than
Ground snow loads, pg , to be used in the determination 10 degrees.
of design snow loads for roofs shall be as set forth in
Figure 7-1 for the contiguous United States and Table 7-1 SECTION 7.4
for Alaska. Site-specific case studies shall be made to SLOPED ROOF SNOW LOADS, ps
determine ground snow loads in areas designated CS in
Figure 7-1. Ground snow loads for sites at elevations above Snow loads acting on a sloping surface shall be assumed to
the limits indicated in Figure 7-1 and for all sites within act on the horizontal projection of that surface. The sloped

Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures 77

roof snow load, ps , shall be obtained by multiplying the Figure 7-3 with Cs determined from the appropriate curve
flat roof snow load, pf , by the roof slope factor, Cs : in Figure 7-2.

ps = Cs pf (Eq. 7-2) 7.4.4 Roof Slope Factor for Multiple Folded Plate,
Sawtooth, and Barrel Vault Roofs. Multiple folded plate,
Values of Cs for warm roofs, cold roofs, curved roofs, sawtooth, or barrel vault roofs shall have a Cs = 1.0, with
and multiple roofs are determined from Sections 7.4.1 no reduction in snow load because of slope (i.e., ps = pf ).
through 7.4.4. The thermal factor, Ct , from Table 7-3
determines if a roof is “cold” or “warm.” “Slippery sur- 7.4.5 Ice Dams and Icicles Along Eaves. Two types
face” values shall be used only where the roof’s sur- of warm roofs that drain water over their eaves shall
face is unobstructed and sufficient space is available be capable of sustaining a uniformly distributed load of
below the eaves to accept all the sliding snow. A roof 2pf on all overhanging portions there: those that are
shall be considered unobstructed if no objects exist on unventilated and have an R-value less than 30 ft2 ·hr·◦ F/Btu
it that prevent snow on it from sliding. Slippery sur- (5.3 k·m2 /W) and those that are ventilated and have an
faces shall include metal, slate, glass, and bituminous, R-value less than 20 ft2 ·hr·◦ F/Btu (3.5 k·m2 /W). No other
rubber, and plastic membranes with a smooth surface. loads except dead loads shall be present on the roof when
Membranes with an imbedded aggregate or mineral granule this uniformly distributed load is applied.
surface shall not be considered smooth. Asphalt shin-
gles, wood shingles, and shakes shall not be consid-
SECTION 7.5
ered slippery.
PARTIAL LOADING
The effect of having selected spans loaded with the
7.4.1 Warm Roof Slope Factor, Cs . For warm roofs balanced snow load and remaining spans loaded with half
(Ct ≤ 1.0 as determined from Table 7-3) with an the balanced snow load shall be investigated as follows:
unobstructed slippery surface that will allow snow to slide
off the eaves, the roof slope factor Cs shall be determined 7.5.1 Continuous Beam Systems. Continuous beam sys-
using the dashed line in Figure 7-2a, provided that for tems shall be investigated for the effects of the three load-
nonventilated warm roofs, their thermal resistance (R- ings shown in Figure 7-4:
value) equals or exceeds 30 ft2 ·hr·◦ F/Btu (5.3 K·m2 /W)
and for warm ventilated roofs, their R-value equals or Case 1: Full balanced snow load on either exterior span
exceeds 20 ft2 ·hr·◦ F/Btu (3.5 K·m2 /W). Exterior air shall and half the balanced snow load on all other spans.
be able to circulate freely under a ventilated roof from Case 2: Half the balanced snow load on either exterior
its eaves to its ridge. For warm roofs that do not meet span and full balanced snow load on all other spans.
the aforementioned conditions, the solid line in Figure 7-2a Case 3: All possible combinations of full balanced snow
shall be used to determine the roof slope factor Cs . load on any two adjacent spans and half the balanced
snow load on all other spans. For this case there will
7.4.2 Cold Roof Slope Factor, Cs . Cold roofs are those be (n − 1) possible combinations where n equals the
with a Ct > 1.0 as determined from Table 7-3. For cold number of spans in the continuous beam system.
roofs with Ct = 1.1 and an unobstructed slippery surface
If a cantilever is present in any of the above cases, it shall
that will allow snow to slide off the eaves, the roof slope
be considered to be a span.
factor Cs shall be determined using the dashed line in Partial load provisions need not be applied to structural
Figure 7-2b. For all other cold roofs with Ct = 1.1, the members that span perpendicular to the ridge line in gable
solid line in Figure 7-2b shall be used to determine the roofs with slopes greater than 70/W + 0.5 with W in ft (in
roof slope factor Cs . For cold roofs with Ct = 1.2 and SI: 21.3/W + 0.5, with W in m).
an unobstructed slippery surface that will allow snow
to slide off the eaves, the roof slope factor Cs shall 7.5.2 Other Structural Systems. Areas sustaining only
be determined using the dashed line on Figure 7-2c. For half the balanced snow load shall be chosen so as to produce
all other cold roofs with Ct = 1.2, the solid line in the greatest effects on members being analyzed.
Figure 7-2c shall be used to determine the roof slope
factor Cs .
SECTION 7.6
UNBALANCED ROOF SNOW LOADS
7.4.3 Roof Slope Factor for Curved Roofs. Portions of
curved roofs having a slope exceeding 70 degrees shall be Balanced and unbalanced loads shall be analyzed sepa-
considered free of snow load, (i.e., Cs = 0). Balanced loads rately. Winds from all directions shall be accounted for
shall be determined from the balanced load diagrams in when establishing unbalanced loads.

78 ASCE 7-02
7.6.1 Unbalanced Snow Loads for Hip and Gable snow surface above the valley shall not be at an elevation
Roofs. For hip and gable roofs with a slope exceeding 70◦ higher than the snow above the ridge. Snow depths shall
or with a slope less than 70/W + 0.5 with W in ft (in be determined by dividing the snow load by the density of
SI: 21.3/W + 0.5, with W in m), unbalanced snow loads that snow from Eq. 7-4, which is in Section 7.7.1.
are not required to be applied. For roofs with an eave to
ridge distance, W , of 20 ft (6.1 m) or less, the structure 7.6.4 Unbalanced Snow Loads for Dome Roofs. Unbal-
shall be designed to resist an unbalanced uniform snow anced snow loads shall be applied to domes and similar
load on the leeward side equal to 1.5ps /Ce . For roofs with rounded structures. Snow loads, determined in the same
W > 20 ft (6.1 m), the structure shall be designed to resist manner as for curved roofs in Section 7.6.2, shall be applied
an unbalanced uniform snow load on the leeward side equal to the downwind 90-degree sector in plan view. At both
to 1.2(1 + β/2)ps /Ce with β given by Eq. 7-3. edges of this sector, the load shall decrease linearly to zero
 over sectors of 22.5 degrees each. There shall be no snow

1.0 pg ≤ 20 lb/ft2 load on the remaining 225-degree upwind sector.
β = 1.5 − 0.025pg 20 < pg < 40 lb/ft2


0.5 pg ≥ 40 lb/ft2 SECTION 7.7
(Eq. 7-3)
DRIFTS ON LOWER ROOFS
In SI:
(AERODYNAMIC SHADE)


1.0 pg ≤ 0.97 kN/m2 Roofs shall be designed to sustain localized loads from
β = 1.5 − 0.52pg 0.97 < pg < 1.93 kN/m2 snow drifts that form in the wind shadow of (1) higher


0.5 pg ≥ 1.93 kN/m2 portions of the same structure and, (2) adjacent structures
and terrain features.
For the unbalanced situation with W > 20 ft (6.1 m), the
windward side shall have a uniform load equal to 0.3ps . 7.7.1 Lower Roof of a Structure. Snow that forms drifts
Balanced and unbalanced loading diagrams are presented comes from a higher roof or, with the wind from the oppo-
in Figure 7-5. site direction, from the roof on which the drift is located.
These two kinds of drifts (“leeward” and “windward,”
7.6.2 Unbalanced Snow Loads for Curved Roofs. respectively) are shown in Figure 7-7. The geometry of the
Portions of curved roofs having a slope exceeding 70 surcharge load due to snow drifting shall be approximated
degrees shall be considered free of snow load. If the slope by a triangle as shown in Figure 7-8. Drift loads shall be
of a straight line from the eaves (or the 70-degree point, superimposed on the balanced snow load. If hc / hb is less
if present) to the crown is less than 10 degrees or greater than 0.2, drift loads are not required to be applied.
than 60 degrees, unbalanced snow loads shall not be taken For leeward drifts, the drift height hd shall be determined
into account. directly from Figure 7-9 using the length of the upper roof.
Unbalanced loads shall be determined according to the For windward drifts, the drift height shall be determined
loading diagrams in Figure 7-3. In all cases the windward by substituting the length of the lower roof for lu in
side shall be considered free of snow. If the ground or Figure 7-9 and using three-quarters of hd as determined
another roof abuts a Case II or Case III (see Figure 7-3) from Figure 7-9 as the drift height. The larger of these two
curved roof at or within 3 ft (0.91 m) of its eaves, the heights shall be used in design. If this height is equal to
snow load shall not be decreased between the 30-degree or less than hc , the drift width, w, shall equal 4hd and the
point and the eaves but shall remain constant at the 30- drift height shall equal hd . If this height exceeds hc , the
degree point value. This distribution is shown as a dashed drift width, w, shall equal 4h2d / hc and the drift height shall
line in Figure 7-3. equal hc . However, the drift width, w, shall not be greater
than 8hc . If the drift width, w, exceeds the width of the
lower roof, the drift shall be truncated at the far edge of
7.6.3 Unbalanced Snow Loads for Multiple Folded
the roof, not reduced to zero there. The maximum intensity
Plate, Sawtooth, and Barrel Vault Roofs. Unbalanced
of the drift surcharge load, pd , equals hd γ where snow
loads shall be applied to folded plate, sawtooth, and bar-
density, γ , is defined in Eq. 7-4:
rel vaulted multiple roofs with a slope exceeding 3/8 in./ft
(1.79 degrees). According to 7.4.4, Cs = 1.0 for such roofs,
γ = 0.13pg + 14 but not more than 30 pcf (Eq. 7-4)
and the balanced snow load equals pf . The unbalanced
snow load shall increase from one-half the balanced load (in SI: γ = 0.426pg + 2.2 but not more than 4.7 kN/m3 )
at the ridge or crown (i.e., 0.5pf ) to two times the bal-
anced load given in 7.4.4 divided by Ce at the valley (i.e., This density shall also be used to determine hb by dividing
2 pf /Ce ). Balanced and unbalanced loading diagrams for pf (or ps ) by γ (in SI: also multiply by 102 to get the
a sawtooth roof are presented in Figure 7-6. However, the depth in m).

Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures 79

7.7.2 Adjacent Structures and Terrain Features. The sliding onto the lower roof by snow already on the lower
requirements in Section 7.7.1 shall also be used to deter- roof or is expected to slide clear of the lower roof.
mine drift loads caused by a higher structure or terrain fea- Sliding loads shall be superimposed on the balanced
ture within 20 ft (6.1 m) of a roof. The separation distance, snow load.
s, between the roof and adjacent structure or terrain feature
shall reduce applied drift loads on the lower roof by the fac-
tor (20 s)/20 where s is in ft [(6.1 s]/6.1 where s is in m). SECTION 7.10
RAIN-ON-SNOW SURCHARGE LOAD

For locations where pg is 20 lb/ft2 (0.96 kN/m2 ) or less, but

SECTION 7.8
not zero, all roofs with a slope less than 1/2 in./ft (2.38◦ ),
ROOF PROJECTIONS
shall have a 5 lb/ft2 (0.24 kN/m2 ) rain-on-snow surcharge
The method in Section 7.7.1 shall be used to calculate drift load applied to establish the design snow loads. Where the
loads on all sides of roof projections and at parapet walls. minimum flat roof design snow load from 7.3.4 exceeds pf
The height of such drifts shall be taken as three-quarters the as determined by Eq. 7-1, the rain-on-snow surcharge load
drift height from Figure 7-9 (i.e., 0.75 hd ) with lu equal to shall be reduced by the difference between these two values
the length of the roof upwind of the projection or parapet with a maximum reduction of 5 lb/ft2 (0.24 kN/m2 ).
wall. If the side of a roof projection is less than 15 ft (4.6 m)
long, a drift load is not required to be applied to that side.
SECTION 7.11
PONDING INSTABILITY
SECTION 7.9 Roofs shall be designed to preclude ponding instability.
SLIDING SNOW For roofs with a slope less than 1/4 in./ft (1.19◦ ), roof
deflections caused by full snow loads shall be investigated
The load caused by snow sliding off a sloped roof onto
when determining the likelihood of ponding instability from
a lower roof shall be determined for slippery upper roofs
rain-on-snow or from snow meltwater (see Section 8.4).
with slopes greater than 14 on 12, and for other (i.e., non-
slippery) upper roofs with slopes greater than 2 on 12. The
total sliding load per unit length of eave shall be 0.4pf SECTION 7.12
W , where W is the horizontal distance from the eave to EXISTING ROOFS
ridge for the sloped upper roof. The sliding load shall be
distributed uniformly on the lower roof over a distance of Existing roofs shall be evaluated for increased snow loads
15 ft from the upper roof eave. If the width of the lower caused by additions or alterations. Owners or agents for
roof is less than 15 ft, the sliding load shall be reduced owners of an existing lower roof shall be advised of the
proportionally. potential for increased snow loads where a higher roof is
The sliding snow load shall not be further reduced unless constructed within 20 ft (6.1 m). See footnote to Table 7-2
a portion of the snow on the upper roof is blocked from and Section 7.7.2.

80 ASCE 7-02
 This page intentionally left blank.

Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures 81

 FIGURE 7-1
GROUND SNOW LOADS, pg FOR THE UNITED STATES (IB/SQ FT)

82 ASCE 7-02
 FIGURE 7-1 — continued
GROUND SNOW LOADS, pg FOR THE UNITED STATES (IB/SQ FT)

Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures 83

84
FIGURE 7-2
GRAPHS FOR DETERMINING ROOF SLOPE FACTOR C, FOR WARM AND COLD ROOFS (SEE TABLE 7-3 FOR C1 DEFINITIONS)

ASCE 7-02
 Portion of roof where
Cs = 1.0 from Figure 7-2
(may include entire roof)
Case 1 -- Slope at eaves < 30o

pf Cs*
Balanced Load 0
Eaves Crown Eaves

2 pf Cs*/ Ce
Wind
0.5 pf
Unbalanced Load 0
Eaves Crown Eaves

Portion of roof where

Cs = 1.0 from Figure 7-2
Case 2 -- Slope at eaves 30oto 70o
pf Cs**
pf Cs*
Balanced Load 0
Eaves 30o Crown 30o Eaves
Point Point

2 pf Cs**/ Ce
Wind 2 pf Cs*/ Ce
0.5 pf
Unbalanced Load 0
o o
Eaves 30 Crown 30 Eaves
Point Point

Portion of roof where

Cs = 1.0 from Figure 7-2
Case 3 -- Slope at eaves > 70o

pf Cs**

Balanced Load 0
Eaves o o
30 Point Crown 30 Eaves
Point
70o 70o
Point Point

2 pf Cs**/ Ce
Wind
0.5 pf
Unbalanced Load 0
o o
Eaves 30 Crown 30 Eaves
Point Point
70o 70o
Point Point

* Use the slope at the eaves to determine Cs here.

** Use 30o slope to determine Cs here.
Alternate distribution if another roof abuts.

FIGURE 7-3
BALANCED AND UNBALANCED LOADS FOR CURVED ROOFS

Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures 85

 FIGURE 7-4
PARTIAL LOADING DIAGRAMS FOR CONTINUOUS BEAMS

86 ASCE 7-02
 W

θ
he

ps

Balanced

1.5ps / Ce
Unbalanced
W ≤ 20 ft. (6.1m)

0.3ps
Unbalanced 1.2 (1 + (β/2))ps / Ce
W > 20 ft. (6.1m)

Note: Unbalanced loads need not be considered for θ> 70o or for θ< 70/W + 0.5

FIGURE 7-5
BALANCED AND UNBALANCED SNOW LOADS FOR HIP AND GABLE ROOFS

Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures 87

 FIGURE 7-6
BALANCED AND UNBALANCED SNOW LOADS FOR A SAWTOOTH ROOF

FIGURE 7-7
DRIFTS FORMED AT WINDWARD AND LEEWARD STEPS

88 ASCE 7-02
 FIGURE 7-8
CONFIGURATION OF SNOW DRIFTS ON LOWER ROOFS

FIGURE 7-9
GRAPH AND EQUATION FOR DETERMINING DRIFT HEIGHT, hd

Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures 89

 TABLE 7-1
GROUND SNOW LOADS, pg , FOR ALASKAN LOCATIONS

pg pg pg
Location lb/ft2 (kN/m2 ) Location lb/ft2 (kN/m2 ) Location lb/ft2 (kN/m2 )

Adak 30 (1.4) Galena 60 (2.9) Petersburg 150 (7.2)

Anchorage 50 (2.4) Gulkana 70 (3.4) St Paul Islands 40 (1.9)
Angoon 70 (3.4) Homer 40 (1.9) Seward 50 (2.4)
Barrow 25 (1.2) Juneau 60 (2.9) Shemya 25 (1.2)
Barter Island 35 (1.7) Kenai 70 (3.4) Sitka 50 (2.4)
Bethel 40 (1.9) Kodiak 30 (1.4) Talkeetna 120 (5.8)
Big Delta 50 (2.4) Kotzebue 60 (2.9) Unalakleet 50 (2.4)
Cold Bay 25 (1.2) McGrath 70 (3.4) Valdez 160 (7.7)
Cordova 100 (4.8) Nenana 80 (3.8) Whittier 300 (14.4)
Fairbanks 60 (2.9) Nome 70 (3.4) Wrangell 60 (2.9)
Fort Yukon 60 (2.9) Palmer 50 (2.4) Yakutat 150 (7.2)

TABLE 7-2
EXPOSURE FACTOR, Ce

Fully Exposure of Roof∗

Terrain Category Exposed Partially Exposed Sheltered

A (see Section 6.5.6) N/A 1.1 1.3

B (see Section 6.5.6) 0.9 1.0 1.2
C (see Section 6.5.6) 0.9 1.0 1.1
D (see Section 6.5.6) 0.8 0.9 1.0
Above the treeline in windswept mountainous areas. 0.7 0.8 N/A
In Alaska, in areas where trees do not exist within a 0.7 0.8 N/A
2-mile (3 km) radius of the site.
The terrain category and roof exposure condition chosen shall be representative of the anticipated conditions during
the life of the structure. An exposure factor shall be determined for each roof of a structure.

∗ Definitions

PARTIALLY EXPOSED. All roofs except as indicated below.

FULLY EXPOSED. Roofs exposed on all sides with no shelter∗∗ afforded by terrain, higher structures, or trees. Roofs
that contain several large pieces of mechanical equipment, parapets that extend above the height of the balanced snow
load (hb ), or other obstructions are not in this category.
SHELTERED. Roofs located tight in among conifers that qualify as obstructions.

∗∗ Obstructions within a distance of 10ho provide “shelter,” where ho is the height of the obstruction above the roof
level. If the only obstructions are a few deciduous trees that are leafless in winter, the “fully exposed” category shall be
used except for terrain Category “A.” Note that these are heights above the roof. Heights used to establish the terrain
category in Section 6.5.3 are heights above the ground.

90 ASCE 7-02
 TABLE 7-3
THERMAL FACTOR, Ct

Thermal Condition∗ Ct

All structures except as indicated below 1.0

Structures kept just above freezing and others with cold, ventilated roofs in 1.1
which the thermal resistance (R-value) between the ventilated space and the
heated space exceeds 25 F◦ ·hr·sq ft/Btu (4.4 K·m2 /W)
Unheated structures and structures intentionally kept below freezing 1.2
Continuously heated greenhouses∗∗ with a roof having a thermal resistance 0.85
(R-value) less than 2.0 F◦ ·hr·ft2 /Btu(0.4 K·m2 /W)
∗ These conditions shall be representative of the anticipated conditions during winters for the life of

the structure.

∗∗ Greenhouses with a constantly maintained interior temperature of 50 ◦ F (10 ◦ C) or more at any

point 3 ft above the floor level during winters and having either a maintenance attendant on duty at
all times or a temperature alarm system to provide warning in the event of a heating failure.

TABLE 7-4
IMPORTANCE FACTOR,
I, (SNOW LOADS)

Category∗ I

I 0.8
II 1.0
III 1.1
IV 1.2
∗ See Section 1.5 and Table 1-1.

Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures 91