Logic

03 MARCH 2022
REVISION: 1500

AZIZ MANVA
[email protected]
 Aziz Manva ([email protected])

Table of contents
1.5 Direct Proof 28
Part I: Logic 3 1.6 Proof by Mathematical Induction 35
1.7 Proof by Contradiction and Contraposition 37
1. LOGIC ....................................................... 3 1.8 Knights and Knaves 42
1.1 Statements & AND 3 1.9 Syllogisms 45
1.2 OR 7 1.10 Puzzles, Games and Families 52
1.3 Conditionals, Converses and Biconditionals 15 1.11 Arrangements 55
1.4 Truth Tables 24 1.12 Critical Path 65
1.13 Numerical Logic 66

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PART I: LOGIC
1. LOGIC
A. Summary of Truth Tables

OR AND XOR
A B 𝐴 ∨ 𝐵 𝐴∧𝐵 (𝐴 ∨ 𝐵) ∧ ~(𝐴 ∧ 𝐵)
T T T T F
F T T F T
T F T F T
F F F F F

1.1 Statements & AND

A. Statements

1.1: Statement
A statement is a sentence or a mathematical expression that is definitely true, or definitely false.

Example 1.2
Decide whether each of the following is a statement or not. If it is a statement, decide if it is true or false.
A. Every even number is a multiple of 2.
B. The area of every circle is 3.14 times the square of its radius.
C. Divide 𝑥 by 5.
D. 𝜋 ∈ ℚ

Part A
𝐴 𝑖𝑠 𝑇𝑟𝑢𝑒
Part B
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒 = 𝜋𝑟 2 , 𝜋 ≈ 3.14. , 𝜋 ≠ 3.14 ⇒ 𝐵 𝑖𝑠 𝑓𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑒
Part C
This is a mathematical instruction. It is neither true, nor false.
And it is not a mathematical statement.
Part D
𝐷 𝑖𝑠 𝑓𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑒

B. Negation

1.3: Notation for Negation

~
Is the symbol for negation.
𝑨 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒 ⇒ ~𝑨 𝑖𝑠 𝑓𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑒
𝑨 𝑖𝑠 𝑓𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑒 ⇒ ~𝑨 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒

Example 1.4
Consider the statement X given below. In each part, find the negation of X, written ~𝑿. Answer each part
separately.

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A. 𝑋 = At least five students are going to the picnic.

B. 𝑋 = The number 6 is a prime number.
C. 𝑋 = Boston is a city in USA.

Part A
~𝑿: 𝐴𝑡 𝑚𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑔𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑖𝑐𝑛𝑖𝑐
Part B
~𝑿: 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 6 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑎 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟
Part C
~𝑿: 𝐵𝑜𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑎 𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝑈𝑆𝐴

C. Writing Statements using NOT conditions

Example 1.5
4≠5

𝑷 = 4 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑜 5
~𝑷

Example 1.6
The matrix 𝑿 is not invertible

𝑷 = 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑥 𝑿 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒.

~𝑷

Example 1.7
𝑥<𝑦

𝑷 = 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑜 𝑦

~𝑷
D. Truth Values

1.8: True or False

Any statement in logic is either true or false. It cannot be both at the same time.

Example 1.9
Is
𝐴𝑡 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑓𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑔𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑖𝑐𝑛𝑖𝑐.
the negation of
𝐴𝑡 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑓𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑔𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑖𝑐𝑛𝑖𝑐.

Suppose there are 20 students.

𝑿 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒 ⇒ 5 𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑔𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑔, 15 𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑔𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑔

Suppose ~𝑋 is represented by 𝐴𝑡 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑡 5 𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑔𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑖𝑐𝑛𝑖𝑐. We can then have the following
situation:
5 𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑔𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑔, 15 𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑔𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑔 ⇒ 𝑿 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒

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Then we have a situation where

~𝑿 ⇒ 𝑿 ⇒ 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

1.10: Notation for True and False

𝑨 → 𝐴 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒
~𝑨 → 𝐴 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒

E. AND
A B 𝑨^𝑩
1.11: Notation for AND T F 𝐹
F T 𝐹
^ T T 𝑇
For an AND condition to be true, both parts of the condition must be true. F F 𝐹

Example 1.12
𝑌𝑜𝑢 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑔𝑜 𝑡𝑜 𝐿𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑓 ⏟
𝑦𝑜𝑢 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑎 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑑 𝑓𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑒𝑡 , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ⏟
𝑎 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑑 𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑎.
𝐴 𝐵
The statement above is true.
A. I have a valid flight ticket, but I cannot go to London. What can you conclude about my visa?
B. I cannot go to London, hence I do not have a valid flight ticket. Is this conclusion correct?

Part A A B 𝑨^𝑩
𝐴 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒, 𝑨 ^ 𝑩 𝑖𝑠 𝑓𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑒 ⇒ 𝑅𝑜𝑤 1 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 T F 𝑭
Hence, you do not have a valid visa. F T 𝐹
T T 𝑻
F F 𝐹

Part A
𝑨 𝑩𝑖𝑠 𝑓𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑒 ⇒ 𝑅𝑜𝑤 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑅𝑜𝑤 4 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒
A B 𝑨^𝑩
I do not have a valid flight ticket is equivalent to:
T F 𝐹
4𝐴 𝑖𝑠 𝑓𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑒 ⇒ 𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑅𝑜𝑤 4, 𝑁𝑜𝑡 𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑅𝑜𝑤 1 ⇒ 𝑁𝑜𝑡 𝑇𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙
F T 𝐹
T T 𝑇
F F 𝐹
F. Maths

Example 1.13
Decide whether each of the following statements is true or false. If the statement is true, prove the statement. If
the statement is false, show that it is false.
A. If a number is divisible by 8, then it is divisible by 2 and by 4.
B. If a number is divisible by 6 and 4, then it is divisible by 24.

Part A
Any number divisible by 8 can be written in the form:
8𝑥, 𝑥∈ℤ

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8𝑥 = 2(4𝑥)
⏟ = 4(2𝑥)
⏟
𝐷𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝐷𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑏𝑙𝑒
𝑏𝑦 2 𝑏𝑦 4
Part B
This statement is false. We can show that it is false, by giving a counterexample.

6 divides 12, and 4 also divides 12.

However, 24 does not divide 12.
This can be expressed in mathematical notation as:
6 | 12 , 4 | 12, 24 ∤ 12

Hence, the statement is false.

G. Writing Statements

Example 1.14
𝐼𝑓 𝑎 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑏𝑦 8, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑖𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑏𝑦 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏𝑦 4.
Write the above statement in the form P ^ Q. State what is 𝑷, and what is 𝑸.

Let
𝑷 = 𝐼𝑓 𝑎 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑏𝑦 8, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑖𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑏𝑦 2.
𝑸 = 𝐼𝑓 𝑎 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑏𝑦 8, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑖𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑏𝑦 4.

𝑷 ^ 𝑸 is true.

Example 1.15
𝐼𝑓 𝑎 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑏𝑦 6 𝑎𝑛𝑑 4, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑖𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑏𝑦 24.

𝑷 = 𝐴 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑏𝑦 6
𝑸 = 𝐴 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑏𝑦 4

𝒁 = 𝐴 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑏𝑦 24
P, Q and Z refer to the same number.

𝑷 𝑸⇒𝒁

Example 1.16
𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 8 𝑖𝑠 𝑏𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 2.

𝑷 = 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 8 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛

𝑸 = 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 8 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 2

𝑷 𝑨𝑵𝑫 𝑸 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒.

Example 1.17
4=5

Using an AND Condition

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𝑷 = 4 𝑖𝑠 𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 5
𝑸 = 4 𝑖𝑠 𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 5

~𝑷 𝑨𝑵𝑫 ~𝑸
1.2 OR
A. OR condition

Example 1.18
IF ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒
⏟ 𝑎 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑆𝐴𝑇 𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒, OR 𝑦𝑜𝑢
⏟ 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑔𝑜𝑜𝑑 𝑎𝑡 𝑒𝑥𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑠, only then you will go to Harvard.
𝐴 𝐵
In an OR condition, we are promised that at least one of the conditions which is given is true.

Go to Harvard
Person 1 Perfect SAT Score Not Good at extracurriculars Yes
Person 2 Bad SAT Score Good at Extracurriculars Yes
Person 3 Perfect SAT Score Good at Extracurriculars Yes
Person 4 Bad SAT Score Not Good at extracurriculars No

A B 𝑨 ∨ 𝑩
1.19: Truth Table for OR
T F T
OR is represented using the symbol
F T T
∨
T T T
F F F
➢ An OR condition is true, if one or more of the underlying conditions is true.
➢ Conversely, if an OR condition is true, at least one of the underlying conditions is true.
➢ An OR condition is false 𝑖𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑖𝑓 all of the underlying conditions are false.
➢ Hence, if an OR statement is true, at least one of the underlying conditions must be true.

Example 1.20
If you ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒
⏟ 𝑎 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑆𝐴𝑇 𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒, OR 𝑦𝑜𝑢
⏟ 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑔𝑜𝑜𝑑 𝑎𝑡 𝑒𝑥𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑠, only then you will go to Harvard.
𝐴 𝐵
Person X has a perfect SAT score, and he went to Harvard. Then:
A. He is good at extracurriculars
B. He is not good at extracurriculars
C. We cannot conclude anything.

Go to Harvard
Person 1 Perfect SAT Score Not Good at extracurriculars Yes
Person 2 Bad SAT Score Good at Extracurriculars Yes
Person 3 Perfect SAT Score Good at Extracurriculars Yes
Person 4 Bad SAT Score Not Good at extracurriculars No

We cannot conclude anything since there are two cases where he has a perfect SAT score.
Person X may or may not be good at extracurriculars.

Option C is correct.

Example 1.21

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IF ⏟
ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑎 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑆𝐴𝑇 𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒, OR ⏟
𝑦𝑜𝑢 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑔𝑜𝑜𝑑 𝑎𝑡 𝑒𝑥𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑠, only then you will go to Harvard.
𝐴 𝐵
Person Y has is bad at extracurriculars and he went to Harvard. Then:
A. He has a perfect SAT score
B. Does not have a perfect SAT score
C. We cannot conclude anything.

Go to Harvard
Person 1 Perfect SAT Score Not Good at extracurriculars Yes
Person 2 Bad SAT Score Good at Extracurriculars Yes
Person 3 Perfect SAT Score Good at Extracurriculars Yes
Person 4 Bad SAT Score Not Good at extracurriculars No

There is only one possibility, and hence, we know for sure that Person Y must have a perfect SAT score.
Option A is correct.

Example 1.22
IF ⏟
ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑎 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑆𝐴𝑇 𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒, OR ⏟
𝑦𝑜𝑢 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑔𝑜𝑜𝑑 𝑎𝑡 𝑒𝑥𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑠, only then you will go to Harvard.
𝐴 𝐵
Person Z has a bad SAT score and he went to Harvard. Then:
A. He is good at extracurriculars.
B. He is not good at extracurriculars.
C. We cannot conclude anything.

Go to Harvard
Person 1 Perfect SAT Score Not Good at extracurriculars Yes
Person 2 Bad SAT Score Good at Extracurriculars Yes
Person 3 Perfect SAT Score Good at Extracurriculars Yes
Person 4 Bad SAT Score Not Good at extracurriculars No

There is only one possibility, and hence, we know for sure that Person Z must be good at extracurriculars.
Option A is correct.

Example 1.23
IF ⏟
ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑎 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑆𝐴𝑇 𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒, OR ⏟
𝑦𝑜𝑢 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑔𝑜𝑜𝑑 𝑎𝑡 𝑒𝑥𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑠, only then you will go to Harvard.
𝐴 𝐵
Person P is good at extracurriculars and he went to Harvard. Then:
A. He has a perfect SAT score
B. Does not have a perfect SAT score
C. We cannot conclude anything.

Go to Harvard
Person 1 Perfect SAT Score Not Good at extracurriculars Yes
Person 2 Bad SAT Score Good at Extracurriculars Yes
Person 3 Perfect SAT Score Good at Extracurriculars Yes
Person 4 Bad SAT Score Not Good at extracurriculars No

We cannot conclude anything since there are two cases where he is good at extracurriculars.
Person P may or may not have a good SAT score.

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Option C is correct.

1.24: Conclusion from 𝑨 ∨ 𝑩

➢ A or B
✓ A implies nothing
✓ B implies nothing
✓ ~A implies B
✓ ~B implies A

Example 1.25
If you ⏟
ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑎 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑆𝐴𝑇 𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒, OR ⏟
𝑦𝑜𝑢 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑔𝑜𝑜𝑑 𝑎𝑡 𝑒𝑥𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑠, only then you will go to Harvard.
𝑿 𝑌
Determine what, if anything, you can conclude given that you are going to Harvard, and
A. 𝑿 is true
B. 𝑿 is not true
C. 𝒀 is true
D. ~𝒀 is true

𝑿 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒 ⇒ 𝑁𝑜 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑿 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒 ⇒ 𝒀 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒
𝒀 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒 ⇒ 𝑁𝑜 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛
~𝒀 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒 ⇒ 𝒀 𝑖𝑠 𝑓𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑒 ⇒ 𝑿 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒
B. Using OR Conditions

Example 1.26
𝐼 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑦 𝑓𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑏𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑜𝑟 ℎ𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑒𝑦
The statement above is true. If we have the following additional information, what, if anything can we
conclude?
A. I play football.
B. I play hockey.
C. I do not play hockey.
D. I do not play football.

Football Hockey Overall

➢ We cannot conclude anything about hockey.
Play Don’t play Valid
➢ I play hockey. We cannot conclude anything about football.
Play Play Valid
➢ I do not play hockey. Therefore, I play football
Don’t play Play Valid
➢ I do not play football. Therefore, I play hockey.
Don’t Play Don’t play Invalid

Example 1.27
𝑌𝑜𝑢 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑔, 𝑜𝑟 𝑦𝑜𝑢 𝑑𝑜𝑛’𝑡 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑎 𝑗𝑜𝑏
The statement above is true. If we have the following additional information, what, if anything can we
conclude?
A. You are not charming.
B. You have a job.
C. You don’t have a job.
D. You are charming.

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Part A Charming No Job Overall

𝑅𝑜𝑤 3 ⇒ 𝑁𝑜 𝐽𝑜𝑏
Charming Job Valid
Part B
Charming No Job Valid
𝑅𝑜𝑤 1 ⇒ 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑔
Not Charming No Job Valid
Part C
Not Charming Job Invalid
𝑅𝑜𝑤 2, 3 ⇒ 𝐼𝑛𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒
Part D
𝑅𝑜𝑤 1,2 ⇒ 𝐼𝑛𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒

Example 1.28
𝐼 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑔𝑜 𝑡𝑜 𝐸𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑑, 𝑜𝑟 𝐼 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑔𝑜 𝑡𝑜 𝐸𝑢𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑒
The statement above is true. If we have the following additional information, what, if anything can we
conclude?
A. I am going to England.
B. I am not going to England.
C. I am going to Europe
D. I am not going to Europe.

𝐼 𝑎𝑚 𝑔𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑜 𝐸𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑑 ⇒ 𝐼 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑔𝑜 𝑡𝑜 𝐸𝑢𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑒

𝐼 𝑎𝑚 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑔𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑜 𝐸𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑑 ⇒ 𝑁𝑜 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝐼 𝑎𝑚 𝑔𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑜 𝐸𝑢𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑒 ⇒ 𝐼 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑔𝑜 𝑡𝑜 𝐸𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑑.
I 𝑎𝑚 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑔𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑜 𝐸𝑢𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑒 ⇒ 𝑁𝑜 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛.
C. Three Conditions

Example 1.29
𝐼 𝑝𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑃ℎ𝑦𝑠𝑖𝑐𝑠, 𝐶ℎ𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑀𝑎𝑡ℎ𝑠
The statement above is true. If we have the following additional information, what, if anything can we
conclude?
A. I passed Physics.
B. I passed Chemistry.
C. I passed Maths.
D. I did not pass Physics.
E. I did not pass Chemistry.
F. I did not pass Maths.
G. I passed Physics and Chemistry.
H. I passed Chemistry and Maths.
I. I passed Physics and Maths.
J. I failed both Physics and Chemistry.
K. I failed both Chemistry and Maths.
L. I failed both Physics and Maths.
M. I failed all three of Physics, Maths and Chemistry.

𝑃ℎ𝑦𝑠𝑖𝑐𝑠 𝐶ℎ𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑦 𝑀𝑎𝑡ℎ𝑠 Validity

𝐷𝑖𝑑 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑝𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝐷𝑖𝑑 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑝𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝐷𝑖𝑑 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑝𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝐼𝑛𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑑
𝑃𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝐷𝑖𝑑 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑝𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝐷𝑖𝑑 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑝𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑑
𝐷𝑖𝑑 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑝𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑃𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝐷𝑖𝑑 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑝𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑑
𝐷𝑖𝑑 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑝𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝐷𝑖𝑑 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑝𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑃𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑑
𝑃𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑃𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝐷𝑖𝑑 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑝𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑑

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𝐷𝑖𝑑 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑝𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑃𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑃𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑑

𝑃𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝐷𝑖𝑑 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑝𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑃𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑑
𝑃𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑃𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑃𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑑

Parts A, B, C, G, H and I
For each situation, there are multiple rows in the table that correspond to it.
Hence, we cannot draw any conclusion.

Part D, E, F
In case you did not pass one subject.
You passed one or more out of the remaining two subjects.

Parts J, K and L
𝐹𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑃ℎ𝑦𝑠𝑖𝑐𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶ℎ𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑦 ⇒ 𝑃𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑀𝑎𝑡ℎ𝑠
𝐹𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝐶ℎ𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑀𝑎𝑡ℎ𝑠 ⇒ 𝑃𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑃ℎ𝑦𝑠𝑖𝑐𝑠
𝐹𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑃ℎ𝑦𝑠𝑖𝑐𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑀𝑎𝑡ℎ𝑠 ⇒ 𝑃𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝐶ℎ𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑦
Parts M
𝐹𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑃ℎ𝑦𝑠𝑖𝑐𝑠, 𝑀𝑎𝑡ℎ𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶ℎ𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑦 ⇒ 𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒏

D. Existential Quantifier

1.30: Existential Quantifier

The existential quantifier has the symbol
∃⇒ 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑠
∄= 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑑𝑜𝑒𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑠𝑡

Example 1.31
ℙ 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠.
ℂ 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠.
ℕ 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠
The notation above is used in the statements below. Write each statement in English, without using
mathematical symbols. Then, decide whether they are true or false.
A. ∃𝑝 ∈ ℙ, 𝑝 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛
B. ∃𝑝 ∈ ℙ, 𝑝 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑑𝑑
C. ∃𝑝 ∈ ℕ, 𝑝 ∉ ℙ, 𝑝 ∉ ℂ
D. 𝑀𝑛 is the set of all possible number of days in a month in year 𝑛. ∃𝑚 ∈ 𝑀2001 , 𝑚 = 29.

Part A
There is at least one even prime number.
There is one even prime number.
Part B
There is at least one odd prime number.
There is one odd prime number.
Part D
2001 is not a leap year. Hence,
𝑀2001 = {28,30,31} ⇒ 29 ∉ 𝑀2001 ⇒ 𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑓𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑒

1.32: Existential Quantifier using OR conditions

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Example 1.33
A. ℙ 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠. ∃𝑝 ∈ ℙ, 𝑝 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛
B. Type equation here.

ℙ = {𝑝1 , 𝑝2 , 𝑝3 , … }

∃𝑝 ∈ ℙ, 𝑝 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 can be written using OR conditions as:

𝑝1 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑂𝑅 𝑝2 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑂𝑅 𝑝3 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑂𝑅 …
E. OR using Maths

Example 1.34
Write the following using an OR statement:
A. 𝑥 ≠ 𝑦, 𝑥 ∈ ℝ
B. I want you to visit London to prospect for new clients, and not New York since the US since it is not a
good market.
C. A man should look for what is, and not for what he thinks should be.

Part A
𝑷: 𝑥 > 𝑦
𝑸: 𝑥 < 𝑦
𝑷 𝑂𝑟 𝑸
Part B
𝑷 = 𝐼 𝑤𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑦𝑜𝑢 𝑡𝑜 𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑡 𝐿𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑜𝑛
𝑸 = 𝐼 𝑑𝑜 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑤𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑦𝑜𝑢 𝑡𝑜 𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑡 𝑁𝑒𝑤 𝑌𝑜𝑟𝑘
𝑷 𝐴𝑁𝐷 𝑸
Part C
𝑷 = 𝐴 𝑚𝑎𝑛 𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑑 𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑘 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑤ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑖𝑠.
𝑸 = 𝐴 𝑚𝑎𝑛 𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑑 𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑘 𝑓𝑜𝑟 ℎ𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑠 𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑑 𝑏𝑒.
𝑷 𝐴𝑁𝐷 (~𝑸)
F. Exclusive OR
We now look at one variation of OR, called exclusive OR. Here, we are promised that at 𝑒𝑥𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑙𝑦 one of the
conditions is true.

1.35: Truth Table for Exclusive OR

Exclusive OR
A B Either A OR B
T F Applies
F T Applies
T T Does not apply
F F Does not apply

Example 1.36
𝑆𝑎𝑚 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑏𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑘 𝑜𝑟 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑡𝑒.
If the above statement is true, what, if anything can you conclude given the following information:
A. Sam is white. Sam is not black

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B. Sam is black. Sam is not white

C. Sam is not white. Sam is black
D. Sam is not black. Sam is white

Example 1.37
𝐸𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝐴 𝑜𝑟 𝐵
If the above statement is true, what, if anything can you conclude given the following information:
A. A
B. B
C. ~A
D. ~B

𝑨 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑠 ~𝑩
𝑩 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑠 ~𝑨
~𝑨 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑩
~𝑩 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑨

Example 1.38
To be eligible for a scholarship, you must meet exactly one of the two conditions below:
𝑌𝑜𝑢 𝑚𝑢𝑠𝑡 𝑏𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡ℎ 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑒, 𝑋𝑂𝑅 𝑦𝑜𝑢 𝑚𝑢𝑠𝑡 𝑙𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝐻𝑎𝑤𝑎𝑖𝑖.
If the following further information is available, what can you conclude about whether you are eligible for a
scholarship:
A. You are in eighth grade.
B. You are not in eighth grade.
C. You live in Hawaii.
D. You do not live in Hawaii.
E. You are in eighth grade, and you live in Hawaii
F. You are in eighth grade, and you do not live in Hawaii
G. You are not in eighth grade, and you do not live in Hawaii
H. You are not in eighth grade, and you live in Hawaii

Parts A, B, C and D Eighth Grade Hawaii Scholarship

In each of these parts, we have information on only one aspect. Yes Yes No
Since exactly one condition must be true, without information on No No No
the other aspect, we cannot reach any conclusion. Yes No Yes
No Yes Yes
Parts E, F, G, H
𝑃𝑎𝑟𝑡 𝐸: 𝐵𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒 ⇒ 𝑁𝑜 𝑆𝑐ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑠ℎ𝑖𝑝
𝑃𝑎𝑟𝑡 𝐹: 𝐸𝑥𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑙𝑦 𝑂𝑛𝑒 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑇𝑟𝑢𝑒 ⇒ 𝑆𝑐ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑠ℎ𝑖𝑝
𝑃𝑎𝑟𝑡 𝐺: 𝑁𝑜 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑇𝑟𝑢𝑒 ⇒ 𝑁𝑜 𝑆𝑐ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑠ℎ𝑖𝑝
𝑃𝑎𝑟𝑡 𝐻: 𝐸𝑥𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑙𝑦 𝑂𝑛𝑒 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑇𝑟𝑢𝑒 ⇒ 𝑆𝑐ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑠ℎ𝑖𝑝

Example 1.39
𝐸𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑦𝑜𝑢 𝑔𝑜 𝑡𝑜 𝑡𝑜𝑤𝑛 𝑜𝑟 𝑦𝑜𝑢 𝑑𝑜𝑛’𝑡 𝑏𝑢𝑦 𝑏𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑑
If the above statement is true, what, if anything can you conclude given the following information:
A. You go to town implies you bought bread
B. You don’t buy bread implies you didn’t go to town
C. You don’t go to town implies you didn’t buy bread

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D. You bought bread implies you went to town

G. Maths

Example 1.40: Exponents

If 𝑥 and 𝑦 are real numbers such that 𝑥 𝑦 ∈ {0,1} then what can we conclude if (answer each separately):
A. 𝑥 = 0
B. 𝑥 ≠ 0
C. 𝑦 = 0
D. 𝑦 ≠ 0

Part A
Substitute 𝑥 = 0:
0𝑦 = 0 ⇒ 𝑦 ∈ ℝ − {0}
Part B
𝑥 ≠ 0 ⇒ 𝑥 𝑦 = 0 ⇒ 𝑁𝑜 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
𝑥 ≠ 0 ⇒ 𝑥𝑦 = 1 ⇒ 𝑦 = 0
Part C
Substitute 𝑦 = 0:
𝑥 0 = 0 ⇒ 𝑁𝑜 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
𝑥 0 = 1 ⇒ 𝑥 ∈ ℝ − {0}
Part D
𝑦 ≠ 0 ⇒ 𝑥𝑦 = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 = 0
𝑦 ≠ 0 ⇒ 𝑥 𝑦 = 1 ⇒ 𝑥 = 1, 𝑦 = ℝ − {0}

Example 1.41: Set Theory / Number Theory

All elements of the set 𝑋 = {𝑝1 , 𝑝2 , … , 𝑝𝑛 } are prime numbers.
A. 𝑝3 is even. What can we say about the parity of the remaining members of 𝑋.
B. 𝑝1 is odd. What can we say about the parity of the remaining members of 𝑋.

Part A
2 is the only even number. All other prime numbers are odd. Hence, the remaining elements of the set X are
odd.
Part B
𝑝1 is odd. We cannot say anything about the remaining elements.

Example 1.42
A natural number 𝑥 greater than one is either 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒
⏟ or 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒
⏟ .
𝑷 𝑪
Language Variables Examples
𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒 ⇒ 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑃 ⇒ ~𝐶 5 𝑖𝑠 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒 ⇒ 5 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒
𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒 ⇒ 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝐶 ⇒ ~𝑃 6 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒 ⇒ 6 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒 ⇒ 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒 ~𝐶 ⇒ 𝑃 4 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒 ⇒ 4 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒
𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒 ⇒ 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒 ~𝑃 ⇒ 𝐶 3 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒 ⇒ 3 𝑖𝑠 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒

H. Writing OR Statements

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Example 1.43
An isosceles triangle is equilateral, or it is not.

𝑷 = 𝐴𝑛 𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙

~𝑷 = 𝐴𝑛 𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙
𝑷 𝑶𝑹 ~𝑷

Example 1.44
A. I have an interview on Wednesday or Friday.
B. I have an interview on either Wednesday or Friday.

𝑷 = 𝐼 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑎𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑖𝑒𝑤 𝑜𝑛 𝑊𝑒𝑑𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑑𝑎𝑦.

𝑸 = 𝐼 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑎𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑖𝑒𝑤 𝑜𝑛 𝐹𝑟𝑖𝑑𝑎𝑦.

𝑷 𝑶𝑹 𝑸
𝑷 𝑿𝑶𝑹 𝑸

Example 1.45
I am going to either Harvard or Yale.

𝑷 = 𝐼 𝑎𝑚 𝑔𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑜 𝐻𝑎𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑑
𝑸 = 𝐼 𝑎𝑚 𝑔𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑜 𝑌𝑎𝑙𝑒

𝑷 𝑿𝑶𝑹 𝑸
1.3 Conditionals, Converses and Biconditionals
A. Conditionals

1.46: Conditional Statements

A statement written in 𝐼𝑓 − 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑛 is a conditional statement.

If the statement 𝑷 is true, then the statement 𝑸 is true. 𝑷 𝑸 𝑷⇒𝑸

𝑇 𝑇 𝑇
𝐼𝑓 𝑷, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑸 𝑇 𝐹 𝐹
This can also be written as 𝐹 𝐹 𝑇
𝑷⇒𝑸 𝐹 𝑇 𝑇

B. Writing Properties as Conditionals

Example 1.47
A.
B. 𝐼𝑓 two rays meet at a vertex, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 they form an angle.
C. 𝐼𝑓 a triangle is a right-angled triangle, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 the square of the length of the hypotenuse is equal to the
sum of the squares of the other two sides.

𝑷 = a triangle is a right − angled triangle

𝑸 = the square of the length of the hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the squares of the other two sides

𝐼𝑓 𝑷, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑸

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Example 1.48
A. An isosceles triangle has two equal sides.
B. The sum of the measures of the angles of a 𝑛-sided polygon is 180(𝑛 − 2)°.
C. You can’t divide by zero.
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
D. Binomial Theorem: (𝑥 + 𝑦)𝑛 = ( ) 𝑥 𝑛 𝑦 0 + ( ) 𝑥 𝑛−1 𝑦1 + ( ) 𝑥 𝑛−2 𝑦 2 + ⋯ + ( ) 𝑥 0 𝑦 𝑛
0 1 2 𝑛
𝑛! 𝑛
E. Permutations: (𝑛−𝑟)! = 𝑃𝑟
𝑛!
F. Permutations with repeated objects: (𝑛−𝑟)! = 𝑛𝑃𝑟
𝑛!
G. Combinations: (𝑛𝑟) = 𝑟!(𝑛−𝑟)!
H. A quadratic with no real roots must have negative discriminant.

Part A
𝐼𝑓 a triangle has two equal sides, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 it is isosceles.
Part B
If a polygon has 𝑛 sides, then the sum of the measures of its angles 180(𝑛 − 2)°.
Part C
𝑝
A rational number is a number of the form 𝑞 , where 𝑝, 𝑞 are integers, and 𝑞 ≠ 0. If 𝑞 = 0, then the denominator
𝑝
is zero, and the result of the operation 𝑞 is not defined.
Part D
If 𝑥, 𝑦 are expressions, and 𝑛 is an integer, then:
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
(𝑥 + 𝑦)𝑛 = ( ) 𝑥 𝑛 𝑦 0 + ( ) 𝑥 𝑛−1 𝑦1 + ( ) 𝑥 𝑛−2 𝑦 2 + ⋯ + ( ) 𝑥 0 𝑦 𝑛
0 1 2 𝑛
Part E
If I have 𝑛 distinct objects, then the number of ways of arranging 𝑟 out of these objects in a row is given by
𝑛 𝑛!
𝑃𝑟 =
(𝑛 − 𝑟)!
Part F
If I have 𝑛 objects, out of which certain objects are repeated 𝑝 times, certain objects are repeated 𝑞 times, and
the remaining objects are repeated 𝑟 times, then the number of ways of arranging these objects in a row is
given by:
𝑛!
𝑝! 𝑞! 𝑟!
Part G
𝑛!
If I have n objects, then I can choose 𝑟 objects, 0 ≤ 𝑟 ≤ 𝑛 out of them in (𝑛𝑟) = 𝑟!(𝑛−𝑟)! Ways.
Part H
If a quadratic has no real roots, then its discriminant is negative.

C. Sufficient and Necessary

1.49: Sufficient Condition

𝑷 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑠𝑢𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑸

The above tells us that if P holds, then Q must hold. In other words:
𝑷⇒𝑸

1.50: Necessary Condition

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𝑸 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑛𝑒𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑷

Q cannot happen without P.

Then, if P is true, Q must be true.
In other words:
𝑷⇒𝑸

Example 1.51

𝐼𝑓 𝑎 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑠 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑠, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑖𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑠𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑠.

➢ A triangle is isosceles if it has two equal sides.

➢ A triangle is isosceles whenever it has two equal sides.
➢ A triangle is isosceles provided that it has two equal sides.
➢ Whenever a triangle has two equal sides, then it is also isosceles.
➢ It is sufficient for a triangle to have two equal sides for it to be an isosceles triangle.
➢ For a triangle to be isosceles, it is sufficient that it has two equal sides.
➢ For a triangle to be isosceles, it is necessary that it has two equal sides.
➢ For a triangle to have two equal sides, it is necessary that it should be isosceles.

D. Language Questions

Example 1.52
𝐼𝑓 𝑎 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑔𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑖𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒.
What if anything, can you conclude about the polygons below:
A. I have polygon 𝑨, and it is a square.
B. I have polygon 𝑩, and it is not a square.
C. I have polygon 𝑪, and it is a rectangle.
D. I have polygon 𝑫, and it is not a rectangle.
E. I have polygon 𝑬, and it is a square, but not a rectangle.

𝑷 = 𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑔𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑷 𝑸 𝑷⇒𝑸

𝑸 = 𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑔𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑇 𝑇 𝑇
𝑇 𝐹 𝐹
Part A 𝐹 𝐹 𝑇
𝑅𝑜𝑤 1: 𝑷 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒 ⇒ 𝑸 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝐹 𝑇 𝑇
Part B
𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑔𝑜𝑛 𝐵 𝑚𝑎𝑦 𝑜𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑦 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑏𝑒 𝑎 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒.
𝑅𝑜𝑤 3, 4: 𝑷 𝑖𝑠 𝑓𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑒 ⇒ 𝑸 𝑚𝑎𝑦 𝑏𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒, 𝑜𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑦 𝑏𝑒 𝑓𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑒
Part C
𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑔𝑜𝑛 𝑚𝑎𝑦 𝑜𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑦 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑏𝑒 𝑎 𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒.
𝑸 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒 ⇒ 𝑷 𝑚𝑎𝑦 𝑏𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒, 𝑜𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑦 𝑏𝑒 𝑓𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑒
Part D
𝑸 𝑖𝑠 𝑓𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑒 ⇒ 𝑷 𝑖𝑠 𝑓𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑒
Part E
𝑅𝑜𝑤 2: 𝑷 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒, 𝑸 𝑖𝑠 𝑓𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑒 ⇒ 𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏

Example 1.53
Hasan said, “If I do well in my 𝑆𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑜𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑦 exam, I will distribute sweets in my building the day after the exam.”

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A. Hasan was found distributing sweets in his building the day after the exam. Hence, his mother
concluded that his Sociology exam went well. Is her conclusion valid?
B. Hasan was in a great mood, and played video games the entire day the day after the exam. He definitely
did not leave his house. What, if anything, can we conclude from this information?
C. Hasan’s Sociology exam did not go well. Can we conclude that he did not distribute sweets in his
building the day after the exam?

𝑃 = 𝐻𝑎𝑠𝑎𝑛 𝑑𝑜𝑒𝑠 𝑤𝑒𝑙𝑙 𝑖𝑛 ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑆𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑜𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑦 𝑒𝑥𝑎𝑚 𝑜𝑛 21𝑠𝑡 𝐽𝑎𝑛. 𝑷 𝑸 𝑷⇒𝑸

𝑄 = 𝐻𝑎𝑠𝑎𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑏𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑠 𝑠𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑡𝑠 𝑖𝑛 ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑛 22𝑛𝑑 𝐽𝑎𝑛. 𝑇 𝑇 𝑇
𝑇 𝐹 𝑭
This can be written in the language of logic as: 𝐹 𝐹 𝑇
𝐼𝑓 𝑷, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑸 𝐹 𝑇 𝑇
Part A
The information given tells us that
𝑸 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒 ⇒ 𝑅𝑜𝑤 1,4
𝑃 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑅𝑜𝑤 1
𝑃 𝑖𝑠 𝑓𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑅𝑜𝑤 4

In general, we cannot conclude anything about P since we do not know whether Row 1 is applicable, or Row 4
is applicable.
Hence, Hasan’s mother conclusion is not valid.

Part B
𝑸 𝑖𝑠 𝑓𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑒 ⇒ 𝑅𝑜𝑤 2, 3
In Row 2, 𝑷 ⇒ 𝑸 is false, which the statement being made is false.
However, we have to conduct the analysis assuming that the statement is true.

Hence, the only possibility is Row 3.

𝑄 𝑖𝑠 𝑓𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑒 ⇒ 𝑃 𝑖𝑠 𝑓𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑒 ⇒ 𝐻𝑎𝑠𝑎𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑑 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑑𝑜 𝑤𝑒𝑙𝑙.
Part C
𝑷 𝑖𝑠 𝑓𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑒 ⇒ 𝑅𝑜𝑤 3, 4
We cannot conclude anything about Q.
Hence, we do not know whether he did, or did not distribute sweets.

Example 1.54
If it rains, I carry an umbrella to protect myself from the rain. On 24𝑡ℎ June 2021, it was a very windy day, and I
carried an umbrella. Was it raining?

𝑷 = 𝐼𝑡 𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑠 𝑷 𝑸 𝑷⇒𝑸
𝑸 = 𝐼 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑦 𝑎𝑛 𝑈𝑚𝑏𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑎 𝑇 𝑇 𝑇
𝑸 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒 ⇒ 𝑅𝑜𝑤 1, 4 ⇒ 𝑁𝑜 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑷 𝑇 𝐹 𝑭
𝐼 𝑑𝑜𝑛′ 𝑡 𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑤 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑡 𝑤𝑎𝑠 𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔. 𝐹 𝐹 𝑇
𝐹 𝑇 𝑇

Example 1.55
𝑀𝑎𝑟𝑘 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐵𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑂𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
If my dog sees the color purple, it barks. I see my dog barking. Did it:
A. See the color purple.
B. Run after a ball.

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C. See its dog trainer coming

D. Could be any of the above three.

𝑷 = 𝑀𝑦 𝑑𝑜𝑔 𝑠𝑒𝑒𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑢𝑟𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑷 𝑸 𝑷⇒𝑸

𝑸 = 𝑀𝑦 𝑑𝑜𝑔 𝑏𝑎𝑟𝑘𝑠 𝑇 𝑇 𝑇
𝑇 𝐹 𝑭
𝑸 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒 ⇒ 𝑅𝑜𝑤 1, 4 ⇒ 𝑁𝑜 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑷 𝐹 𝐹 𝑇
Option D is correct. 𝐹 𝑇 𝑇

Example 1.56
𝑀𝑎𝑟𝑘 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐵𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑂𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
If I see aliens in my sleep, I will prove the four-color theorem. I did not prove the four-color theorem. Then:
A. I went to Mars in my dreams.
B. I did not see aliens in my sleep.
C. I saw aliens in my sleep.
D. None of the above.

𝑷 = 𝐼 𝑠𝑎𝑤 𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑦 𝑠𝑙𝑒𝑒𝑝.

𝑸 = 𝐼 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑜𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑚 𝑷 𝑸 𝑷⇒𝑸
𝑇 𝑇 𝑇
𝑸 𝑖𝑠 𝑓𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑒 ⇒ 𝑅𝑜𝑤 3 ⇒ 𝑷 𝑖𝑠 𝑓𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑒 ⇒ 𝑂𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐵 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡. 𝑇 𝐹 𝑭
𝐹 𝐹 𝑇
𝐹 𝑇 𝑇
Example 1.57
If you get more than 70% marks in your final exam, you get a job.
A. You got more than 70% marks in your final exam.
B. You got less than 70% marks in your final exam.

𝑃 = 𝑌𝑜𝑢 𝑔𝑒𝑡 𝑚𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 70% 𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑘𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑦𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑥𝑎𝑚

𝑄 = 𝑌𝑜𝑢 𝑔𝑒𝑡 𝑎 𝑗𝑜𝑏

Part A
𝑃 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒 ⇒ 𝑄 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒
Part B
𝑃 𝑖𝑠 𝑓𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑒 ⇒ 𝑄 𝑚𝑎𝑦 𝑏𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒, 𝑜𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑦 𝑏𝑒 𝑓𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑒

Example 1.58
If you get a JMET rank of better than 500, then you will get an admission in your preferred institute.
If the statement above is true, which of the following must also be true?
A. If you do not get a JMET rank of better than 500, then you will not get an admission in your preferred
institute.
B. If you get an admission in your preferred institute, then you must have got a JMET rank of better than
500.
C. If you did not get an admission in your preferred institute, then you did not get a JMET rank of better
than 500. (JMET 2008/43)

𝑷 𝑸 𝑷⇒𝑸
𝑇 𝑇 𝑇

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𝑃 = 𝐺𝑒𝑡 𝐽𝑀𝐸𝑇 𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑘 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 500 𝑇 𝐹 𝑭

𝑄 = 𝐴𝑑𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑦𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝐹 𝐹 𝑇
𝐹 𝑇 𝑇
𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐴: 𝑅𝑜𝑤 3 𝑎𝑛𝑑 4
𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐵: 𝑅𝑜𝑤 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 4
𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐶: 𝑅𝑜𝑤 3: 𝑀𝑢𝑠𝑡 𝑏𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒

𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝐴𝑛𝑠𝑤𝑒𝑟: 𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐶

Example 1.59

X when/if/along with Y
➢ X when/if/along with Y
✓ ~Y implies nothing
✓ X implies nothing
✓ Y implies X
✓ ~X implies ~Y

Example 1.60
➢ Tata Motors gives a truck(X) along with a Nano(Y)
✓ No Nano implies nothing
✓ Got a truck implies nothing
✓ Nano implies truck
✓ No truck implies no Nano

Example 1.61
➢ You will add more value to the brand (X) if strategic planning is done(Y)
✓ Strategic planning was not done implies nothing
✓ You added more value to the brand implies nothing
✓ Strategic planning was done implies you added more value to the brand
✓ You did not add more value to the brand implies strategic planning was not done

Example 1.62
➢ It does not snow(X) when the sun shines (Y)
✓ Sun does not shine implies nothing
✓ Does not snow implies nothing
✓ Sun shines implies does not snow
✓ Snows implies sun does not shine

Example 1.63
➢ I eat a samosa (X) when I am hungry(Y)
✓ I am not hungry. No Conclusions
✓ I ate a samosa. No Conclusion
✓ I am hungry. I ate a samosa
✓ I did not eat a samosa. I am not hungry

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Example 1.64
➢ You get a scholarship(X) alongwith a medal(Y)
✓ You get a scholarship implies nothing
✓ You did not get a medal implies nothing
✓ You got a medal. You got a scholarship
✓ You did not get a scholarship. You did not get a medal.

X only when/if/alongwith Y

Example 1.65
➢ X only when/if/alongwith Y
✓ ~Y implies nothing
✓ X implies nothing
✓ Y implies X
✓ ~X implies ~Y
Example 1.66
➢ It is gold only if it glitters
✓ It glitters implies nothing
✓ It is gold. It glitters
✓ It does not glitter. It is not gold.
✓ It is not gold. It does not glitter.

E. Checking for Truthfulness

Example 1.67
Five cards are lying on a table as shown. Each card has a letter on one
side and a whole number on the other side. Jane said, "If a vowel is on
one side of any card, then an even number is on the other side." Mary
showed Jane was wrong by turning over one card. Which card did
Mary turn over? (AMC 8 1985/25)

If 𝑎
⏟𝑣𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑙 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑦 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑑, then ⏟
𝑎𝑛 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒.
𝑷 𝑸 𝑷 𝑸 𝑷⇒𝑸
𝑇 𝑇 𝑇
𝐽𝑎𝑛𝑒 𝑠𝑎𝑖𝑑 "𝐼𝑓 𝑷, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑸" 𝑇 𝐹 𝑭
𝑀𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑑 𝐽𝑎𝑛𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑠 𝑤𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑔 ⇒ 𝑅𝑜𝑤 2 𝐹 𝐹 𝑇
𝐹 𝑇 𝑇
In Row 2:
⏟
𝟑 𝑨𝑵𝑫 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑛𝑡
⏟
𝑷 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝑸 𝑖𝑠 𝑓𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑒

Example 1.68
Each of the following 15 cards has a letter on one side and a positive integer on
the other side. What is the minimum number of cards that need to be turned
over to check if the following statement is true?
"If a card has a lower-case letter on one side, then it has an odd integer on the

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other side." (CEMC Pascal 9 2020/19)

If the card shows an upper-case letter, then it does not meet the 𝑖𝑓 condition. We do not need to check the 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛.
If the card shows an odd number, then it meets the 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 condition. We do not need to check the 𝑖𝑓.

We only need to check:

➢ Cards which show a lower-case letter. These meet the 𝑖𝑓, and we need to check that they meet the 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛.
✓ One card: 𝑒
➢ Cards which show an even number. These violate the 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛, and we need to check that the 𝑖𝑓 is not met.
✓ Two cards: 60,88

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐶𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑠 = ⏟
1+ ⏟
2 =3
𝑒 60,88

F. Converses

1.69: Statement
A statement is usually of the form:
𝐼𝑓 𝐴
⏟ , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝐵
⏟
𝑅𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑒𝑑
𝐴⇒𝐵

If ⏟
𝑎 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒, than ⏟
𝑖𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒.
𝐴 𝐵
𝐴 → 𝐴 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒
𝐵 → 𝐴 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒

1.70: Converse
A statement which reverses the direction of causality is the converse of another statement.
𝐼𝑓 𝐵
⏟ , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝐴
⏟
𝑅𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑒𝑑
𝐴⇐𝐵

If 𝑎
⏟𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒, then 𝑖𝑡
⏟ 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒.
𝐴 𝐵

Example 1.71
Find the converses of the following statements:
A. Every citizen must fight for his country.
B. It is a truth universally acknowledged that a single man in possession of a good fortune, must be in want
of a wife. (𝑂𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑃𝑟𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑗𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑒, 𝐽𝑎𝑛𝑒 𝐴𝑢𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑛)
C. The determinant of an invertible matrix is non-zero.
D. If you knew what a conflict goes on in the business mind, you would be amused.
(𝐴 𝑇𝑎𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑇𝑤𝑜 𝐶𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑒𝑠, 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝐷𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑒𝑛𝑠)

Part A
If a person is a citizen of a country, then he must fight for his country.
If a person fights for his country, then he is a citizen of his country.

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Part B
It is a truth universally acknowledged that a single man in want of a wife, must be in possession of a good
fortune.

Part C
If a matrix is invertible, then its determinant is non-zero.
Converse: If the determinant of a matrix is non-zero, then it is invertible.

Part D
If you would be amused, then you would know what a conflict goes on in the business mid.

Example 1.72
Are the following statements true or false? Find their converses. Are their converses true or false?
A. If ⏟𝑎 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑔𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒, then ⏟𝑖𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒.
𝑷 𝑸
B. If a statement is true, its converse is true.
C.

Part A
𝑂𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡: 𝑇𝑟𝑢𝑒
𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒: 𝐼𝑓 𝑎 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑔𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑖𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒.
𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒: 𝐹𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑒

Part B
𝑂𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡: 𝐹𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑒
𝐼𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒.
𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒: 𝐹𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑒

G. Biconditionals

1.73: Bidirectional Causality

If we combine 𝐴 ⇒ 𝐵 with 𝐵 ⇒ 𝐴, and we claim that both of these are true, then the direction of causality is two
way.
𝑨⇔𝑩
𝐴 𝑖𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑖𝑓 𝐵 ⇒ 𝐴 𝑖𝑓𝑓 𝐵

1.74: Necessary and Sufficient

𝑷 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑠𝑢𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑸
𝑷 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑛𝑒𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑸

𝑷 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑠𝑢𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑸: 𝑷 ⇒ 𝑸

𝑷 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑛𝑒𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑸: 𝑸 ⇒ 𝑷

Combine the two, and we get:

𝑷⇔𝑸

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Example 1.75
A. Every rectangle is a square.
B. If a number is even, it is divisible by 2.

Part A
If a polygon is a square, then it is a rectangle.
𝑷 = 𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑔𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒
𝑸 = 𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑔𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒

𝑷⇒𝑸
If a polygon is a rectangle, then it is a square.
𝑸⇒𝑷
Part B
𝑷 = 𝐴 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛
𝑸 = 𝐴 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑏𝑦 2

𝑷⇔𝑸

Example 1.76
A. 𝐼𝑓 a triangle is a right-angled triangle, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 the square of the length of the hypotenuse is equal to the
sum of the squares of the other two sides.

𝑷 = a triangle is a right − angled triangle

𝑸 = the square of the length of the hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the squares of the other two sides

𝐼𝑓 𝑷, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑸
𝐼𝑓 𝑸, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑷

If the square of the square of the length of the hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the squares of the other two
sides in a triangle, then the triangle is a right-angled triangle.

Example 1.77
A triangle is isosceles if and only if it has two equal sides.

𝑃 = 𝑇𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑠
𝑄 = 𝑖𝑡 ℎ𝑎𝑠 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑠

A⏟
triangle is isosceles 𝑖𝑓 ⏟
it has two equal sides : 𝑸 ⇒ 𝑷
𝑃 𝑄
A triangle
⏟ is isosceles 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑖𝑓 it
⏟has two equal sides : 𝑷 ⇒ 𝑸
𝑃 𝑄

A triangle
⏟ is isosceles 𝑖𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑖𝑓 it
⏟has two equal sides : 𝑸 ⇔ 𝑷
𝑃 𝑄

1.4 Truth Tables

A. Basics

Example 1.78
Give the truth table for:

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A. 𝑃 𝑂𝑅 𝑄 𝑂𝑅 𝑅
B. 𝑃 𝐴𝑁𝐷 𝑄 𝐴𝑁𝐷 𝑅

𝑃 𝑄 𝑅 𝑃 𝑂𝑅 𝑄 𝑂𝑅 𝑅 𝑃 𝐴𝑁𝐷 𝑄 𝐴𝑁𝐷 𝑅
T T T T T
T T F T F
T F T T F
T F F T F
F T T T F
F T F T F
F F T T F
F F F F F

Example 1.79
Consider the truth table for the statement 𝑃1 𝑂𝑅 𝑃2 𝑂𝑅 … 𝑂𝑅 𝑃𝑛 .
A. How many rows will the truth table for the following statement contain (not including the title row)?
B. How many of those rows will contain 𝑇𝑟𝑢𝑒 in the final column? How many will contain 𝐹𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑒 in the final
column?
C. Answer the above two questions for 𝑃1 𝐴𝑁𝐷 𝑃2 𝐴𝑁𝐷 … 𝐴𝑁𝐷 𝑃𝑛 .

Part A
For every statement 𝑃1 , 𝑃2 , … 𝑃𝑛 , there are two options. Each of those can be combined with any option for any
other statement. Hence, the number of rows is:
⏟
2 × ⏟ 2 × …× ⏟ 2 = 2𝑛
𝐶ℎ𝑜𝑖𝑐𝑒𝑠 𝐶ℎ𝑜𝑖𝑐𝑒𝑠 𝐶ℎ𝑜𝑖𝑐𝑒𝑠
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑃1 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑃2 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑃𝑛
Part B
𝑇𝑟𝑢𝑒: 2𝑛 − 1
𝐹𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑒: 1
Part C
𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑅𝑜𝑤𝑠 = 2𝑛
𝐹𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑒: 2𝑛 − 1
𝑇𝑟𝑢𝑒: 1

Example 1.80
A. Construct a truth table for the statement (𝐴 ∨ 𝐵) ∧ ~(𝐴 ∧ 𝐵).
B. Compare this truth table with the truth table for Exclusive OR (𝑋𝑂𝑅. )
C. Hence, conclude the relations between (𝐴 ∨ 𝐵) ∧ ~(𝐴 ∧ 𝐵) and XOR

OR AND 𝑿𝑶𝑹
A B 𝑨 ∨ 𝑩 𝑨∧𝑩 ~(𝑨 ∧ 𝑩) (𝑨 ∨ 𝑩) ∧ ~(𝑨 ∧ 𝑩)
T T T T F F
F T T F T T
T F T F T T
F F F F T F

(𝐴 ∨ 𝐵) ∧ ~(𝐴 ∧ 𝐵) ⇔ XOR

Example 1.81
𝑎𝑏 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑖𝑓 𝑎𝑡 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛

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Make a truth table for the statement above.

(𝑎𝑏 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛) ⇔ (𝑎
⏟ ⏟𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑂𝑅 ⏟
𝐵 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛)
𝑋 𝐴 𝐵

X 𝐴 𝐵 𝐴 𝑂𝑅 𝐵 𝑋 ⇔ (𝐴 𝑂𝑅 𝐵)
T T T T T
T T F T T
T F T T T
F F F F T
F T T T F
F T F T F
F F T T F
T F F F F

B. DeMorgan’s Laws

Example 1.82
A. Show using a truth table that ~(𝑃 𝐴𝑁𝐷 𝑄) = (~𝑃) 𝑂𝑅 (~𝑄)
B. Show using Venn Diagrams that (𝑃 ∩ 𝑄)′ = (𝑃′ ∪ 𝑄′)

Part A
P Q ~𝑃 ~𝑄 𝑃 𝐴𝑁𝐷 𝑄 (~)(𝑃 𝐴𝑁𝐷 𝑄) (~𝑃) 𝑂𝑅(~𝑄)
T T F F T F F
T F F T F T T
F T T F F T T
F F T T F T T

Part B

Example 1.83
A. Show using a truth table that ~(𝑃 𝑂𝑅 𝑄) = (~𝑃)𝐴𝑁𝐷(~𝑄)
B. Show using Venn Diagrams that (𝑃 ∪ 𝑄)′ = (𝑃′ ∩ 𝑄′)

Part A

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P Q ~𝑃 ~𝑄 (~𝑃)𝐴𝑁𝐷(~𝑄) 𝑃 𝑂𝑅 𝑄 ~(𝑃 𝑂𝑅 𝑄)
T T F F F T F
T F F T F T F
F T T F F T F
F F T T T F T

C. More Equivalences

Example 1.84: Contrapositive Law

𝑃 ⇒ 𝑄 = (~𝑄) ⇒ (~𝑃)

𝑷 𝑸 𝑷⇒𝑸 ~𝑄 ~𝑃 (~𝑄) ⇒ (~𝑃)

𝑇 𝑇 𝑇 F F T
𝑇 𝐹 𝐹 T F F
𝐹 𝐹 𝑇 F T T
𝐹 𝑇 𝑇 T T T

Example 1.85
𝑷 ⇒ 𝑸 = (~𝑃) 𝐴𝑁𝐷 𝑄

𝑷 𝑸 𝑷⇒𝑸 ~𝑃 (~𝑃) 𝑂𝑅 𝑄
𝑇 𝑇 𝑇 F T
𝑇 𝐹 𝐹 F 𝐹
𝐹 𝐹 𝑇 T 𝑇
𝐹 𝑇 𝑇 T 𝑇

Example 1.86
𝑃 ⇒ 𝑄 = (𝑃 𝐴𝑁𝐷 ~𝑄) ⇒ (𝑄 𝐴𝑁𝐷 ~𝑄)

𝑷 𝑸 𝑷 ~𝑄 ~𝑃 𝑃 𝐴𝑁𝐷 ~𝑄 𝑄 𝐴𝑁𝐷 ~𝑄 (𝑃 𝐴𝑁𝐷 ~𝑄)

⇒𝑸 ⇒ (𝑄 𝐴𝑁𝐷 ~𝑄)
𝑇 𝑇 𝑇 F F F F 𝑇
𝑇 𝐹 𝐹 T F T F 𝐹
𝐹 𝐹 𝑇 F T F F 𝑇
𝐹 𝑇 𝑇 T T F F 𝑇

Example 1.87
𝑃 𝑂𝑅 𝑄, ~(~𝑃 𝑂𝑅 ~𝑄)

𝑃 𝑄 P AND ~𝑃 ~𝑄 ~𝑃 𝑂𝑅 ~𝑄 ~(~𝑃 𝑂𝑅 ~𝑄
Q
𝑇 𝑇 T F F F T
𝑇 𝐹 F F T T F
𝐹 𝐹 F T F T F
𝐹 𝑇 F T T T F

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1.5 Direct Proof

A. Direct Proof
Components of a proof:
➢ Given: Facts/properties which are assumed at the beginning of a proof
➢ Logical sequence of steps, which connect the given statements to the conclusion
➢ The final conclusion, which says that if the conditions of the proof are met, then the conclusion holds.

For example, consider the quadratic

𝑥 2 + 7𝑥 + 10 = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 ∈ {−2, −5}
The above is an example where we are solving for specific values. In a proof, we often to solve the general case.

Example 1.88: Equations and Properties

Consider a quadratic in standard form, given by 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0, 𝑎 ≠ 0, 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ ℝ.
−𝑏±√𝑏2 −4𝑎𝑐
A. Show that the roots are 2𝑎
.
B. Prove Vieta’s Formulas for a quadratic.

Part A
Divide throughout by 𝑎 to make leading coefficient one:
𝑏 𝑐
𝑥2 + 𝑥 + = 0
𝑎 𝑎
Add and subtract the square of half the second term in preparation to complete the square:
𝑏 𝑏 2 𝑏 2 𝑐
[𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + ( ) ] − ( ) + = 0
𝑎 2𝑎 2𝑎 𝑎
Rewrite the terms inside the square brackets as a perfect square.
𝑏 2 𝑏2 𝑐
[𝑥 + ] − 2 + = 0
2𝑎 4𝑎 𝑎
Isolate the perfect square term on the LHS:
𝑏 2 𝑏2 𝑐
[𝑥 + ] = 2 −
2𝑎 4𝑎 𝑎
Add the two fractions in the RHS by taking the LCM, and then take the square root on both sides:
𝑏 𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐
𝑥+ = ±√
2𝑎 4𝑎2
Simplify the denominator in the RHS, and isolate 𝑥 on the LHS to arrive at the standard quadratic formula.
−𝑏 ± √𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐
𝑥=
2𝑎
Part B
−𝑏 + √𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 −𝑏 − √𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 2𝑏 𝑏
𝑆𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑅𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑠 = + =− =−
2𝑎 2𝑎 2𝑎 𝑎
2 2 (−𝑏) 2 (𝑏 2
−𝑏 + √𝑏 − 4𝑎𝑐 −𝑏 − √𝑏 − 4𝑎𝑐 − − 4𝑎𝑐) 4𝑎𝑐 𝑐
𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑅𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑠 = ( )( )= = 2=
2𝑎 2𝑎 4𝑎2 4𝑎 𝑎

Example 1.89: Identities

(𝑎 + 𝑏)(𝑎 − 𝑏) = 𝑎2 − 𝑏 2
A. Prove the above identity algebraically.
B. Prove the above identity geometrically

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Part A: Algebraic
Apply the Distributive Property:
(𝑎 + 𝑏)(𝑎 − 𝑏) = 𝑎(𝑎 − 𝑏) + 𝑏(𝑎 − 𝑏) = 𝑎2 − 𝒂𝒃 + 𝒂𝒃 − 𝑏 2 = 𝑎2 − 𝑏 2
Part B: Geometric
𝑆𝑡𝑒𝑝 𝐼: Start with a square of side 𝑎. Choose 𝑏 < 𝑎, and remove an area equal to 𝑏 2 from the original square.
𝑆𝑡𝑒𝑝 𝐼𝐼: Divide the remaining area of the original square into two parts. Note the dimensions:
𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ = 𝑎, 𝑊𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ = 𝑎 − 𝑏 ,
⏟ 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ = 𝑎 − 𝑏, 𝑊𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ = 𝑏
⏟
𝐺𝑟𝑒𝑦 𝑅𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝐺𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑅𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒
𝑆𝑡𝑒𝑝 𝐼𝐼𝐼: Rotate the green rectangle, and place it alongside the grey rectangle, giving us:
𝐿𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑟 𝑅𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒: 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ = 𝑎 + 𝑏, 𝑊𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ = 𝑎 − 𝑏

The area of the ⏟

𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑔𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑆𝑡𝑒𝑝 𝐼 must match the area of the ⏟
𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑆𝑡𝑒𝑝 𝐼𝐼𝐼. Hence:
𝑎 2 −𝑏2 (𝑎+𝑏)(𝑎−𝑏)
(𝑎 + 𝑏)(𝑎 − 𝑏) = 𝑎2 − 𝑏 2

1.90: Transitive Property of Equality

If two things are equal to the same thing, then they are equal to each other.
∵ 𝑎 = 𝑏, 𝑏 = 𝑐 ⇒ 𝑎 = 𝑐

1.91: Counting the Elements of a Set Twice

If, for a set S, when counted in one way 𝑛(𝑆) = 𝑎, and when counted in a different way, 𝑛(𝑆) = 𝑏, then by the
transitive property of equality
𝑎 = 𝑛(𝑆) = 𝑏 ⇒ 𝑎 = 𝑏

Example 1.92
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
2𝑛 = ( ) + ( ) + ( ) + ⋯ + ( )
0 1 2 𝑛
A. Prove the identity above by using counting arguments.
B. Prove the identity above by using the binomial theorem.

Part A
I want to select zero or more out of 𝑛 distinguishable objects. For each object, I have two choices (to pick or not
pick):
⏟
2 × ⏟ 2 × …× ⏟ 2 ⇒ 2𝑛 = 𝐿𝐻𝑆
𝐹𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑁 𝑡ℎ
𝑂𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑂𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑂𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡

I can also pick zero or more out of 𝑛 distinguishable objects by picking 0 𝑂𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑠, 1 𝑂𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡, … , 𝑛 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑠
And the number of ways to do this is:
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
( ) + ( ) + ( ) + ⋯ + ( ) = 𝑅𝐻𝑆
0 1 2 𝑛

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But the number of ways to choose the objects has to be the same, irrespective of which method we use to count
it. Hence, by the transitive property of equality:
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
2𝑛 = ( ) + ( ) + ( ) + ⋯ + ( )
0 1 2 𝑛
Part B
By the binomial theorem:
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
𝑛 ∈ ℕ ⇒ (𝑥 + 𝑦)𝑛 = ( ) 𝑥 𝑛 𝑦 0 + ( ) 𝑥 𝑛−1 𝑦1 + ( ) 𝑥 𝑛−2 𝑦 2 + ⋯ + ( ) 𝑥 0 𝑦 𝑛
0 1 2 𝑛
Substitute 𝑥 = 1, 𝑦 = 1 in the above:
𝐿𝐻𝑆 = (𝑥 + 𝑦)𝑛 = (1 + 1)𝑛 = 2𝑛
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
𝑅𝐻𝑆 = ( ) + ( ) + ( ) + ⋯ + ( )
0 1 2 𝑛
And we know that:
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
𝐿𝐻𝑆 = 𝑅𝐻𝑆 ⇒ 2𝑛 = ( ) + ( ) + ( ) + ⋯ + ( )
0 1 2 𝑛

1.93: Casework Approach

You may need to break the property that you want to prove into different cases, and then handle each
separately.

Example 1.94: Inequalities

A. Prove the trivial inequality: 𝑎2 ≥ 0
𝑎+𝑏
B. Prove the AM-GM Inequality: 2
≥ √𝑎𝑏, 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℝ+
C. Prove Cauchy-Schwarz, which says given two sets of numbers 𝐴 = {𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , … , 𝑎𝑛 }, 𝐵 = {𝑏1 , 𝑏2 , … , 𝑏𝑛 }:
(𝑎1 𝑏1 + 𝑎2 𝑏2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛 𝑏𝑛 )2 ≤ (𝑎12 + 𝑎22 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛2 )(𝑏12 + 𝑏22 + ⋯ + 𝑏𝑛2 )

Part A
We have three cases
𝑎 = 0 ⇒ 𝑆𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑠𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑠
𝑎 > 0 ⇒ 𝑎2 > 0
𝑎 < 0 ⇒ 𝑎 = (−𝑥), 𝑥 > 0 ⇒ 𝑎2 = (−𝑥)2 = 𝑥 2 > 0 ⇒ 𝑎2 > 0
Part B
Substitute the definitions, clear fractions, square, move all terms to 𝑅𝐻𝑆 and then factor to get:
𝑎+𝑏
𝐴𝑀 ≥ 𝐺𝑀 ⇔ ≥ √𝑎𝑏 ⇔ 𝑎 + 𝑏 ≥ 2√𝑎𝑏 ⇔ 𝑎2 + 2𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏 2 ≥ 4𝑎𝑏 ⇔ (𝑎 − 𝑏)2 ≥ 0
2
The last always holds by the trivial inequality.

Note the use of biconditionals throughout. This is what lets us move “forward”, since the steps are reversible.
In general, we cannot begin with something that needs to be proved and manipulate it.
Part C
Consider the expression:
𝑋 = (𝑎1 𝑥 − 𝑏1 )2 + (𝑎2 𝑥 − 𝑏2 )2 + ⋯ + (𝑎𝑛 𝑥 − 𝑏𝑛 )2
Expand:
(𝑎12 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥𝑎1 𝑏1 + 𝑏12 ) + (𝑎22 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥𝑎2 𝑏2 + 𝑏22 ) + ⋯ + (𝑎𝑛2 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥𝑎𝑛 𝑏𝑛 + 𝑏𝑛2 )
Collate all like terms together:
(𝑎12 𝑥 2 + 𝑎22 𝑥 2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛2 𝑥 2 ) + (−2𝑥𝑎1 𝑏1 − 2𝑥𝑎2 𝑏2 − ⋯ − 2𝑥𝑎𝑛 𝑏𝑛 ) + (𝑏12 + 𝑏22 + ⋯ + 𝑏𝑛2 )
Factor:
𝑥 2 (𝑎12 + 𝑎22 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛2 ) − 2𝑥(𝑎1 𝑏1 + 𝑎2 𝑏2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛 𝑏𝑛 ) + (𝑏12 + 𝑏22 + ⋯ + 𝑏𝑛2 )

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The above is now a quadratic in 𝑥.

Since X is the sum of perfect squares, we must have:

𝑋 ≥ 0 ⇒ 𝑍𝑒𝑟𝑜 𝑥 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡, 𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑥 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡
⇒ 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑛𝑡 ≤ 0 ⇒ 𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 ≤ 0
Substitute the values from the quadratic above:
[−2(𝑎1 𝑏1 + 𝑎2 𝑏2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛 𝑏𝑛 )]2 ≤ 4(𝑎12 + 𝑎22 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛2 )(𝑏12 + 𝑏22 + ⋯ + 𝑏𝑛2 )
Simplify and divide both sides by 4:
𝑎1 𝑏1 + 𝑎2 𝑏2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛 𝑏𝑛 ≤ (𝑎12 + 𝑎22 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛2 )(𝑏12 + 𝑏22 + ⋯ + 𝑏𝑛2 )

B. Summation and Applications

Example 1.95: Arithmetic Series and Geometric Series

Show that the sum to 𝑛 terms of
A. an arithmetic series 𝑆 = 𝑎 + 𝑎 + 𝑑 + ⋯ + 𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑 with first term 𝑎, and common difference 𝑑, is
𝑛
𝑆𝑛 = 2 [2𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑].
𝑎(1−𝑟 𝑛 )
B. a geometric series 𝑆 = 𝑎 + 𝑎𝑟 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑟 𝑛−1 with first term 𝑎, and common ratio 𝑟, is 𝑆𝑛 = 1−𝑟

Part A
We write the sum twice, first in regular order, and then back to front.
𝑆= ⏟
𝑎 + 𝑎+𝑑
⏟ + ⋯+ 𝑎 ⏟+ (𝑛 − 1)𝑑
1𝑠𝑡 2𝑛𝑑 𝑛𝑡ℎ
𝑇𝑒𝑟𝑚 𝑇𝑒𝑟𝑚 𝑇𝑒𝑟𝑚
𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑 + ⏟
𝑆= ⏟ 𝑎 + (𝑛 − 2)𝑑 + ⋯ + ⏟
𝑎
𝑛𝑡ℎ (𝑛−1)𝑠𝑡 1𝑠𝑡
𝑇𝑒𝑟𝑚 𝑇𝑒𝑟𝑚 𝑇𝑒𝑟𝑚
Add the above two.
The left-hand side is simply:
2𝑆
The right hand is a little more complicated. But we add term by term:
1𝑠𝑡 𝑇𝑒𝑟𝑚 = 𝑎 + 𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑 = 2𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑
2𝑛𝑑 𝑇𝑒𝑟𝑚 = 𝑎 + 𝑑 + 𝑎 + (𝑛 − 2)𝑑 = 2𝑎 + 𝑑(1 + 𝑛 − 2) = 2𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑
.
.
.
𝐿𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑇𝑒𝑟𝑚 = 𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑 + 𝑎 = 2𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑

Now, each term is the same, and we have n terms. Hence, the total is:
𝑛[2𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑]
And, now we bring the left-hand side and the right-hand side together:
𝑛
2𝑆 = 𝑛[2𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑] ⇒ 𝑆 = [2𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑]
2
Part B
Multiply both sides of the given series by 𝑟:
𝑟𝑆 = 𝑎𝑟 + 𝑎𝑟 2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑟 𝑛−1 + 𝑎𝑟 𝑛
𝑆 = 𝑎 + 𝑎𝑟 + 𝑎𝑟 2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑟 𝑛−1
𝑎(𝑟 𝑛 − 1) 𝑎(1 − 𝑟 𝑛 )
𝑟𝑆 − 𝑆 = 𝑎𝑟 𝑛 − 𝑎 ⇒ 𝑆(𝑟 − 1) = 𝑎(𝑟 𝑛 − 1) ⇒ 𝑆 = =
𝑟−1 1−𝑟

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Example 1.96

For −1 < 𝑟 < 1:

𝑛 → ∞ ⇒ 𝑟𝑛 → 0
Hence, for an infinite geometric series, the formula for the sum simplifies to:
𝑎(1 − 𝑟 𝑛 ) 𝑎(1 − 0) 𝑎(1)
= = =𝑎
1−𝑟 1−𝑟 1−𝑟

Example 1.97
Show that the remainder when a polynomial function 𝑓(𝑥) is divided by a linear expression 𝑥 − 𝑎 is the same as
the value of the function at the root of the expression.
𝑓(𝑥) 𝑟
= 𝑃(𝑥)
⏟ + ⇒ 𝑟 = 𝑅𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 = 𝑓(𝑎)
𝑥 − 𝑎 𝑄𝑢𝑜𝑡𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑥 − 𝑎

𝑓(𝑥) = 7, 𝑃(𝑥) = 1, 𝑟 = 2, 𝐷𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑟 = 5:

7 2
= 1 + ⇒ 7 = (5)(1) + 2
5 5

𝑓(𝑥) 𝑟
= 𝑃(𝑥)
⏟ +
𝑥−𝑎 𝑥−𝑎
𝑄𝑢𝑜𝑡𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡
The above is an identity since it is always true for some value of 𝑃(𝑥), and some value of 𝑟. Multiply both sides
of the above identity by equality by 𝑥 − 𝑎 to get:
𝑓(𝑥) = ⏟(𝑥 − 𝑎) 𝑃(𝑥)
⏟ + ⏟
𝑟
𝐷𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑟 𝑄𝑢𝑜𝑡𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑅𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟
Substitute 𝑥 = 𝑎:
𝑓(𝑎) = (𝑎 − 𝑎)𝑃(𝑥) + 𝑟 = (0)𝑃(𝑥) + 𝑟 = 0 + 𝑟 = 𝑟

Example 1.98
𝑝𝑛 − 𝑞 𝑛 = (𝑝 − 𝑞)(𝑝𝑛−1 + 𝑝𝑛−2 𝑞 + ⋯ + 𝑞 𝑛−1 ), 𝑛 ∈ ℕ
A. Show that the above is true for 𝑛 = 2, 𝑛 = 3
B. Use the Remainder Theorem to show that the LHS is divisible by 𝑝 − 𝑞.
C. Use the formula for the sum of a geometric series to show that the above is an identity.

Part A
𝑝2 − 𝑞 2 = (𝑝 − 𝑞)(𝑝 + 𝑞)
𝑝 − 𝑞 = (𝑝 − 𝑞)(𝑝3 𝑞0 + 𝑝2 𝑞 + 𝑝𝑞 2 + 𝑝0 𝑞 3 )
4 4

Part B
Consider this as a polynomial in 𝑝.
𝑝−𝑞 =0⇒𝑝 =𝑞
Substitute 𝑝 = 𝑞 in 𝑝𝑛 − 𝑞 𝑛 :
𝑞𝑛 − 𝑞𝑛 = 0
Part C
Note that the expression in the second bracket of the RHS is a geometric series with first term 𝑝𝑛−1 and
𝑞 𝑞
common ratio 𝑝. Substitute 𝐹𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑇𝑒𝑟𝑚 = 𝑎 = 𝑝𝑛−1 , 𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑛 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 = 𝑟 = 𝑝 in the formula for the sum of a
geometric series:

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𝑞 𝑛 𝑝𝑛 − 𝑞 𝑛
𝑎(1 − 𝑟 𝑛) 𝑝𝑛−1 [1 − (𝑝) ] 𝑝𝑛−1 [ 𝑝𝑛 ]
𝑆= = 𝑞 = 𝑝−𝑞
1−𝑟 1−𝑝 𝑝
Dividing by a fraction is the same as multiplying by its reciprocal:
𝑛−1
𝑝𝑛 − 𝑞 𝑛 𝑝 𝑝𝑛 − 𝑞 𝑛 𝑝𝑛 𝑝𝑛 − 𝑞 𝑛
𝑝 [ ]× =[ ]× =[ ]
𝑝𝑛 𝑝−𝑞 𝑝𝑛 𝑝−𝑞 𝑝−𝑞
Hence, the RHS simplifies to:
𝑝𝑛 − 𝑞 𝑛
(𝑝 − 𝑞)(𝑝𝑛−1 + 𝑝𝑛−2 𝑞 + ⋯ + 𝑞 𝑛−1 ) = (𝑝 − 𝑞) [ ] = 𝑝𝑛 − 𝑞 𝑛
𝑝−𝑞

Repeat the above question for:

𝑝𝑛 + 𝑞 𝑛 = (𝑝 + 𝑞)(𝑝𝑛−1 − 𝑝𝑛−2 𝑞 + ⋯ + 𝑞 𝑛−1 ), 𝑛 = 2𝑚 + 1, 𝑚∈ℕ

Part A
𝑝2 + 𝑞 2
𝑝 + 𝑞 = (𝑝 + 𝑞)(𝑝2 − 𝑝𝑞 + 𝑞 2 )
3 3

Part B
Consider this as a polynomial in 𝑝.
𝑝 + 𝑞 = 0 ⇒ 𝑝 = −𝑞
Substitute 𝑝 = −𝑞 in 𝑝𝑛 + 𝑞 𝑛 :
(−𝑞)𝑛 + 𝑞 𝑛 = 0 ⇒ −𝑞 𝑛 + 𝑞 𝑛 = 0
Part C
Note that the expression in the second bracket of the RHS is a geometric series with first term 𝑝𝑛−1 and
𝑞 𝑞
common ratio (− 𝑝). Substitute 𝐹𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑇𝑒𝑟𝑚 = 𝑎 = 𝑝𝑛−1 , 𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑛 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 = 𝑟 = − 𝑝 in the formula for the sum
of a geometric series:
𝑛−1 𝑞 𝑛 𝑛−1 𝑞𝑛 𝑛
𝑛−1 𝑝 + 𝑞
𝑛
𝑎(1 − 𝑟 𝑛) 𝑝 [1 − (− ) ] 𝑝 [1 − (− 𝑛 )] 𝑝 [ 𝑛 ]
𝑝 𝑝 𝑝
𝑆= = 𝑞 = 𝑞 = 𝑝+𝑞
1−𝑟 1 − (− 𝑝) 1 − (− 𝑝)
𝑝
Dividing by a fraction is the same as multiplying by its reciprocal:
𝑝𝑛 + 𝑞 𝑛 𝑝 𝑝𝑛 + 𝑞 𝑛 𝑝𝑛 𝑝𝑛 + 𝑞 𝑛
𝑝𝑛−1 [ ] × = [ ] × = [ ]
𝑝𝑛 𝑝+𝑞 𝑝𝑛 𝑝+𝑞 𝑝+𝑞
Hence, the RHS simplifies to:
𝑝𝑛 + 𝑞 𝑛
(𝑝 + 𝑞)(𝑝𝑛−1 − 𝑝𝑛−2 𝑞 + ⋯ + 𝑞 𝑛−1 ) = (𝑝 + 𝑞) [ ] = 𝑝𝑛 + 𝑞 𝑛
𝑝+𝑞

Example 1.99: Arithmetico-Geometric Series

𝑎 + (𝑎 + 𝑑)𝑟 + (𝑎 + 2𝑑)𝑟 2 + ⋯ + [𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑]𝑟 𝑛−1
1 1 1
Find the value of 2 ∙ 4 ∙ 8 ∙ … ∞ (JEE Main 2002)
4 8 16

Convert each term to have a prime factor base:

1 1 1
(21 )4 ∙ (22 )8 ∙ (23 )16 ∙ … ∞
Use the exponent law (𝑎𝑚 )𝑛 = 𝑎𝑚𝑛 :
1 2 3
24 ∙ 28 ∙ 216 ∙ … ∞
Use the exponent law 𝑎 𝑥1 ∙ 𝑎 𝑥2 ∙ 𝑎 𝑥3 ∙ … = 𝑎 𝑥1 +𝑥2 +𝑥3 +⋯
1 2 3
24+8+16+⋯
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝑎𝑛 𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠: 1,2,3, …

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𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝑎 𝑔𝑒𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠: 4,8,16, …

We want to find the value of the exponent:
1 2 3
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑆𝑢𝑚 = 𝑆 = + + +⋯
⏟ 4 8 16
𝑬𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑰
1
Multiply both sides of the above by 2:
1 1 2 3
𝑆 =0+ + + +⋯
⏟
2 8 16 32
𝑬𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑰𝑰

Subtract Equation II from Equation I:

1 1 1 1
𝑆= + + +⋯
2 4 8 16
The above is a geometric series with
1 1
𝐹𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑇𝑒𝑟𝑚 = 𝑎 = , 𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑛 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 =
4 2
Substitute the above in the formula for the sum of an infinite geometric series:
1 1
1 𝑎 4 1 1
𝑆= = = 4 = ×2= ⇒𝑆 =1
2 1−𝑟 1− 1 1 4 2
2 2
Hence,
1 2 3
24+8+16+⋯ = 2𝑆 = 21 = 2
C. Axioms

1.100: Geometry
➢ A straight line can be drawn from one point to any other point
➢ A terminated line can be further produced indefinitely
➢ A circle can be drawn with any center and radius
➢ All right angles are equal to one another

1.101: 5Th Axiom

➢ If you have a line 𝑙, and a point 𝑃 not on the line, you can draw exactly one line through 𝑃 parallel to 𝑙.
➢ If a straight line falling on two other straight lines makes the interior angles on the same side of it taken
together less than two right angles, then the two straight lines if produced indefinitely meet the side on
which the sum of angles is less than two right angles.

Riemannian

Example 1.102
Sum of Angles of a Triangle

1.103: Sets
A set, informally, is a well-defined collection of objects.

We do not define a set since trying to define a set results in circular logic.

Example 1.104: Clock Arithmetic

Consider a mathematical system where the numbers are:

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{0,1,2,3, … ,24}
And also
24 = 0

Currently it is 20: 00 hours. What is the time 20 hours from now?

20 + 20 = 20 + 4 + 16 = 24 + 16 = 0 + 16 = 16

In regular natural numbers:

25 ≠ 1

However, in the system we just defined above:

25 ≡ 1

1.6 Proof by Mathematical Induction

A. Summation Formulas

1.105: Proof by Induction

Base Case: Show that a property is true for some natural number 𝑛.
Inductive Case: Show that if it is true for some 𝑛, 𝑛 ∈ ℕ, then it is true for 𝑛 + 1.

Example 1.106: Sums of Common Sequences

Prove the following formulas for the sum of a series using mathematical induction:
𝑛(𝑛+1)
A. 1 + 2 + ⋯ + 𝑛 = 2
,𝑛 ∈ ℕ
𝑛(𝑛+1)(2𝑛+1)
B. 12 + 22 + ⋯ + 𝑛2 = 6
,𝑛 ∈ℕ
𝑛(𝑛+1) 2
C. 13 + 23 + ⋯ + 𝑛3 = [ 2 ]

Part A Base Case: 𝒏 = 𝟏:

Base Case: 𝒏 = 𝟏: 𝐿𝐻𝑆 = 12 + 22 + ⋯ + 𝑛2 = 1
𝐿𝐻𝑆 = 1 + 2 + ⋯ + 𝑛 = 1 𝑛(𝑛 + 1)(2𝑛 + 1) 1(2)(3)
𝑛(𝑛 + 1) 1(2) 𝑅𝐻𝑆 = = =1
6 6
𝑅𝐻𝑆 = = =1 𝐿𝐻𝑆 = 𝑅𝐻𝑆 ⇒ 𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝐶𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑑
2 2
𝐿𝐻𝑆 = 𝑅𝐻𝑆 ⇒ 𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝐶𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑑 Inductive Case:
Inductive Case: Let the statement be true for 𝑘:
Let the statement be true for 𝑘: 𝑘(𝑘 + 1)(2𝑘 + 1)
𝑘(𝑘 + 1) 12 + 22 + ⋯ + 𝑘 2 =
6
1 +2 +⋯+ 𝑘 =
2 Add (𝑘 + 1)2 to both sides:
Add 𝑘 + 1 to both sides: 𝐿𝐻𝑆 = 12 + 22 + ⋯ + 𝑘 2 + (𝑘 + 1)2
LHS = 1 + 2 + ⋯ + 𝑘 + 𝑘 + 1 𝑘(𝑘 + 1)(2𝑘 + 1)
𝑘 2 + 𝑘 + 2𝑘 + 2 𝑅𝐻𝑆 = + (𝑘 + 1)2
6
𝑅𝐻𝑆 = 𝑘(𝑘 + 1)(2𝑘 + 1) + 6(𝑘 + 1)2
2
(𝑘 + 1)(𝑘 + 2) =
= 6
2 Factor out (𝑘 + 1):
(𝑘 + 1)(( 𝑘 + 1) + 1) (𝑘 + 1)[𝑘(2𝑘 + 1) + 6(𝑘 + 1)]
= =
2 6
Hence, it is true for 𝑘 + 1. This completes the proof. (𝑘 + 1)[2𝑘 2 + 𝑘 + 6𝑘 + 6]
=
Part B 6

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(𝑘 + 1)[2𝑘 2 + 7𝑘 + 6] Let the statement be true for 𝑘:

= 2
6 𝑘(𝑘 + 1)
(𝑘 + 1)[2𝑘 2 + 3𝑘 + 4𝑘 + 6] 13 + 23 + ⋯ + 𝑘 3 = [ ]
= 2
6 Add (𝑘 + 1)3 to both sides:
(𝑘 + 1)[𝑘(2𝑘 + 3) + 2(2𝑘 + 3)]
= 𝐿𝐻𝑆 = 13 + 23 + ⋯ + 𝑘 3 + (𝑘 + 1)3
6 2
(𝑘 + 1)(𝑘 + 2)(2𝑘 + 3) 𝑘(𝑘 + 1)
= 𝑅𝐻𝑆 = [ ] + (𝑘 + 1)3
6 2
(𝑘 + 1)((𝑘 + 1) + 1)(2(𝑘 + 1) + 1) 𝑘 2 (𝑘 + 1)2 + 4(𝑘 + 1)3
= =
6 4
Hence, it is true for 𝑘 + 1. This completes the proof. (𝑘 + 1)2 [𝑘 2 + 4(𝑘 + 1)]
=
Part C 4
Base Case: 𝒏 = 𝟏: (𝑘 + 1)2 (𝑘 + 2)2
=
𝐿𝐻𝑆 = 13 + 23 + ⋯ + 𝑛3 = 1 4
2 2 2
𝑛(𝑛 + 1) 1(2) (𝑘 + 1)(𝑘 + 2)
𝑅𝐻𝑆 = [ ] =[ ] = 12 = 1 =[ ]
2 2 2
𝐿𝐻𝑆 = 𝑅𝐻𝑆 ⇒ 𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝐶𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑑 Hence, it is true for 𝑘 + 1. This completes the proof.
Inductive Case:

Example 1.107
Show using mathematical induction that
A. 20 + 21 + ⋯ + 2𝑛 = 2𝑛+1 − 1

Example 1.108: Arithmetic Series and Geometric Series

Show, using mathematical induction that the sum to 𝑛 terms of:
𝑎(1−𝑟 𝑛 )
A. a geometric series 𝑆 = 𝑎 + 𝑎𝑟 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑟 𝑛−1 with first term 𝑎, and common ratio 𝑟, is 𝑆𝑛 =
1−𝑟
B. an arithmetic series 𝑆 = 𝑎 + 𝑎 + 𝑑 + ⋯ + 𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑 with first term 𝑎, and common difference 𝑑, is
𝑛
𝑆𝑛 = 2 [2𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑].

Part A 𝑎 − 𝑎𝑟 𝑘+1
Base Case: 𝒏 = 𝟏: =
1−𝑟
𝐿𝐻𝑆 = 𝑎 + 𝑎𝑟 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑟 𝑛−1 = 𝑎 𝑎(1 − 𝑟 𝑘+1 )
𝑎(1 − 𝑟 𝑛 ) 𝑎(1 − 𝑟1 ) =
1−𝑟
𝑅𝐻𝑆 = = =𝑎 Part B
1−𝑟 1−𝑟
𝐿𝐻𝑆 = 𝑅𝐻𝑆 ⇒ 𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝐶𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑑 Base Case: 𝒏 = 𝟏:
Inductive Case: 𝐿𝐻𝑆 = 𝑎 + 𝑎 + 𝑑 + ⋯ + 𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑 = 𝑎
Let the statement be true for 𝑘: 𝑛 1
𝑅𝐻𝑆 = [2𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑] = [2𝑎 + (1 − 1)𝑑] = 𝑎
𝑎(1 − 𝑟 𝑘 ) 2 2
𝑎 + 𝑎𝑟 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑟 𝑘−1 = 𝐿𝐻𝑆 = 𝑅𝐻𝑆 ⇒ 𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝐶𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑑
1−𝑟
Add 𝑎𝑟 𝑘 to both sides: Inductive Case:
𝐿𝐻𝑆 = 𝑎 + 𝑎𝑟 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑟 𝑘−1 + 𝑎𝑟 𝑘 Let the statement be true for 𝑘:
𝑎(1 − 𝑟 𝑘 ) 𝑘
𝑅𝐻𝑆 = + 𝑎𝑟 𝑘 𝑎 + 𝑑 + ⋯ + 𝑎 + (𝑘 − 1)𝑑 = [2𝑎 + (𝑘 − 1)𝑑]
1−𝑟 2
Add 𝑎 + 𝑘𝑑 to both sides:
𝑎 − 𝑎𝑟 𝑘 + 𝑎𝑟 𝑘 − 𝑎𝑟 𝑘+1
= 𝐿𝐻𝑆 = 𝑎 + 𝑑 + ⋯ + 𝑎 + (𝑘 − 1)𝑑 + 𝑎 + 𝑘𝑑
1−𝑟 𝑘
𝑅𝐻𝑆 = [2𝑎 + (𝑘 − 1)𝑑] + 𝑎 + 𝑘𝑑
2
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2𝑎𝑘 + 𝑘 2 𝑑 − 𝑘𝑑 + 2𝑎 + 2𝑘𝑑 (𝑘 + 1)
= = [2𝑎 + 𝑘𝑑]
2 2
2𝑎𝑘 + 2𝑎 + 𝑘 2 𝑑 + 𝑘𝑑 (𝑘 + 1)
= = [2𝑎 + (𝑘 + 1 − 1)𝑑]
2 2
2𝑎(𝑘 + 1) + 𝑘𝑑(𝑘 + 1) Hence, it is true for 𝑘 + 1. This completes the proof.
=
2

B. Inequalities

Example 1.109
Inequality

C. Divisibility

Example 1.110

D. Recurrence Relations

Example 1.111

1.7 Proof by Contradiction and Contraposition

A. Proof by Contradiction

Example 1.112
Probability - Parity
Irrationality of 2 (Number Theory)
Counting - PHP

B. Infinite Descent

1.113: Well Ordering Principle

Example 1.114: Infinite Descent

A. Show that when a perfect square is divided by 3, the remainder can be only 0 or 1.
B. Hence, or otherwise, show that the circle 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 3 has no rational points on it.
Part A
02 ≡ 0 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 3)
12 ≡ 1 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 3)
22 ≡ 4 ≡ 1 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 3)

(3𝑛)2 = 9𝑛2 ⇒ 𝑅𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 0

(3𝑛 + 1)2 = 9𝑛2 + 6𝑛 + 1 ⇒ 𝑅𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 1
(3𝑛 + 2)2 = 9𝑛2 + 6𝑛 + 4 ⇒ 𝑅𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 2

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Part B
Suppose, to the contrary, such rational points do exist. Then, for 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑 ∈ ℤ, gcd(𝑎, 𝑏) = 1, gcd(𝑐, 𝑑) = 1
we can write:
𝑎 2 𝑐 2 𝑎2 𝑐 2
( ) +( ) =3⇒ 2+ 2 =3⇒⏟ 𝑑2 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 𝑐 2 = 3𝑏 2 𝑑2
𝑏 𝑑 𝑏 𝑑 𝑬𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑰
Use a change of variable. For 𝑝, 𝑟, 𝑞 ∈ ℤ, let
𝑝2 = 𝑑2 𝑎2 , 𝑞 = 𝑏 2 𝑐 2 , 𝑟 = 𝑏 2 𝑑2 ⇒ gcd(𝑝, 𝑞, 𝑟) = gcd(𝑎𝑑, 𝑏𝑐, 𝑏𝑑) = 1
Then we can write Equation I as:
𝑝2 + 𝑞 2 = 3𝑟 2 ,
⏟ 𝑝, 𝑞, 𝑟 ∈ ℤ, gcd(𝑝, 𝑞, 𝑟) = 1
𝑬𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑰𝑰
In Equation II, the LHS is a multiple of 3, since the RHS is a multiple of 3. By Part A, 2 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 3) is not possible for
a perfect square. If we take
𝑝2 ≡ 1(𝑚𝑜𝑑 3) ⇒ 1 + 0 = 1, 1 + 1 = 2 ⇒ 𝐷𝑜𝑒𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑐ℎ 𝑅𝐻𝑆 ⇒ 𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
Hence,
𝑝2 ≡ 𝑞 2 ≡ 0 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 3)
Hence, we can write
(3𝑙)2 + (3𝑚)2 = 3𝑟 2 ⇒ 9𝑙 2 + 9𝑚2 = 3𝑟 2 ⇒ 3(𝑙 2 + 𝑚2 ) = 𝑟 2
However, notice that the RHS is a perfect square, and hence:
𝐿𝐻𝑆 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 3 ⇒ 𝑅𝐻𝑆 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 9
Hence, we can write:
3(𝑙 2 + 𝑚2 ) = (3𝑛)2 ⇒ 𝑙 2 + 𝑚2 = 3𝑛2
𝑝 𝑞 𝑟
Hence, we have found a new solution to our equation such that (𝑙, 𝑚, 𝑛) = ( , , ). However, we had earlier
3 3 3
shown that
gcd(𝑝, 𝑞, 𝑟) = 1 ⇒ 𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏

C. Cardinality and Infinity

1.115: Cardinality
Cardinality is the number of elements in a set.

Example 1.116
Find the cardinality of
A. {1,2,3, … ,100}
1 2 99
B. {3 , 3 , 3 }
C. {𝑥: 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 100}

1.117: Null Set / Empty Set

A set with no elements is called a null set.

𝜙, { } are ways of writing a null set

𝜙 is the Greek Letter 𝑃ℎ𝑖.

Note: This is different from the Greek Letter 𝜋, which you might have already seen in Geometry.

1.118: Subsets
If every element of the set 𝑋 is also an element of the set 𝑌, then 𝑋 is a subset of 𝑌.

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𝑋 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑌 ⇔ 𝑋 ⊆ 𝑌

1.119: Proper Subsets

If 𝑋 is a subset of 𝑌, and there is at least one element in 𝑌 which is not in 𝑋, then 𝑋 is a proper subset of 𝑌.
𝑋 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑌 ⇔ 𝑋 ⊂ 𝑌

1.120: Superset
If every element of the set 𝑋 is also an element of the set 𝑌, then 𝑌 is a superset of 𝑋.
𝑌 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑋 ⇔ 𝑌 ⊇ 𝑋

1.121: Proper Superset

If 𝑌 is a superset of 𝑋, and there is at least one element in 𝑌 which is not in 𝑋, then 𝑌 is a proper superset of 𝑋.
𝑌 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑋 ⇔ 𝑌 ⊃ 𝑋

1.122: Powerset
The powerset consists of the set of all subsets of a set.

Example 1.123
Consider the set
{𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶}
A. What is the powerset of the set
B. What is the cardinality of the powerset?

We already did this, without using the term powerset:

{{𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶}, {𝐴, 𝐵}, {𝐴, 𝐶}, {𝐴}, {𝐵, 𝐶}, {𝐵}, {𝐶}, {𝜙}}

And, we also calculated the cardinality of the above set, which is:
23 = 8

1.124: Cardinality of Powerset

Cardinality is the number of elements of a set.

The cardinality of the powerset of a set 𝐴 with 𝑛 elements is given by:

2𝑛

⏟
2 × ⏟
2 × …× ⏟
2 = 2𝑛
2 𝐶ℎ𝑜𝑖𝑐𝑒𝑠 2 𝐶ℎ𝑜𝑖𝑐𝑒𝑠 2 𝐶ℎ𝑜𝑖𝑐𝑒𝑠
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒
1𝑠𝑡 𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 2𝑛𝑑 𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑛𝑡ℎ 𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡

Example 1.125
ℕ = {1,2,3, … }

𝐶𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 ℕ = ∞

ℵ is often used to represent different kinds of infinity.

The infinity of the natural numbers is represented by ℵ0 . That is:
𝐶𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 ℕ = ℵ0

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Example 1.126

Consider the bijection principle

𝑆𝑒𝑡 𝐴 ℎ𝑎𝑠 𝑥 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠
𝑆𝑒𝑡 𝐵 ℎ𝑎𝑠 𝑦 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠

A bijection is a rule that associates exactly one element of A with exactly one element of B.
If you are able to establish a bijection, then the number of elements in the two sets is the same.

1.127: Cardinality Notation

𝐶𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝐴 = |𝐴|

Example 1.128
𝐶𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝕎 = ℵ0

There is a bijection between the two sets. Hence, they have the same cardinality:
|ℕ| = |𝕎| = ℵ0

Example 1.129
𝐶𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑋 = {100,101,102, … } = ℵ0

Subtract 99 from each element of the set. This changes the individual values, but does not change the
cardinality:
𝑋 ′ = {1,2,3, … } = ℵ0
|𝑋 ′ | = |𝑋| = ℵ0

Example 1.130
𝐶𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝔼 = {2,4,6,8, … } = ℵ0

ℕ 1 2 3 4 5 6 . . .
𝔼 2 4 6 8 10 12 . . .

Example 1.131
𝐶𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 ℚ = ℵ0

ℕ 1 2 3 4 5 6 . . .
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 2 3 4 5 6
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 . . .
1 2 3 4 5 6
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 . . .
1 2 3 4 5 6

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3 . . . . . . . . .
4 . . . . . . . . .
5 . . . . . . . . .

Example 1.132
Between any two rational numbers lie an infinite number of rational numbers.

Example 1.133
The infinity of real numbers is infinitely more than the infinity of natural numbers.

𝐶𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 ℝ ≠ ℵ0

We do a proof by contradiction.
Suppose that, there is a bijection between the natural numbers and the real numbers. Then, we can list down all
the real numbers in some table.

0 . 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 . . .
1 . 0 1 3 4 5 9 2 . . .
2 . 5 6 7 1 5 3 4 . . .
3 . 3 6 7 4 5 1 2 . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . .

Example 1.134
Diagonal Argument
Cardinality of finite and infinite sets
Incompleteness Theorems

D. Proof by Contraposition

Example 1.135

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Truth Table
Proofs

1.8 Knights and Knaves

A. Definitions

1.136: Knights and Knaves

➢ Knights always speak the truth.
➢ Knaves always lie.

Example 1.137: Getting the same answer

A. Are you a Knight?
B. Are you a Knave?

Knight Knave
A. Yes Yes
B. No No

Example 1.138: Getting different Answers

I meet a Knight, and one is a Knave. Determine which one is which by asking a single question.
Note: You cannot ask questions based on eternal truths such as “Is 2 a prime number”, or common knowledge
such as “What time is it”.

If I ask the other person standing here, “Are you a Knight” what will he respond?

Case I: Knight
⏟
𝐾𝑛𝑎𝑣𝑒 ⇒ 𝑌𝑒𝑠
𝐿𝑖𝑒,𝑌𝑒𝑠
Case I: Knave
𝐾𝑛𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
⏟ ⇒ 𝑁𝑜
𝑇𝑟𝑢𝑡ℎ,𝑌𝑒𝑠

Example 1.139
I am on an island. I come to a crossroads. I know that one road leads to the capital city, and the second road
leads to the dragon’s lair. Two people are standing at the crossroads. I know that one of them is a Knight, and
one of them is a Knave. What 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 question should I ask to find which road goes to the capital city?

If I ask the other person standing here, which is the road that goes to the dragon’s lair, what will he respond?

𝐾𝑛𝑎𝑣𝑒 → 𝐾𝑛𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
⏟ → 𝐿𝑖𝑒
𝑇𝑟𝑢𝑡ℎ
𝐾𝑛𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 → 𝐾𝑛𝑎𝑣𝑒
⏟ → 𝐿𝑖𝑒
𝐿𝑖𝑒

Example 1.140
You come across a group of three people. You ask them, “How many of you are Knaves”?
A responds, “Exactly 1 of us is a Knave”.

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B responds, “Exactly 2 of us are Knaves”.

C responds, “Exactly 3 of us are Knaves”.

Determine, if possible, how many are actually knaves, and who they are.

Note that the actual number of Knaves in the group must be 2, since out of the three statements, only 1
statement can be correct, which means the other two must be wrong.
Hence, B is a Knight, and the other two are Knaves.

Correct No. of A B C Actual

Statement Knaves No. of
Promised Knaves
A 1 Knight Knaves Knaves 2 Inconsistent
B 2 Knaves Knight Knaves 2 Consistent
C

Example 1.141
You come across a group of three people. You ask them, “How many of you are Knight”?
A responds, “Exactly 1 of us is a Knight”.
B responds, “Exactly 2 of us are Knights”.
C responds, “Exactly 3 of us are Knights”.

Determine, if possible, how many are actually knaves, and who they are.

Example 1.142
You come across a group of 𝑛 people. You ask them, “How many of you are Knights”?
A responds, “Exactly 1 of us is a Knight”.
B responds, “Exactly 2 of us are Knights”.
C responds, “Exactly 3 of us are Knights”.
And so on, until the 𝑛𝑡ℎ person responds
Exactly n of us are Knights

Determine the Knights.

B. Guaranteed Outcomes

Example 1.143

C. Consistency

Example 1.144
You meet A and B. A says the following:
I: B is a Knave.
II: Only one of us is a Knave.

Determine, if possible, which type are A and B.

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Case I: A is a Knight ⇒ 𝑰 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑰𝑰 𝒂𝒓𝒆 𝒕𝒓𝒖𝒆

From I, B is a Knave.
Overall, A is a Knight and B is a Knave. This is consistent with Statement II.

Case II: A is a Knave ⇒ 𝑰 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑰𝑰 𝒂𝒓𝒆 𝒍𝒊𝒆𝒔

From I, B is a Knight.
Overall, A is a Knave and B is a Knight.
This makes II correct.
This is not consistent, since A is a Knave.

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1.9 Syllogisms
A. Foundations
We can go from the general to the particular.

1.145: General to Particular

If something is true in general for a class of objects, it is true for a subclass of that object.

Example 1.146
Can you conclude Statement B from Statement A?
A. Rohan has coffee every day of the week in the morning.
B. Rohan has coffee on Sunday in the morning.

Example 1.147
Is C true given that A and B are true statements?
A. Every even integer is divisible by 2.
B. Every multiple of 4 is an even integer.
C. Therefore, every multiple of 4 is divisible by 2.

Example 1.148
Is Statement B a valid conclusion from Statement A?
A. Everyone who wears a red hat likes movies.
B. Some who wear a red hat like movies.

Statement B is a weaker version of Statement A.

Hence, it is true.

B. Existential Import
Existential Import refers to whether a statement implies that at least one of a particular set exists.

𝐺𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡: 𝐴𝑙𝑙 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑛𝑠 𝑙𝑖𝑘𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑗𝑢𝑚𝑝 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑜𝑛.

There is at one unicorn, and all unicorns like to jump over the moon.
The existence of unicorns is indicated by this statement.

𝑃𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡: 𝑆𝑜𝑚𝑒 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑛𝑠 𝑙𝑖𝑘𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑗𝑢𝑚𝑝 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑜𝑛.

There is at one unicorn, and some of those unicorns like to jump over the moon.
The existence of unicorns is indicated by this statement.

Example 1.149
Can you conclude Statement B from Statement A?
A. 𝐴𝑙𝑙 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑛𝑠 𝑙𝑖𝑘𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑗𝑢𝑚𝑝 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑜𝑛.
B. 𝑆𝑜𝑚𝑒 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑛𝑠 𝑙𝑖𝑘𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑗𝑢𝑚𝑝 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑜𝑛.

Yes, you can.

C. Statement Type-I

1.150: All A’s are B (No A is not B)

Definite Conclusion: Some B’s are A’s.

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Possible Conclusion: Some B’s are not A’s

Example 1.151
𝐴𝑙𝑙 𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠 𝑙𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑎
Which of the following statements can be logically concluded from the above statement?
A. Some Asian’s are Indians.
B. Some Asian’s are not Indians.

Part A
Statement A is true in both cases.

Part B
Statement B is true in Case I, but not true in Case II.
Hence, it is not true in general.

Example 1.152
𝐴𝑙𝑙 𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒𝑠
Decide whether the following statements are valid conclusions from the above statement?
1. All rectangles are squares
2. Some rectangles are squares
3. Some rectangles are not squares

Case I Case II Overall

All rectangles are squares 𝐹 𝑇 𝐹
Some rectangles are squares 𝑇 𝑇 𝑇
Some rectangles are not squares 𝑇 𝐹 𝐹

Example 1.153
Decide whether the second statement is a valid conclusion from the first?
A. There is no Blue which is not Red.
B. There is some Red, which is not Blue.

𝐶𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝐼 → 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑑
𝐶𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝐼𝐼 → 𝑁𝑜𝑡 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑑

𝑂𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙: 𝑁𝑜𝑡 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑑

D. Statement Type-II

1.154: Some A’s are B

Definite Conclusion: Some B’s are A’s

Example 1.155
𝑆𝑜𝑚𝑒 𝑑𝑜𝑔𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑠.
Decide whether the following statements are valid conclusions from the above statement?
A. Some dogs are not animals.
B. All dogs are animals.
C. Some animals are dogs.

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D. Some animals are not dogs.

Case I Case II Case III Overall

Some dogs are not animals. T F F F
All dogs are animals. F T T F
Some animals are dogs. T T T T
Some animals are not dogs. T T F F

Example 1.156
Is the second statement a valid conclusion from the first?
A. Some rectangles are squares.
B. All rectangles are squares.

E. Statement Type-III

1.157: No A is B
Definite Conclusion: No B is A

This means that A and B are disjoint sets.

Example 1.158
𝑁𝑜 𝑑𝑜𝑔 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑙.
Decide whether the following statements are valid conclusions from the above statement?
A. No animal is a dog.
B. Some animals are not dogs.
C. Some animals are dogs.
D. Some dogs are not animals.
E. Some dogs are animals.

Overall
No animal is a dog. T
Some animals are not dogs.
Some animals are dogs. F
Some dogs are not animals.
Some dogs are animals. F

F. Statement Type-IV

1.159: Some A’s are not B’s

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Example 1.160
Draw the Venn Diagram for the statement:
𝑆𝑜𝑚𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑑𝑜𝑔𝑠

G. Syllogisms (3 Statement Questions)

Syllogisms were developed in classical Greece. They consist of the following format:

𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 1
𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 2
𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 3

1.161: Valid Syllogism

A valid syllogism has three statements, out of which the third statement is a logical conclusion from 𝒃𝒐𝒕𝒉 of the
preceding statements.

If the third statement is a valid conclusion, but makes use of only one of the statements, then it is not a valid
syllogism.

Example 1.162
1. 𝐴𝑙𝑙 𝑀𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑎𝑖𝑘𝑎𝑟𝑠 𝑙𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑎.
2. 𝐴𝑙𝑙 𝑡ℎ𝑜𝑠𝑒 𝑤ℎ𝑜 𝑙𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑎, 𝑙𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑎.
For each of the following statements, decide if it is logically valid. If it is logically valid, state which statement(s)
are needed to make the conclusion?
A. Some Mumbaikars live in India.
B. Some Asians do not live in India
C. All Mumbaikars live in Asia
D. Some Indians live in Asia
E. Some Asians live in India

Validity Statements Valid

Syllogism
Some Mumbaikars live in India. 𝑇 1 𝑁𝑜
Some Asians do not live in India. 𝐹 𝑁𝑜
All Mumbaikars live in Asia. 𝑇 1,2 𝑌𝑒𝑠
Some Indians live in Asia. 𝑇 2 𝑁𝑜
Some Asians live in India. 𝑇 2 𝑁𝑜
Some Asians are Mumbaikars. 𝑇 1,2 𝑌𝑒𝑠

Example 1.163
𝐴𝑙𝑙 𝐷𝑜𝑔𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝐴𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑠
𝐴𝑙𝑙 𝐴𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑉𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑒𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠

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For each of the following statements, decide if it is logically valid. If it is logically valid, state which statement(s)
are needed to make the conclusion?
A. All Dogs are Vertebrates
B. Some Vertebrates are Animals
C. Some Dogs are Animals

Validity Statements Valid

Syllogism
All Dogs are Vertebrates T 1,2 Yes
Some Vertebrates are Animals T 2 No
Some Dogs are Animals T 1 No

Example 1.164
Can you conclude the third statement on the basis on both the preceding statements?
A. Some mangoes are Alphonso mangoes.
B. Alphonso mangoes taste sweet.
C. Some mangoes taste sweet.

𝑌𝑒𝑠
Example 1.165
Can you conclude the third statement on the basis on both the preceding statements?
A. Some children like Maths.
B. Children who like Maths also like Science
C. Children who like Science also like Maths

𝑁𝑜

Example 1.166
No birds like rain.
No sparrows like rain.
Consider the statement below. Can we conclude any of the below statements:
A. All sparrows are birds.
B. All birds are sparrows.
C. Some birds are sparrows.
D. Some sparrows are birds.
E. No sparrows are birds.
F. No birds are sparrows.

H. Pick 3 out of 6 Type

I. Modern Logic/Existential Import

Existential Import refers to whether a statement implies that at least one of a particular set exists.

𝐺𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡: 𝐴𝑙𝑙 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑛𝑠 𝑙𝑖𝑘𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑗𝑢𝑚𝑝 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑜𝑛.

Any unicorns that exist like to jump over the moon.
There is 𝑛𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑏𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑎𝑖𝑑 about the number of unicorns.

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𝑃𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡: 𝑆𝑜𝑚𝑒 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑛𝑠 𝑙𝑖𝑘𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑗𝑢𝑚𝑝 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑜𝑛.

There is 𝑎𝑡 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑛, and some of those unicorns like to jump over the moon.
The existence of unicorns is indicated by this statement.

Example 1.167
Can you conclude Statement B from Statement A?
A. 𝐴𝑙𝑙 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑛𝑠 𝑙𝑖𝑘𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑗𝑢𝑚𝑝 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑜𝑛.
B. 𝑆𝑜𝑚𝑒 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑛𝑠 𝑙𝑖𝑘𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑗𝑢𝑚𝑝 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑜𝑛.

You cannot conclude Statement B from Statement A, since Statement B requires the set of unicorns to be non-
null, whereas Statement A does not

J. Exam Questions-II

Example 1.168
If all alligators are ferocious creatures and some creepy crawlers are alligators, which statement(s) must be
true? (AMC 10 2000/21)
I. All alligators are creepy crawlers.
II. Some ferocious creatures are creepy crawlers.
III. Some alligators are not creepy crawlers.

Example 1.169
Assume that, for a certain school, it is true that
I: Some students are not honest.
II: All fraternity members are honest.
A necessary conclusion is:
A. Some students are fraternity members.
B. Some fraternity member are not students.
C. Some students are not fraternity members.
D. No fraternity member is a student.
E. No student is a fraternity member. (AHSME 1968/10)

Case I Case II Case III Overall

Some students are fraternity members. T T F F
Some fraternity member are not F T T F
students.
Some students are not fraternity T T T T
members.
No fraternity member is a student. F F T F
No student is a fraternity member. F F T F

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Solution using Existential Import

(Official Solution)

Statements A and B require that the set of all fraternity members is non-empty. But Hypothesis I and II do not
require this. Therefore, Statements A and B are not valid.

The given hypothesis would let the set of fraternity members be a non-empty set of the set of all students. But D
and E do not allow this. (In other words, D and E are in conflict with Case I and II above).

Example 1.170: Group Question

Amit, Balvinder, Chetan and Deepak are employed in a company, where they have to share among themselves
the work load that consists of six tasks A, B, C, D, E and F. The following statements identify their preferences
for the different tasks:
➢ All those who like task B also like task E.
➢ All those who like task C also like task D.
➢ All those who like task E do not like task C, and vice-versa.
➢ Some of those who like task E also like task A
➢ Some of those who like task D also like task E
➢ All those who like task D also like task F. (JMET 2008)

Amit enjoys the task D. Which of the following must be true? (JMET 2008/62)
A. He may or may not like the task C.
B. He does not like the task B.
C. He likes the task A.
D. He likes the task C.

Someone who enjoys task D belongs to Set D.

➢ From the diagram, both cases of option A are possible.

Hence, option A is correct.

Balvinder likes the task B. He may also like any of the following tasks
except: (JMET 2008/63)
A. Task A
B. Task C.
C. Task D
D. Task E

From the diagram, 𝑏 potentially has a non-null intersection with A, D and E.

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Hence, option B is correct (task C has no intersection with task B).

Chetan likes the task C. Which of the following must be false? (JMET 2008/64)
A. He does not like the task A.
B. He likes the task F.
C. He does not like the task B.
D. He may like the task E.

From the diagram, c and e are disjoint.

Hence, option D is correct.

Based on the information provided, which of the following statements must be true? (JMET 2008/65)
A. All those who like the task E also like the task C.
B. None of those who do not like the task F like the task A.
C. Those who like the task A may or may not like the task C.
D. None of those who like the task B do not like the task D.

e and c are disjoint. Hence, option A is false.

Those who are do not like refers to the set outside of 𝑓. However, this can be inside of 𝑎. Hence, option B is
false.
The intersection between 𝑐 and 𝑎 can be null or non-null. Hence, option C is correct.
The people who like task 𝑏 may or dislike task d. Hence, option D is incorrect.

1.10 Puzzles, Games and Families

A. Odd Man Out

Example 1.171
I have 8 balls out of which one is heavier, and the rest have equal weights. I also have a scale with two parts, on
which I can weight the balls, and find out whether the left side is heavier, the right side is heavier or both are
equal.
A. Give an algorithm that will determine the heavier ball in three steps.
B. Generalize your answer to find the number of steps required if we have 𝑛 balls instead of 8.

Part A
Step I: Number the balls 1,2,3, … ,8 and divide them into two sets
{1,2,3,4}{5,6,7,8}
Put one set of the left side of the scale, and the other set on the right side of the scale.
Whichever side is heavier has the culprit.

Step II:
We have four balls. Divide into sets of 2, and repeat.

Step III:
We have two balls. Put one on each side of the scale.

Part B
Let us write the number of balls from which we can find the heavier in 𝑥 steps
𝐿𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑆𝑡𝑒𝑝: 2 𝐵𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑠 = 21
𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝐿𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑆𝑡𝑒𝑝: 4 𝐵𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑠 = 22

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𝑇ℎ𝑖𝑟𝑑 𝐿𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑆𝑡𝑒𝑝: 8 𝐵𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑠 = 23

2𝑥 ≤ 𝑛 < 2𝑥+1
𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑡𝑒𝑝𝑠 = 𝑥 𝑖𝑓 2𝑥 = 𝑛
𝐸𝑙𝑠𝑒 𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑡𝑒𝑝𝑠 = 𝑥 + 1

Example 1.172
I have 9 balls out of which one is heavier, and the rest have equal weights. I also have a scale with two parts, on
which I can weight the balls, and find out whether the left side is heavier, the right side is heavier or both are
equal.
A. Give an algorithm that will determine the heavier ball in two steps.
B. Generalize your answer if we have 𝑛 balls instead of 9.

Part A
Step I
This time divide the ball into three sets:
{1,2,3}{4,5,6}{7,8,9}
Put the first two sets on the left and right side of the scales, respectively.
➢ If the scale tilts to the left, the heavier ball is in the set {1,2,3}
➢ If the scale tilts to the right, the heavier ball is in the set {4,5,6}
➢ If the scales are equal, the heavier ball is in the set {7,8,9}

Step II
As before, make three groups, one with a ball in each, and repeat the process.

Part B
𝐿𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑆𝑡𝑒𝑝: 3 𝐵𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑠
𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝐿𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑆𝑡𝑒𝑝: 9 𝐵𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑠
𝑇ℎ𝑖𝑟𝑑 𝐿𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑆𝑡𝑒𝑝: 27 𝐵𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑠

3𝑥 ≤ 𝑛 < 3𝑥+1
𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑡𝑒𝑝𝑠 = 𝑥 𝑖𝑓 3𝑥 = 𝑛
𝐸𝑙𝑠𝑒 𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑡𝑒𝑝𝑠 = 𝑥 + 1

Example 1.173: Weighing Sacks of Grain

A charity has ten truckloads of grain delivered to it. Each truck has 100 sacks, and each is supposed to have 100
kg of grain. However, one truck has sacks of grain which are only 99 kg each. The charity has a truck scale that
will gives the weight of whatever is put on top of it. The maximum number of sacks that can be weighed
together is 100. The manager thinks of a strategy to find out which truck has the sacks with less grain. He takes
a sack from each truck, and weighs it individually. This will need the weighing to be done ten times.
A. Think of a strategy where the weighing needs to be done only nine times.
B. Think of a strategy where the weighing needs to be done only once.

Take:
1 𝑠𝑎𝑐𝑘 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑇𝑟𝑢𝑐𝑘 1
2 𝑠𝑎𝑐𝑘𝑠 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑇𝑟𝑢𝑐𝑘 2
.
.
.

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9 𝑠𝑎𝑐𝑘𝑠 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑇𝑟𝑢𝑐𝑘 9

The total number of sacks is:
9 × 10
1 + 2 + 3 + ⋯+ 9 = = 45 𝑆𝑎𝑐𝑘𝑠
2
If all sacks had been 100 kg, then the weight would have
45 × 100 = 4500
However, the actual weight will be less than 4500 by the truck number that has the sacks with less weight.

Example 1.174: Poisoned Wine Bottle

A king has 100 bottles of wine, exactly one of which is poisoned. He has rats to which he can give the wine. He
wants to determine the poisoned bottle. A rat drinking poisoned wine dies with 100% probability 24 hours
within after drinking the wine. Determine the valid strategy. We need to determine the poisoned bottle in 24
hours. There can be many different objectives. We consider three of them. Answer each part independently:
A. Minimize 𝑑 = Number of dead rats
B. Minimize 𝑛 = Number of rats
C. Minimize 𝑛𝑑, where 𝑛 and 𝑑 are defined above

Part A
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑅𝑎𝑡 𝑛 𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑘 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝐵𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑙𝑒 𝑛
𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑠 𝑛𝑒𝑒𝑑𝑒𝑑 = 99
𝐷𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑠 = 1 𝑂𝑅 𝐷𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑠 = 0

The expected number of dead rats is:

99 1
1× +0× = 0.99
100 100
Part B

Example 1.175: Poisoned Wine Bottle

Answer the above question if a rat drinking poisoned dies with 100% probability 24 hours exactly after
drinking the wine.

B. State Puzzles

Example 1.176
A man needs to transport a wolf, a goat and some grass.

Example 1.177
JMET 2009 46
Three married couples on a journey come to a river where they find a boat that cannot carry more than two
persons at a time. An additional condition is that a lady cannot be left on either bank where other men are
present, without her husband.
(1) These people will not be able to cross the river.
(2) They will be able to cross the river in 9 steps.
(3) They will be able to cross the river in 10 steps.
(4) They will be able to cross the river in 13 steps.

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C. Games
D. Families

Example 1.178: Siblings

Each of my three sisters have two brothers. Each of my brothers has four sisters. What is the number of siblings
in the family?

Suppose the first brother has sisters 𝑆𝑡𝑒𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑒, 𝑅𝑜𝑠𝑒, 𝑀𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑒, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐷𝑎𝑤𝑛.
Stephanie Bill
Rose Richard
Melanie
Dawn

1.11 Arrangements
A. Linear Arrangements

Example 1.179
Mala, Devi, Sita, Emma and Kala are sitting in a park. Which girl is sitting farthest to the right? (NMTC Primary-
Screening, 2006/20)
A. Mala is not sitting on the farthest right, and Devi is not sitting on the farthest left.
B. Sita is not sitting at the farthest left or farthest right.
C. Kala is not sitting next to Sita, and Sita is not sitting next to Devi.
D. Emma is sitting to the right of Devi, but not necessarily next to her.

× 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛𝑠 𝑁𝑜𝑡 𝑃𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒

From Clues A and B, we get:

1 2 3 4 5
Mala ×
Devi ×
Sita × ×
Emma
Kala

From Clue D:

1 2 3 4 5
Mala ×
Devi × ×
Sita × ×
Emma × ×
Kala

This leaves us with only two people who can sit in the first position, Mala and Kala.
Suppose, Mala is sitting in the first position, and Kala is sitting in the last position.

1 2 3 4 5
Mala Mala × × × ×

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Devi × × ×
Sita × ×
Emma × × ×
Kala × × × × Kala

This position results in a contradiction.

1 2 3 4 5
Mala Mala ×
Devi × Devi ×
Sita × Sita ×
Emma × × × × Emma
Kala Kala ×

Example 1.180: Redundant Information1

Five flags, each with a distinct symbol namely Panther, Tiger, Rose, Swan and Quail have been arranged in the
following order:
1. Panther is next to Quail, and Swan is next to Rose.
2. Swan is not next to Tiger, Tiger is on the extreme left-hand side, and Rose is on the second position from
the right-hand side.
3. Panther is on the right-hand side of Quail and to the right side of Tiger.
4. Panther and Rose are together.

Which of the following statements is true?

A. 3 and 4 are contradicting
B. Either 3. or 4. is redundant.
C. 3. is redundant
D. 4. is redundant (JMET 2009/49)

Analysis P
The focus of the question is on Statements 3 and 4, Q
which are either contradicting or redundant. So, we R R
begin with Statements 1 and 2. S
T T
Statements 1 and 2
Statement 1 is difficult to make use of immediately. 𝑆𝑤𝑎𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑛𝑒𝑥𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑇𝑖𝑔𝑒𝑟:
Start with Statement 2. 1 2 3 4 5
𝑇𝑖𝑔𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑥𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡 − ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒: P
1 2 3 4 5 Q
P R R
Q S
R T T
S
T T Now, Statement 1 is useful. Panther is next to Quail
means that they have to be in slots 2 and 3 (though
𝑅𝑜𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒: we do not know which one is which).
1 2 3 4 5

1
This question in the exam had two other questions which were associated with it (which were quite easy to solve after the
arrangement was identified).

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Use Statement 3 This

Left Right
𝑃𝑎𝑛𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 − ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑄𝑢𝑎𝑖𝑙. tells
Corridor
This means that Panther is in Slot 3, and Quail is us
Slot 2. Swan is Slot 5. Our arrangement is complete: that
Panther is in Slot 3, and Quail is Slot 2. Swan is Slot
1 2 3 4 5 5. Our arrangement is (again) complete, and we get
P P the same arrangement as above.
Q Q 1 2 3 4 5
R R P P
S S Q Q
T T R R
S S
Use Statement 4 T T
Start with the position reached at the end of
Statement 2. Hence, only one of Statement 3 and 4 is needed.
𝑃𝑎𝑛𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑅𝑜𝑠𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑡𝑜𝑔𝑒𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟. Option B is correct.

Example 1.181: Double Linear Arrangement2

There are six blocks of rooms along a straight corridor in a hotel with each block containing two rooms facing
other.
The following group of twelve people: J
itender, Lakshman, Mary, Narayan, Pankaj, William, Chandra, Ahmed, Balu, Ferosh, Esha and Rajender has
occupied some of these rooms. There are a maximum of two people in a room, and some rooms may be empty.
A. Lakshman and his roommate stay two blocks to the right of Ahmed and his roommate Chandra.
B. Jitender stays alone, three blocks to the left of William and two blocks to the left of Esha.
C. Mary stays one block to the left of Ahmed and Chandra.
D. Narayan stays three blocks to the right of the block on which Balu and Ferosh have single rooms.
E. Rajender and Pankaj stay in single rooms two blocks to the left of Mary.

Jitender arranges to move into a room two blocks to the left, whose occupant moves into a room one block to
the right. In turn, the occupant of this room moves into a room three blocks to the right, whose occupant(s)
take Jitender's old room. Who is/are the new occupant(s) of Jitender’s old room? (JMET 2008/57)

Statement A E
Ahmed and Chandra (𝐴 − 𝐶) cannot be in the two J
rightmost blocks.
1 2 3 4 5 6 Statement C
A-C Combined with what we know about Ahmed and
Chandra, Mary cannot be in the three rightmost
Statement B blocks
William and Esha cannot be in the three leftmost 1 2 3 4 5 6
blocks, and two leftmost blocks respectively. A-C
Jitender cannot be in the rightmost three blocks W
E
1 2 3 4 5 6 J
A-C M
W

2
The exam had a total of six questions on this information. The other five were quite easy to solve once the arrangement was
identified.

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Statement M M
1 2 3 4 5 6
D N
A- AC
Narayan RP RP
C
cannot stay
W
in the Statement A (Revisited)
E
leftmost Lakshman and his roommate must be in block 6.
J
M M three
N blocks
RP RP
L+ L+
1 2 3 4 5 6
A-C
W
E
J
M
N
Statement D (Revisited)
Statement E Till now, we have ignored the double nature of the
Mary cannot occupy the two leftmost rooms. corridor. We now bring that into the picture, and
make a table of the type given in the question:

Narayan is three blocks to the right of Balu and

R Ferosh, and they occupy single rooms. The only
block they can stay is 2, and Narayan must be in
P M AC L+ Block 5
1 2 3 4 5 6
A-C R B N L+
W
E P F M AC
J
M Statement B (Revisited)
N Since the leftmost two blocks are occupied Jitender
must stay in Block 3, and Esha must stay in Block 5
Finally, we have a specific location. Mary must be in
block 3, and Ahmed/Chandra must be in block 4: R B J N LW
1 2 3 4 5 6
A-C AC P F M AC E
W
E We are now finally in a position to answer the
J question asked:
M M ➢ Jitender arranges to move into a room two
N blocks to the left (𝑅𝑎𝑗𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑂𝑅 𝑃𝑎𝑛𝑘𝑎𝑗)
➢ Whose occupant moves into a room one
Also, Rajender and Pankaj must stay in block 1: block to the right (𝐵𝑎𝑙𝑢 𝑂𝑅 𝐹𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑠ℎ)
1 2 3 4 5 6 ➢ In turn, the occupant of this room moves
A-C AC into a room three blocks to the right whose
W occupant(s) take Jitender's old room. Who is/are
E the new occupant(s) of Jitender’s old room?
J (𝑁𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑦𝑎𝑛 𝑂𝑅 𝐸𝑠ℎ𝑎 𝑂𝑅 𝑏𝑜𝑡ℎ)

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𝑁𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑦𝑎𝑛 𝑂𝑅 𝐸𝑠ℎ𝑎 𝑂𝑅 𝑏𝑜𝑡ℎ

Final Answer

B. Ranking

Example 1.182
Albert, David, Jerome and Tommy were plucking mangoes in a grove to earn some pocket money during the
summer holidays. Their earnings were directly related to the number of mangoes plucked and had the
following relationship:
Jerome got less money than Tommy. Jerome and Tommy together got the same amount at Albert and David
taken together. Albert and Tommy together got less than David and Jerome taken together.
Rank them according to the money earned by each. (CAT 1990/106, Adapted)

𝐽 < 𝑇, 𝐴+𝑇 < 𝐷 +𝐽,

⏟ 𝐽+𝑇 = 𝐴+𝐷
⏟
𝑰𝒏𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒍𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝑰 𝑬𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑰
Subtract Equation I from both sides of Inequality I:
𝐴 − 𝐽 < 𝐽 − 𝐴 ⇒ 2𝐴 < 2𝐽 ⇒ 𝐴 < 𝐽
Rearrange Inequality I to get 𝑇 − 𝐽 < 𝐷 − 𝐴 and subtract Equation I from both sides of that:
2𝑇 < 2𝐷 ⇒ 𝑇 < 𝐷
𝐴<𝐽<𝑇<𝐷

Example 1.183
Students rank the business schools based on the following factors: Average salary of a fresh graduate, terminal
degree of faculty members, and institutional facilities. In their final ranking school, A is ranked higher than
school B. Which of the following will ensure that school A is ranked higher than school B? (JMET 2008/67)
A. The average salary of fresh graduates from school A is 60% less than the average salary of fresh
graduates from school B.
B. The average salary of fresh graduates from school A is 80% more than the average salary of fresh
graduates from school B.
C. All the faculty members in school A have a doctoral degree while in school B only 50% of the faculties
have a doctoral degree.
D. In all the factors school A is marginally better than school B.

We do not know the weights assigned to the different factors. We do not even whether the ranking is done
using a weighted average, or a pure ranking method. Hence, an option that discusses an individual factor is
difficult to mark true.

However, option D says that on every parameter, A is better than B. Hence, option D is correct.

Example 1.184
JMET 2011 (Ranking) 31-34
An ice-cream maker is experimenting with six chemical essences, U, V, W, X, Y and Z for developing a new
flavour called "SWEETER & HEALTHIER". The details of these chemical essences are as follows:
1. U is sweeter than V and healthier than Z.
2. V is sweeter than Y and less healthy than Z.
3. W is less sweet than X and less healthy than U.
4. X is less sweet and healthier than Y.
5. Y is less sweet and healthier than U.
6. Z is sweeter than U and less healthy than W.

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𝑍<𝑈
Consider sweetness first 2: V is less healthy than Z:
U is sweeter than V: 𝑉<𝑍<𝑈
𝑉<𝑈 3: W is less healthy than U
V is sweeter than Y: 𝑉<𝑍<𝑈
𝑌<𝑉<𝑈 𝑊<𝑈
W is less sweet than X 4: X is healthier than Y
𝑊 < 𝑋, 𝑌<𝑉<𝑈 𝑉<𝑍<𝑈
X is less sweet than Y: 𝑊<𝑈
𝑊<𝑋<𝑌<𝑉<𝑈 𝑌<𝑋
Z is sweeter than U: 5: Y is healthier than U
𝑊<𝑋<𝑌<𝑉<𝑈<𝑍 𝑉<𝑍<𝑈<𝑌<𝑋
𝑊<𝑈
Consider healthiness: Z is less healthy than W:
1: U is healthier than Z: 𝑉<𝑍<𝑊<𝑈<𝑌<𝑋

Which is the sweetest essence?

(1) U
(2) W
(3) X
(4) Z

Which of the following essences is/are both sweeter and healthier than V?
(1) U only
(2) W only
(3) Z only
(4) U & Z only

Which of the following essences is/are sweeter than Y and healthier than W?
(1) U only
(2) V only
(3) Z only
(4) U & V only

Which is the least healthy essence?

(1) U
(2) V
(3) W
(4) Y

C. Circular Arrangements

D. Scheduling

Example 1.185
JMET 2011 (Multiple Parameters)
Directions for Questions 40 to 43: Read the following information and answer the questions.

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The owner of the house has been murdered. The visitors to the house were Aditya, Vijay and Puneet. The
following additional information is also given.
1. The murderer who was one of the three visitors, arrived at the house later than at least one of the other two
visitors.
2. The driver of the house who was one of the three visitors, arrived at the house earlier than at least one of the
two visitors.
3. The driver arrived at the house at midnight.
4. Neither Aditya nor Vijay arrived at the house after midnight.
5. Between Vijay and Puneet, the one who arrived earlier was not the driver.
6. Between Aditya and Puneet, the one who arrived later was not the murderer.

Who arrived at the house earliest?

(1) Puneet
(2) Aditya
(3) Vijay
(4) Data insufficient

Who is the murderer?

(1) Puneet
(2) Aditya
(3) Vijay
(4) Data insufficient

Who is the driver?

(1) Puneet
(2) Vijay
(3) Aditya
(4) Data insufficient

Who arrived at the house last?

(1) Puneet
(2) Aditya
(3) Vijay
(4) Data insufficient

Example 1.186
𝐴𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑦𝑧𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛.
Every morning five friends Mahima, Nimisha, Omez, Parul and Quan go to the railway station and board a train
that stops at six subsequent stations which are numbered 1 to 6. The train stops at Station 1 and proceeds in
numerical order to Station 6.
1. Mahima gets off either at Station 1 or at Station 2.
2. Omez always gets off one station before or one station after Quan's station.
3. Parul always gets off at Station 3.
4. Quan always gets off at Station 4, 5 or 6.
5. No one re-boards the morning train after getting off.

From Statements 1,3, and 4: M

N
1 2 3 4 5 6 O
P

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Q M
N
From Statement 2: O
P
1 2 3 4 5 6 Q

On a morning, when no one gets off at Station 5 or 6, which of the following MUST be true? (JMET 2011/35)
(1) Mahima gets off at Station 2
(2) Nimisha gets off at Station 2
(3) Omez gets off at Station 4
(4) Omez and Parul get off at the same station

For this question, no one gets off at Station 5 or 6. This forces Quan to get off at 4, which forces Omez
to get off at 3, which then makes option 4 correct.
1 2 3 4 5 6
M 1 2 3 4 5 6
N M
O N
P O
Q P
Q

On a morning, when Quan gets off at Station 4 and no more than two of the friends get off at any one station,
which of the following MUST be true? (JMET 2011/36)
(1) If Nimisha gets off at Station 2, Mahima gets off at Station I.
(2) If Nimisha gets off at Station 3, Omez gets off at Station 5.
(3) If Nimisha gets off at Station 4, Omez gets off at Station 5.
(4) If Omez gets off at Station 3, Nimisha gets off at Station 2.

Quan gets off at Station 4, and hence Omez must get off at either Station 3 or Station 5.
1 2 3 4 5 6
M
N
O
P
Q

Consider option 2. Nimisha gets off at Station 3. Parul always get off at Station 3. Now the two-person limit for
Station 3 is reached, and the only station for Omez to get off is Station 5.

At which stations is it possible for Nimisha and Omez to be the only friends getting off the morning train? (JMET
2011/37)

1 2 3 4 5 6
M
N
O
P

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Omez cannot get off at Stations 1 and 2. Hence, 1 and 2 are not possible.
Parul gets off at Station 3. Hence, Nimisha and Omez cannot be the only ones getting off at Station 3.

If Omez gets off at Station 4, Quan must get off at Station 5. And Nimisha can also get off at Station 4. Hence, the
required condition is met.

1 2 3 4 5 6
M
N
O
P
Q

If Omez gets off at Station 5, Quan must get off at Station 4 or 6. And Nimisha can also get off at Station 5. Hence,
the required condition is met.

1 2 3 4 5 6
M
N
O
P
Q

Similarly, station 6 is also possible.

The possible stations are Stations 4, 5 and 6.

On a morning, when no one gets off at Station I and each of the five friends gets off at a different station, which
of the following cannot be true? (JMET 2011/38)
(1) Nimisha gets off one station before Quan.
(2) Parul gets off one station before Omez.
(3) Mahima gets off at Station 2.
(4) Nimisha gets off at Station 5.

No one gets off at Station 1, leaving only Station 2 for Manisha. Also, Parul gets off at Station 3.

1 2 3 4 5 6
M
N
O
P
Q

Consider option 4. If Nimisha gets off at 5, Omez and Quan need to get off at 4 and 6. They are separated by two
stations, which violates the condition that Omez gets off before Quan, or after Quan.

1 2 3 4 5 6
M
N

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O
P
Q

Option 4 is correct.
Sports Name Occ Age
E. Complex Arrangements
2
3 𝑇𝑇, 𝐶ℎ𝑒𝑠𝑠 Oldest
4 Example 1.187
5 engineer while Amisha is the industrialist and plays
There are five friends Amisha, Binaya, Celina, Daisy table tennis at the national level. Daisy plays cricket
and Eshaan. Two of them play table tennis while the and football player stays on floor 4. Celina stays on
other three play different games, viz. football, cricket floor 5. Only one of the friends is younger than Daisy.
and chess. One table tennis player and the chess Who all stay on floor 3? (JMET 2009/32)
player stay on the same floor while the other three (1) Amisha and Binaya
stay on floors 2, 4 and 5. Two of the players are (2) Daisy and Eshaan
industrialists while the other three belong to (3) Binaya and Daisy
different occupations viz. teaching, medicine and (4) Celina and Daisy
engineering. The chess player is the oldest while one What does Eshaan play? (JMET 2009/33)
of the table tennis players, who plays at the national Who stays on floor 4? (JMET 2009/34)
level, is the youngest. The other table tennis player Age wise, who among the following lies between
who plays at the regional level is between the Binaya and Eshaan? (JMET 2009/35)
football player and the chess player in age. Daisy is a What is the occupation of the chess player?
regional player and stays on floor 2. Binaya is an (JMET 2009/36)

3 𝑇𝑇 − 𝑁 𝐴𝑚𝑖𝑠ℎ𝑎 𝐼𝑛𝑑 Oldest

Daisy is a regional player, stays on floor 2, and she 𝐶ℎ𝑒𝑠𝑠 Binaya 𝐸𝑛𝑔
plays cricket. 4 Football Eshaan
Celina stays on floor 5. 5 𝑇𝑇 − 𝑅 Celina
Football player stays on floor 4.
The national level TT player (Amisha) is the
Sports Name Occ Age youngest.
2 Cricket Daisy Only one of the friends is younger than Daisy, which
3 𝑇𝑇, 𝐶ℎ𝑒𝑠𝑠 Oldest means Daisy is second youngest.
4 Football The other table tennis player who plays at the
5 Celina regional level (𝐶𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑎) is between the football
player (𝐸𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑎𝑛) and the chess player in age
From question 32, we know that Daisy stays on (𝐵𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑦𝑎).
floor 2, and hence the correct option is Amisha and
Binaya. Since plays TT at the national level, we can Sports Name Occ Age
assign the correct sport. Also, Amisha is an 2 Cricket Daisy 2𝑛𝑑 𝑌𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑠𝑡
industrialist and Binaya is an engineer 3 𝑇𝑇 − 𝑁 𝐴𝑚𝑖𝑠ℎ𝑎 𝐼𝑛𝑑 Youngest
The only person left for Floor 4 is Eshaan. 𝐶ℎ𝑒𝑠𝑠 Binaya 𝐸𝑛𝑔 Oldest
The only sport left Celina is 𝑇𝑇 − 𝑅 4 Football Eshaan 3𝑟𝑑 𝑌𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑠𝑡
5 𝑇𝑇 − 𝑅 Celina 4𝑡ℎ 𝑌𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑠𝑡
Sports Name Occ Age
2 Cricket Daisy

F. Other

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Example 1.188
Fact 1: A project team consisting of males and females has four members.
Fact 2: Two of the members are proficient in mathematics and the other two are proficient in computer
programming.
Fact 3: Half the members are female.
If the first three statements are facts, then which of the following statements must also be a fact?
I. At least one female member is proficient in mathematics.
II. Two of the members are male.
III. The male members are proficient in computer programming. (JMET 2008/48)

II is correct.

Example 1.189
Fact 1: Manoj said, "Anush and I both went to a movie last night."
Fact 2: Anush said, "I was only studying last night."
Fact 3: Manoj always tells the truth, but Anush sometimes lies.
If the first three statements are facts, then which of the following statements must also be a fact?
I. Anush went to a movie last night.
II. Manoj went to a movie last night.
III. Anush was studying last night. (JMET 2008/49)

I and II are correct.

Example 1.190
Fact 1: Chairs cost between Rs. 200 to Rs. 2,000.
Fact 2: Some chairs are made of aluminium.
Fact 3: Some chairs are made of plastic.
If the first three statements are facts, then which of the following statements must also be a fact?
I. Aluminium chairs cost more than plastic chairs.
II. Expensive chairs last longer than cheap chairs.
III. Plastic chairs cost around Rs. 200 and aluminium chairs cost around Rs. 2000. (JMET 2008/50)

We cannot conclude any statement.

Example 1.191
Fact 1: All metros have ring roads.
Fact 2: Delhi is a metro.
Fact 3: Delhi has a population of more than 5 million.
If the first three statements are facts, then which of the following statements must also be a fact?
I. Delhi has a ring road.
II. All metros have a population more than 5 million.
III. All cities with a ring road are metros. (JMET 2008/51)

I is correct

1.12 Critical Path

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1.13 Numerical Logic

A pattern in an arrangement can have a rule that is followed row-wise, or column-wise. Based on the rule,
missing values can be determined.

A. Basic Arithmetic Operations

The four basic arithmetic operations are:
➢ Addition
➢ Subtraction
➢ Multiplication
➢ Division

Example 1.192

3 12 7
5 10 1
8 22 A

Rule is addition-based.
3+5=8
12 + 10 = 22
𝐴 =7+1=8

Example 1.193

12 4 8
6 4 2
20 12 A

Rule is subtraction-based.
12 − 4 = 8
6−4=2
20 + 12 = 32 = 𝐴

Example 1.194

36 24 12
3 4 1
12 6 A

Rule is division based

36
= 12
3
24
=6
4
12
=𝐴
1

Example 1.195

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3 5 1
4 5 1
12 B 1

Rule is multiplication based

3 × 4 = 12
1×1=1
5 × 5 = 25
B. Combining Operations

Example 1.196

3 2 12
5 7 10
16 15 X

Rule is
𝑀𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎𝑑𝑑 1

3 × 5 + 1 = 15 + 1 = 16
2 × 7 + 1 = 14 + 1 = 15
12 × 10 + 1 = 120 + 1 = 121

C. Further Questions

Challenge 1.197

3 4 5
5 12 13
6 8 A

198 Examples

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