Proposal for Post-Doctoral Fellowship (ICSSR)

2017-18

Socio-Economic profile of Burhanpur during

the Seventeenth Century

By

Dr. Ambika Singh

[email protected]
Contact – 7017662576

Supervisor – Dr. Jawaid Akhtar

(Associate Professor)

Affiliated Institute: Centre of Advanced Study, Department of History,

Aligarh Muslim University,
Aligarh,
202002
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Socio-Economic profile of Burhanpur

during the Seventeenth Century

Introduction and Problem Statement

With the advent of the seventeenth century, many towns in northern India witnessed a
paradigm shift in their social and economic status. Towns evolved as centers of trade and
administration. Along with that various industries flourished in such towns. While the center
of attraction have always been the big towns like Agra, Delhi, Lahore, Ahmedabad, Surat,
Patna etc., it is about time that Burhanpur got its due. Although the glory, prosperity and
significance of Burhanpur is not hidden or ignored in the works of travellers and
contemporary writers, no one has specifically focused on the town’s socio-cultural and
economic aspects as well as its development as an urban centre during the seventeenth
century.

Burhanpur is situated at 21º 18 ´ N. and 76º 14 ´ E. The town stands on the north bank of the
Tapti River. The most critical factor which enhances the importance of the town of
Burhanpur is its strategic location, i.e. connectivity with prominent towns though well-
defined trade routes (Map I). First and foremost, Burhanpur was connected to the capital city
of Agra in the North via Gwalior and Dholpur which served as an important trade and
administrative route. This allowed Burhanpur easy access to the cotton and textile industries
of Agra and also to the markets of Delhi. It was also connected with Ujjain in the North
providing an alternative route to the travellers and merchants. To the West it was connected
with a prominent route to Surat, Cambay, Gogha and Ahmedabad which provided a
connection to established commerce centres of Gujarat and specially the ship-building
industry and similarly Burhanpur connected these port towns to other major towns of India
through land routes. To the South, it connects to Masulipatam in the Coromandel Coast via
Bidar and Golconda where Dutch factories flourished along the industries of ship building.
Also, connecting Golconda gave Burhanpur commercial access to the diamonds, indigo and
spices of the province. Again, in the south east, though not directly it connects to Goa via
Golconda and Bijapur. Overall, it acted as a junction to all the major towns and their
industries, which makes Burhanpur not only an urban centre but also an entrepot and puts in a
favourable position in terms of prospect economic and commercial growth.
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Map I
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Furthermore, it evolved as an administrative centre which gave rise to the development of

other industries in the vicinity. It also was an important religious centre and a prestigious seat
of learning and education.

Objective of the Study

All the factors mentioned above have been described and discussed by various travellers and
writers both contemporary and modern but in fragments. The information is scattered and
there is no complete account on the overall structure of Burhanpur as an important town
during the seventeenth century. This makes it although more important to study the several
aspects and draw a complete picture of the town of Burhanpur.

Thus, the objective of this work is to assimilate the fragments of information available and
ascertain a socio-economic profile of Burhanpur and its role in the economic activities of the
seventeenth century India.

Conceptual Framework of the Study

As the objective of the study is to obtain a socio-economic profile of Burhanpur, the study
would encompass the historical data available from various sources such as archival,
regional, primary and secondary. Thus, an analytical framework would be formed to compare
and corroborate the information. This would bring out a complete picture of Burhanpur as a
town, its significance, reasons for its growth and development etc. On the other hand, the
empirical data would also be studied with the same analytical approach to outline its socio-
economic aspect and its contribution in the economy during the seventeenth century; which
would drive the purpose of this study.

Research Question

The main theme of the study is to identify the factors which led to the growth and
development of Burhanpur. Thus, this study would question all the factors which lead to the
growth and development of a town such as its geographic location, its connectivity with other
towns through roads and waterways, the layout of the town and its architecture etc.
Furthermore, the industries which contributed to the economy, the common trade practices,
the imports and exports as well as the contribution of the merchant class would also be
questioned in this study. Lastly, the socio-cultural aspect of the town would also be studied,
which would bring out a complete picture of Burhanpur.
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Review of Literature

European Travelogues

RALPH FITCH (1583-91) - Ralph Fitch, a merchant from London, travelled to India from
1583-91. He visited almost the whole northern India, Burhanpur, Cambay, Diu and Goa. He
talks about the prosperity, population and expansion of Burhanpur.

SIR THOMAS ROE (1615-1619) - Sir Thomas Roe came to India in 1615. His travelogue
throws much light on commercial conditions and prospects, the description of cities, socio-
cultural aspects and other Indian affairs. He describes the chief cities of the Mughal Empire
based on his personal experience as well as the information in the royal register.

FRANCISCO PELSAERT (1620-1627) - Francisco Pelsaert gives a vivid description of

Agra city and the development of commerce and trade of the different provinces particularly
of Ahmedabad, Khambayat, Surat, Broach, Lahore, Burhanpur, Multan and Thatta. He has
discussed about the walls of Burhanpur and their extent. He has also mentioned about the
cotton production between Burhanpur and Surat.

PETER MUNDY (1628-1634) - Peter Mundy’s description of Agra, Fathehpur Sikri,

Burhanpur, Patna, Banaras, Ajmer and Surat etc. are very valuable. He has spoken of the
Gates and the public buildings of Burhanpur.

JOHN BAPTISITE TAVERNIER (1640-1661) - Tavernier visited all the important towns
of the country like Agra, Delhi, Burhanpur, Lahore, Surat, Cambay and Dacca. The principal
value of the work consist in his observations on the towns and cities, the contemporary
condition of the trade, highways, administration of the towns, security of travels and his
occasional comments on the social and economic life of the period.

In his account, there is information about the fort, carvansarais and trade routes connecting
Burhanpur to other towns. He further mentions textile industry and muslin of Burhanpur sent
to the foreign countries. He says in this context, “There is a great trade in this city as overall
province, there is made a prodigious quantity of calicuts very clear and white, which are
transported into Persia, Turkey, Muscovia, Poland, Arabia, to Grand Cairo, with flowers, of
which the women make veils and scrafs; the same calicuts serve for coverlets for beds, and
for handkerchiefs. There is another sort of linen which they never dye, with a stripe or two of
gold or silver quite through the piece… which they carry into Poland, where they have a vast
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utterance… some of these linens are made purposely for swathband or sashes, and these are
called ornis….those that are not above two ells long are worn by the ladies of quality for
veils and scarfs of which there are a vast quantity vended in Persian and Turkey. They make
at Brampoure also other sorts of cotton-linen; for indeed there is no province in the Indies
which more abounds in cotton.”

NICCOLAO MANUCCI VENETIAN (1653-1708) - Niccolao Manucci, reached India in

1656 while only 14 years old from Venice, Italy. He visited a large number of towns and
travelled through Burhanpur, Handiyah, Sironj, Narwar, Gwalior, Dholpur, Agra and Delhi.
Manucci’s detailed description of the various towns, about their general appearance,
commerce, industry and administration is based on his personal visits, observations and
experiences.

JEAN DE THEVENOT (1667) – Thevenot remained only a year or so in India, but he

visited a very large number of town and places. He speaks about the town of Burhanpur, the
fort, public amenities various industries, carvansarais and the development of markets. He
gives an extraordinary vivid picture of the city: “Brampour is a great town standing upon
standing upon very uneven ground; there are some streets very high, and others again so
low, that they look like ditchs when one is in the higher streets…the houses are not at all
handsome because most of them are only built of earth; however, they are covered with the
varnished tiles, and the various colors of the roofs, mingling with the verdure of a great many
trees of different kinds, planted on all hands, makes the prospect pleasant enough. There are
two caravanserais in it, one appointed for lodging strangers and other for keeping the kings
money, which the treasurers receive from the province; that for the strangers is far more
spacious than the other, it is square and both of them front towards the meidan. That is a very
large place, for it is at least five hundred paces long, and three hundred and fifty broad; but
it is not pleasant, because it is full of ugly huts, where the fruiterers sell their fruit and
herbs.”

Factory Records and Letters Received from the servants

In addition to the European travellers' accounts, the Factory records of the various Companies
trading in the East form a very valuable original source of information for the history of the
period of our study. These series cover the period from 1600 to 1708. These letters and
records which have been mainly collected by William Foster, deal mainly with the history of
Indo-European trade, the commercial transactions of the foreigners in the different towns of
 6

the country, the towns which were the principal marts for European trade and the region
where different goods were manufactured.

The Letters of the servants of the Company, though mainly concerned with trade and
commerce throw important sidelight on the administration, and social and economic life of
the country. These letters also contained information concerning the scope of trade in various
towns, recommendations for starting new factories, exports and imports, obstacles in their
business. They also give topographical details about many cities of the Mughal Empire and
the various roads and means of communication between these cities.

Persian Sources

A’in-i-Akbari, is a mine of a vast variety of information and contains the most systematic
account of the towns, their character, growth, trade and industries, and their administration.
A’in-i-Akbari is one of the greatest works and stands unique amongst the Muhammadan
histories of India. In the A’in-i-Akbari, Burhanpur is described as “A large city with many
gardens, in some of which is found sandalwood, inhabited by people of all nations and
abounding with handicraftsmen. In the summer the town is covered with dust and during the
rains the streets are full of mud and stones”.

The Chahar-Gulshan, an important source, was written by Ray Chaturman Kayasth, which
was completed in 1759-60. The last portion of the book was completed by his grandson
Chandar-Bhan Munshi Kayasth Saksena, surnamed Ray-Zadah. It consists of the history and
topography of India to A.H. 1173/ 1759-60 in four gardens. (i) the subaha (provinces) of
Hindustan, (ii) the subahs of the Deccan, (iii) routes from Delhi to various parts of India, and
(iv) Muslim and Hindu saints. A portion of this work was translated and annotated by
Jadunath Sarkar in his book 'The India of Aurangzeb'. It describes that “there were many
gardens near Burhanpur; sandal-wood grew here. It had a large population including thriving
artisans of various classes.”

Secondary Sources

Hamida Khatoon Naqvi, in her book entitled as “Urbanisation and Urban Centres under
the Great Mughals 1556-1707” mentions Burhanpur as a medieval urban centre like Agra,
Delhi and Lahore. She has described the well-established connectivity of Burhanpur with the
major towns and says that “all the traffic moving between Agra and Surat passed through this
town”. Further, she has mentioned about the public buildings of Burhanpur and also the water
 7

bodies. Overall, her work does not highlight the socio-economic profile and importance of
Burhanpur as an urban centre.

In her other book entitled as “Urban Centres and Industries in Upper India 1556-1803”,
focus the main Capital cities like Agra, Delhi and Lahore. She described commercial towns
like Patna and Benaras but she did not describe the Capital city ‘Burhanpur’ of Subah
Khandesh. She further described in detail varieties of cotton textiles and other industries but
did not mention cotton textile of Burhanpur, which was much important during the medieval
period.

M.P.Singh, in his book entitled as “Town, Market, Mint and Port in the Mughal Empire
1556-1707”, describes Burhanpur as a big city like Agra, Delhi, Lahore Ahmedabad and
Surat. He wrote about the Karkhanas, market, mint and revenue of Burhanpur in bits and
pieces, which gives us very rich information about the city but does not make a clear picture
of Burhanpur as an urban centre in Mughal period.

Although these secondary works provide crucial information about the town of Burhanpur,
there is a lacuna which needs to be addressed so as to determine and establish the critical role
of Burhanpur as an entrepot and draw a complete picture of its socio-economic profile.

Scope of Study and Research Methodology

 Strategic importance
 Connectivity with other important towns through prominent routes
 Administrative importance
 Local crafts and industry
 Trade and Commerce
 Society and Culture

The study aims to take into account all the factors that were responsible for the economic
growth of major medieval Indian towns be its geographical location, the major industries in
the vicinity, import and export etc. and question them in the case of Burhanpur. The data
would be collected primarily from the European traveller’s accounts, the cntemporary Persian
sources, the factory records, archives and gazetters. A comparative analysis would be done by
juxtaposing the information collected which would form the basis of the study. Data would
also be collected from secondary sources which would be used to compare and corroborate
 8

information wherever necessary. Comparative analysis will be done with respect to other
towns to ascertain a conclusive as well as a comprehensive study. The above mentioned
approach will drive the purpose of this work.

Relevance of the study

Burhanpur has served as a key position during the seventeenth century both as a socio-
economic centre as well as an administrative centre. However, much of this information
about Burhanpur is in bits and pieces and does provide a complete overview of a significant
town of the relevant period. The contribution of Burhanpur to the economy seventeenth
century India has not gotten it’s due. Thus, this fragmented information should be structured
to help identify another important medieval town, thus making this study important and
relevant.

Expected Outcome and Implications

This study would identify the factors responsible for the growth of a town, Burhanpur in this
case; its trade and commerce, socio-economic and socio-cultural aspects. It would highlight
the key aspects of an important trade and administrative centre during the seventeenth
century as compared to other important towns. This study would also provide facts and
figures about the on-going trade practices during the relevant period, the importance of trade
routes in the making of a successful business centre and the important commodities of import
and export. All of these combined would help outline Burhanpur’s importance on various
aspects during the seventeenth century.

The very essence of History is to identify where we (the society at large) are coming from
and learn from it, as any historical study can provide a pattern of how things came to be; in
this case the rise of Burhanpur as a socio-economic centre and the reasons that led to it. Such
a study will benefit the society in terms of providing information about a key town during a
period which is considered a successful period of this country in History. This could help
people identify the similar patterns for any other town and understand the reason behind its
growth and/or decline.

The policy makers would also benefit in a similar manner as the information would help
identify key factors for the growth of a town in a particular scenario. Thus, the decision and
policy makers can use this as an outline to identify potential towns in the present scenario by
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doing comparative research and base their decision on the same. Thus, by doing this the
policy makers can efficiently highlight key towns according to the relevant factors and help
boost the socio-economic growth by implementing the right policies.

Proposed Outputs

Such a study could form the basis of many further studies. The essential theme here is the rise
of a town as a socio-economic entity and the underlying factors which helped facilitate such a
growth. This theme could be applied to any other town during any given period of History be
it ancient, medieval or modern. Other than that, the study would also be a comparative study
which means: to justify and identify the factors, comparisons would be drawn to the
significant towns of that period. This type of comparative study can be applied to other
towns, which could help derive figures and empirical data about population, trade,
demographics or any other relevant aspect. Furthermore, research papers can be written about
the relevance, importance and role of the merchant class in the economic growth of
Burhanpur or nearby towns. Along with that, research papers can also be prepared on trade
routes, elaborating them and their significance in providing connectivity, trade and commerce
etc. Yet another theme which could branch out from this study would be presenting the
outlook of the European travellers as compared to the contemporary writers with respect to a
specific town, the people, and architecture and so on. Thus, this work holds much potential
for further studies.
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P.T.O.

TENTATIVE CHAPTER PLAN

The present theme is divided into five chapters.

Introduction

1. Emergence of the town

 Early history
 Factors for Emergence

2. Layout of the town and its urban landscape

 Architecture of the town (walls, gates, ditches etc.)
 Fort, Public buildings, mosques, temples, baths (hamam)

3. Trade routes
 Strategic location of Burhanpur
 Connectivity with major towns and cities
 Alternative routes after the annexation of Khandesh
 Carvansarais

4. Trade and commerce

 Industrial aspect of the town
 Agricultural production
 Major items of export
 Major items of import

5. Socio-Cultural aspect of the town

 Burhanpur as a religious centre
 Burhanpur as a seat of education an learning
 Standard of living

Conclusion
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Annexure
Bibliography
BIBLIOGRAPHY

The bibliography is divided into the following sections: European sources, Factory records,
Persian sources and Modern works.

PRIMARY SOURCES

EUROPEAN SOURCES

 Early Travels in India (1583-1619), collection of the narratives of Fitch (1583-91) pp.
1-47, Mildenhall (1599-1606) pp. 48-59, Hawkins (1608-13) pp. 60-121, Fintch (1608-
11) pp. 122-87, Withington (1612-16) pp. 188-233, Coryat (1612-17) pp. 234-87, and
Terry (1616-19) pp. 288-332, ed. W. Foster, London, 1927.
 Francisco Pelsaert, (1620-27), ‘Remonstrantie’, c. 1626, pub. In D.H.A. Kolff and H.W.
van Santen, eds., De geschriften van Francisco Pelsaert over Mughal Indie, 1627,
Kroniek en Remonstrantie, (‘S-Gravenhage, 1979), trans. under the title 'Jahangir’s
India', by W.H. Moreland and P. Geyl, Cambridge, 1925.
 Francois Bernier, (1656-1668). 'Travels in the Mogul Empire', trans. and annotated by
Archibald Constable, Second edition revised by Vincent A. Smith, New Delhi, 1992.
 Jean de Thevenot, (1666-67), ‘Relations, de Hintostan', , A. Lovell’s transl. of 1687,
reprinted with corrections, notes and an introduction by S.N. Sen in The Indian Travels
of Thevenot and Careri, New Delhi, 1949, pp. 1-152.
 Jean-Baptiste Travernier, (1640-61) 'The ‘Travels in India’ by Jean-Baptiste
Travernier, Baron of Aubonne' 1640-61, trans. V. Ball, Second edition revised by W.
Crooke, 2 Vols., London, 1925.
 John Fryer, (1672-81), A New Account of East India and Persia being Nine Years’
Travels, 1672-81, ed. W. Crooke, 3 Vols., Hakluyt Society, Second Series, XIX, XX &
XXXIX, London, 1909, 1912, 1915.
 John Jourdain, (1608-17), Journal, describing his expriences in Arabia, India and
Malay Archipelage, ed. W. Foster, Hakluyt Society, 2nd Series, No. XVI, Cambridge,
1905.
 12

 John Mildenhall, (1603-1605), 'The travels of John Mildenhall, into Indies and in the
countries of Persia and of the Great Mogor or Mogull', Purchas, Vol. II, pp. 229-304.
 Mandelslo, (1638-39), 'Mandelslo's Travels in Western India', A.D. 1638-39, ed. M.S.
Commissariat, London, 1931.
 Niccolao Manucci, (1653-1708), Storia Do Mogor or Mogul India, trans. William
Irvine, 4 Vols., Indian Text Series, London, 1907.
 Nicholas Withington, (1612-17), 'Extracts of a tractate written by Nicholas Withington'
Purchas his Pilgrimes, MacLehose, Vol. IV, pp. 162-74.
 Peter Mundy, (1628-34), The 'Travels' of Peter Mundy in Europe and Asia, ed. Sir R.C.
Temple, Vol. II, entitled ‘Travels in Asia', Hakluyt Society, Second Series, XXXV,
London, 1914.
 Ralph Fitch (1583-91), Narrative, ed. J.H. Ryley, Ralph Fitch, England’s Pioneer to
India and Burma, London, 1899.
 Relations of Golconda in the Early Seventeenth Century, a collection of the ‘relations’
of Methwold (pp. 1-50), Schorer (pp. 51-65) and an anonymous Dutch factor (pp. 67-
95). ed. and trans. W.H. Moreland, Hakluyt Society, London, 1931.
 Samuel Purchas, Hakluyts Posthumus or Purchas his Pilgrimes, London, 1625; pub.
James MacLehose, Glasgow, 20 Vols., 1905.
 Thomas Bowrey, (1669-79), A Geographical Account of Countries Round the Bay of
Bengal, 1669 to 1679, ed. R.C. Temple, Cambridge, 1905.
 Thomas Coryat, (1612-17), Coryat's Letters from India in Foster's 'Early Travels in
India', Oxford, 1921.
 Thomas Roe, The Embassy of Sir Thomas Roe, 1615-19, as Narrated in his Journal &
Correspondence, ed. W. Foster, London, 1926.
 ______________
, Travels in India in the Seventeenth Century, first published, London, 1873,
reprinted, New Delhi, 1993, pp. 1-132.
 William Hedges, (1681-87), The Diary of Williams Hedges, Esq., during his agency in
Bengal,& C.,1681-87, transcribed and annotated by R. Barlow and illustrated by
copious extracts from unpublished records by Col. Henry Yule, 3 Vols., Hakluyt
Society, Nos.74, 75 & 78, London, 1887-89.
 William Irvine, The Army of the Indian Moghuls: Its Organization and Administration,
New Delhi, 1962.
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FACTORY RECORDS AND LETTERS RECEIVED

 The English Factories in India, (1618-1669), Thirteen Volumes, A Calendar of

Documents in India Office & British Museum, ed. W. Foster, Oxford, 1906-27.
 The English Factories in India: New Series, Four Volumes. Vol. I, (1670-77), The
Western Presidency; Vol. II, (1670-1677), The East Coast & Bengal, ed. Charles
Fawcett, Oxford, 1936 and 1952; Vol. III, (1678-84), Bombay, Surat and Malabar
Coast; Vol. IV, The Eastern Coast and Bay of Bengal, ed. Patrick Candell, Oxford,
1954.
 The Dutch Factories in India (1617-1623), ed. Om Prakash, New Delhi, 1984.
 Letters Received by the East India Company from its Servants in the East, (1602-1617),
Six Volumes: Vol. I, ed. F.C. Danvers; Vols. II-VI, ed. W. Foster, London, 1896-1902.

PERSIAN SOURCES

 Abu-l Fazl, Akbarnama, by Abul Fazl-i-Allami, trans. into English by H. Beveridge in

Three Volumes, Calcutta, 1903-1910.
 Abu-l Fazl, Ain-i-Akbari, trans. into English Vol. I, by H. Blochmann (1873), revised
by D.C. Phillot (1927); Vol. II, by H.S. Jarrett (1891), revised by Jadunath Sarkar
(1949); Vol. III, by H.S. Jarrett, (1894), revised by Jadunath Sarkar (1948), Calcutta.
 Abdul Qadir Badaoni, Muntakhab-ut-Tawarikh, by Mulla Abdul Qadir Badaoni, trans.
into English Vol. I, G.S. Ranking (1898); Vol. II, W.H. Lowe (1884); Vol. III, T.W.
Haig (1925), Calcutta, extracts trans. Elliot and Dowson. Vol. V.
 Ali Muhammad Khan, Mir’at-i-Ahmadi, trans. M. F. Lokhandwala, Baroda, 1965, 2
Vols.
 __________________________
, Mir’at-i-Ahmadi, ed. Nawab Ali, Supplement, Baroda, 1927-28,
1930.
 Jadunath Sarkar, India of Aurangzeb, (Topography, Statistics, and Roads), compared
with the India of Akbar, with extracts from The Khulasat-ut-Tawarikh and The Chahar
Gulshan, trans. and annotated by Jadunath Sarkar, 1964.
 Mir Abu Turab Wali, Tarikh-i- Gujarati, ed. E. Denison Ross, Bib. Ind., Calautta, 1905.
 14

 Nizamu-ddin-Ahmad, Tabaqat-i-Akbari, by Khwajah Nizamuddin Ahmad, trans. into

English in Three Volumes by Brajendra Nath De, Vol. III, revised, edited and
completed by Baini Prashad, Calcutta, 1939, extracts trans. Elliot and Dowson, Vol. V.
 Noor-ud-Din Jahangir, Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri or Jahangirnama, translated to English by
Alexander Rogers, ed. Henry Beveridge, London, 1909-14.

DICTIONARY

 Steingass, Comprehensive Persian-English Dictionary, New Delhi, 1981.

GAZETTEERS

 The Imperial Gazetteer of India, Vol. IX, Bomjur to Central India, New Delhi, 1974.
 The Imperial Gazetteer of India, Vol. XXIII, New Delhi, 1974.

COMMENTARIES ON SOURCES

 Elliot and Dowson, History of India as told by its own Historians, 8 Vols., London,
1867, reprinted, Allahabad, 1964.

ATLAS

 Irfan Habib, An Atlas of the Mughal Empire, Delhi, 1982.

 James Rannell, Memoire of a map of Hindustan or the Mughal Empire, London, 1792.

JOURNALS AND ARTICLES

 Ashin Das Gupta, 'The Maritime Merchant of Medieval India, c. 1500-1800', PIHC,
(New Delhi, 1974).
 B.G. Gokhle, Ahmedabad in the 17th cent., Journal of the Economic and Social History
of the Orient, Vol. XII, Part II, 1969.
 Dwijendra Tripathi, 'The Nagarsheth of Ahmadabad, The History of an Urban
Institution in a Gujarat City', PIHC, Aligarh, 1979.
 15

 B.G. Gokhle, 'Broach and Baroda: Notes on the Economic History of Gujarat Cities in
the seventeenth century', JASB, 24, (Bombay, 1968-69).
 Jawaid Akhtar, Merchants and Urban Property: A Study of Cambay Documents of the
17th-18th Centuries, Indian History Congress, 1988.
 M. J. Akthar, Merchants and urban property: A study of Cambay documents in the 17 th-
18th centuries, Indian History Congress (1988).
 Shirin Mehta, The Mahajans and the Business Communities of Ahmadabad, ed.
Dwijendra Tripathi, Business Communities in India.
 Z. A. Desai, Relations of India with middle eastern countries during sixteenth and
seventeenth centuries, Journal of the Oriental Institute, Vol. 23, Part 1-2, Baroda, 1973-
74.

MODERN WORKS

 Ashin Das Gupta and M.N. Pearson, India and the Indian Ocean, 1500-1800, Oxford
University Press, 1987.
 Ashin Das Gupta, The Merchants and decline of Surat, c. 1700-1750, Elites in South
Asia, Edmund Leach & S.N. Mukherjee, ed. Cambridge University, Press,1970.
 _____________________
, The World of the Indian Ocean Merchant 1500-1800: Collected Essays
of Ashin Das Gupta Compiled by Uma Das Gupta, Oxford University Press, 2004.
 Aziza Hasan, Mint of the Mughal Empire, proceedings of the Indian History Congress,
Part I, 1967
 B.G. Gokhle, Surat in the Seventeenth Century: A Study in Urban History of Pre-
Modern India, London, 1979.
 C.H. Payne, Akbar and the Jesuits, London, 1926.
 D. Pant, The Commercial Policy of the Mughals, Delhi, 1878.
 Edward Maclagan, Jesuits and the Great Mugal, London, 1932.
 H.G. Briggs, The Cities of Gujarashtra, London, 1849.
 H.K. Naqvi, Urban Centres and Industries in Upper India, 1556-1803, Bombay, 1968.
 _____________
, Urbanisation and Urban Centres under the Great Mughals, Shimla, 1971.
 I.P. Gupta, Urbanization in Gujarat during seventeenth century, In J.S. Grewal and
Indu Banga, Studies in Urban History, Amritsar, 1981.
 Indu Banga, Port and Their Hinterlands in India 1700-1950, New Delhi, 1992.
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 ____________________
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, Vol. II, Bombay, 1957.
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