VISVESVARAYA TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY

SEMINAR REPORT

BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING
CSE Computer Science and Engineering and Technology

By

Pallavi Bai N (1SP21CS070)

Nithin G (1SP21CS068)
Nandini B (1SP21CS063)
N Bhavana Sai (1SP21CS062)
Nithin B (1SP21CS067)
Neha A (1SP21CS065)

Under the guidance of

Sushma B.A

Computer Science And Engineering Department

S.E.A. COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
BENGALURU-560049
2021-2022
S.E.A COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND
TECHNOLOGY
Ekta Nagar, Basavanpura, Virgonagar Post, K.R.Puram, Bengaluru, Karnataka 560049

Dept of CSE 2022-2023

 CERTIFICATE

This is to Certify that Pallavi Bai N (1SP21CS070), Nithin G (1SP21CS068), Nandini B

(1SP21CS063), N Bhavana Sai (1SP21CS062), Nithin B (1SP21CS067), Neha A
(1SP21CS065),
has completed his/her Seminar in partial fulfillment for the award of B.E in CSE Computer
Science and Engineering and Technology Of the Visvesvaraya Technological University,
Belgaum, during the academic year 2021-22 under my supervision. It is certified that all
corrections/suggestions indicated for internal assessment have been incorporated in the Report
deposited in the Departmental library. The Seminar Report has been approved as it satisfies the
academic requirements concerning Laboratory Experiments prescribed for the said Degree.

Sushma B.A Prof. Sukesh Dr. B. Venkata Narayana

(Internal Guide) (HOD of the Department) (Principal)

Secondary Storage Structure

Dept of CSE 2022-2023

You know that processor or primary memory is very expensive and has limited storage
capacity because of its volatile nature. If we need to store large amounts of data or programs
permanently, we need a cheaper and permanent memory. Secondary memory overcomes this
limitation by providing permanent storage of data in bulk quantity.

Secondary storage device refers to any non-volatile storage device that is internal or external
to the computer. It can be any storage device beyond the primary storage that enables
permanent data storage. A secondary storage device is also known as an auxiliary storage
device, backup storage device, tier 2 storage, or external storage. These devices store virtually
all programs and applications on a computer, including the operating system, device drivers,
applications and general user data.

The Secondary storage media can be fixed or removable. Fixed Storage media is an internal
storage medium like a hard disk that is fixed inside the computer. A storage medium that is
portable and can be taken outside the computer is termed removable storage media. The main
advantage of using secondary storage devices is:

o In Secondary storage devices, the stored data might not be under the direct control of the
operating system. For example, many organizations store their archival data or critical
documents on secondary storage drives, which their main network cannot access to ensure
their preservation whenever a data breach occurs.
o Since these drives do not interact directly with the main infrastructure and can be situated
in a remote or secure site, it is unlikely that a hacker may access these drives unless they're
physically stolen.

 Characteristics of Secondary Storage Devices

These are some characteristics of secondary memory, which distinguish it from primary
memory, such as:

o It is non-volatile, which means it retains data when power is switched off

o It allows for the storage of data ranging from a few megabytes to petabytes.
o It is cheaper as compared to primary memory.
o Secondary storage devices like CDs and flash drives can transfer the data from one device
to another.

 Types of Secondary Storage Device

Dept of CSE 2022-2023

1. Fixed Storage

Fixed storage is an internal media device used by a computer system to store data. Usually, these
are referred to as the fixed disk drives or Hard Drives.

Fixed storage devices are not fixed. These can be removed from the system for repairing work,
maintenance purposes, and also for an upgrade, etc. But in general, this can not be done without a
proper toolkit to open up the computer system to provide physical access, which needs to be done
by an engineer.

Technically, almost all data, i.e. being processed on a computer system, is stored on some built-in
fixed storage device. We have the following types of fixed storage:

o Internal flash memory (rare)

o SSD (solid-state disk) units
o Hard disk drives (HDD)

2. Removable Storage

Removable storage is an external media device that is used by a computer system to store data.
Usually, these are referred to as the Removable Disks drives or the External Drives. Removable
storage is any storage device that can be removed from a computer system while the system is
running. Examples of external devices include CDs, DVDs, Blu-ray disk drives, and diskettes and
USB drives. Removable storage makes it easier for a user to transfer data from one computer
system to another.

Dept of CSE 2022-2023

The main benefit of removable disks in storage factors is that they can provide the fast data
transfer rates associated with storage area networks (SANs). We have the following types of
Removable Storage:

o Optical discs (CDs, DVDs, Blu-ray discs)

o Memory cards
o Floppy disks
o Magnetic tapes
o Disk packs
o Paper storage (punched tapes, punched cards)

 Classification of Secondary Storage Devices

The following image shows the classification of commonly used secondary storage
devices.

 Sequential Access Storage Device

It is a class of data storage devices that read stored data in a sequence. This is in contrast to random
access memory (RAM), where data can access in any order, and magnetic tape is the common
sequential access storage device.

Dept of CSE 2022-2023

 i. Magnetic tape: It is a medium for magnetic recording, made of a thin, magnetizable coating on a
long, narrow strip of plastic film. Devices that record and play audio and video using magnetic tape
are tape recorders and videotape recorders. A device that stores computer data on magnetic tape is
known as a tape drive. It was a key technology in early computer development, allowing
unparalleled amounts of data to be mechanically created, stored for long periods, and rapidly
accessed.

 Direct Access Storage Devices

A direct-access storage device (DASD) is another name for secondary storage devices that store
data in discrete locations with a unique address, such as hard disk drives, optical drives and most
magnetic storage devices.

1. Magnetic disks: A magnetic disk is a storage device that uses a magnetization process to write,
rewrite and access data. It is covered with a magnetic coating and stores data in the form of tracks,
spots and sectors. Hard disks, zip disks and floppy disks are common examples of magnetic disks.

i. Floppy Disk: A floppy disk is a flexible disk with a magnetic coating on it, and it is packaged
inside a protective plastic envelope. These are among the oldest portable storage devices that could
store up to 1.44 MB of data, but now they are not used due to very little memory storage.
ii. Hard Disk Drive (HDD): Hard disk drive comprises a series of circular disks
called platters arranged one over the other almost ½ inches apart around a spindle. Disks are made
of non-magnetic material like aluminium alloy and coated with 10-20 nm magnetic material. The
standard diameter of these disks is 14 inches, and they rotate with speeds varying from 4200 rpm
(rotations per minute) for personal computers to 15000 rpm for servers.
Data is stored by magnetizing or demagnetizing the magnetic coating. A magnetic reader arm is
used to read data from and write data to the disks. A typical modern HDD has a capacity in
terabytes (TB).

2. Optical Disk: An optical disk is any computer disk that uses optical storage techniques and
technology to read and write data. It is a computer storage disk that stores data digitally and uses
laser beams to read and write data.

i. CD Drive: CD stands for Compact Disk. CDs are circular disks that use optical rays, usually lasers,
to read and write data. They are very cheap as you can get 700 MB of storage space for less than a
dollar. CDs are inserted in CD drives built into the CPU cabinet. They are portable as you can eject
the drive, remove the CD and carry it with you. There are three types of CDs:
o CD-ROM (Compact Disk - Read Only Memory): The manufacturer recorded the data on
these CDs. Proprietary Software, audio or video are released on CD-ROMs.
o CD-R (Compact Disk - Recordable): The user can write data once on the CD-R. It cannot
be deleted or modified later.

Dept of CSE 2022-2023

 o CD-RW (Compact Disk - Rewritable): Data can repeatedly be written and deleted on
these optical disks.
ii. DVD Drive: DVD stands for digital video display. DVD is an optical device that can store 15 times
the data held by CDs. They are usually used to store rich multimedia files that need high storage
capacity. DVDs also come in three varieties - read-only, recordable and rewritable.
iii. Blu Ray Disk: Blu Ray Disk (BD) is an optical storage media that stores high definition (HD)
video and other multimedia files. BD uses a shorter wavelength laser than CD/DVD, enabling the
writing arm to focus more tightly on the disk and pack in more data. BDs can store up to 128 GB of
data.

3. Memory Storage Devices: A memory device contains trillions of interconnected memory cells
that store data. When switched on or off, these cells hold millions of transistors representing 1s and
0s in binary code, allowing a computer to read and write information. It includes USB drives, flash
memory devices, SD and memory cards, which you'll recognize as the storage medium used in
digital cameras.

i. Flash Drive: A flash drive is a small, ultra-portable storage device. USB flash drives were
essential for easily moving files from one device to another. Flash drives connect to
computers and other devices via a built-in USB Type-Aor USB-C plug, making one a USB
device and cable combination.
Flash drives are often referred to as pen drives, thumb drives, or jump drives. The
terms USB drive and solid-state drive (SSD) are also sometimes used, but most of the time,
those refer to larger, not-so-mobile USB-based storage devices like external hard drives.
These days, a USB flash drive can hold up to 2 TB of storage. They're more expensive per
gigabyte than an external hard drive, but they have prevailed as a simple, convenient
solution for storing and transferring smaller files.
Pen drive has the following advantages in computer organization, such as:
o Transfer Files: A pen drive is a device plugged into a USB port of the system that
is used to transfer files, documents, and photos to a PC and vice versa.
o Portability: The lightweight nature and smaller size of a pen drive make it possible
to carry it from place to place, making data transportation an easier task.
o Backup Storage:Most of the pen drives now come with the feature of having
password encryption, important information related to family, medical records, and
photos can be stored on them as a backup.
o Transport Data: Professionals or Students can now easily transport large data files
and video, audio lectures on a pen drive and access them from anywhere.
Independent PC technicians can store work-related utility tools, various programs,
and files on a high-speed 64 GB pen drive and move from one site to another.
ii. Memory card: A memory cardor memory cartridge is an electronic data storage device
used for storing digital information, typically using flash memory. These are commonly

Dept of CSE 2022-2023

 used in portable electronic devices, such as digital cameras, mobile phones, laptop
computers, tablets, PDAs, portable media players, video game consoles, synthesizers,
electronic keyboards and digital pianos, and allow adding memory to such devices without
compromising ergonomy, as the card is usually contained within the device rather than
protruding like USB flash drives.

Mass Storage Structure

Systems designed to store enormous volumes of data are referred to as mass storage devices.
Massive storage devices are sometimes used interchangeably with peripheral storage, which is the
management of bigger volumes of data that are larger than the native storage capability of a
computer or device.

The basic idea of Mass Storage is to create a Data Backup or Data Recovery System.

Along with computer systems, definitions of mass storage technologies and tactics have changed.
The earliest and most basic mass storage techniques date back to the era of main frame
supercomputers, according to experts. Punch cards, Hollerith cards, and other relatively similar
manual storage medium are examples of this Mass Storage Media these days. Today, mass storage
may include several kinds of hard disks or solid-state storage devices, as well as tape drives and
other physical data storage devices.

The concepts of data backup and data recovery are frequently linked to mass storage media. The
biggest Business Companies will make plans for recording, storing, and backing up all accessible
data, which calls for a lot more mass storage media than what factory-direct gear can provide. This
suggests a method for handling continuous mass storage that uses tape or other media. Other kinds
of mass storage could function well as a data storage plan for a big network or a bunch of mobile
distant devices. To backup data on a portable tablet that doesn't have a lot of internal capacity, for
instance, mass storage for a tablet might require the usage of flash or Universal Serial Bus media
(USB Media).

The Mass Storage Structure Devices are:

1. Magnetic Disks
2. Solid State Disks
3. Magnetic Tapes

 Magnetic Disks

Dept of CSE 2022-2023

The process of magnetization is used to write, rewrite, and access data on a magnetic disk, a
storage device. This process is known as Magnetic Disk. It is coated magnetically and has tracks,
spots, and sectors for storing data.

In 1956, IBM created the first magnetic hard drive, a substantial device with 50 21-inch (53-cm)
platters. Despite being large, it could only hold 5 megabytes of information. Since then, magnetic
disks' storage capabilities have multiplied dramatically while simultaneously shrinking in size.

Basic Common Examples of Magnetic Disks are:

1. Floppy Disks
2. Hard Disks
3. Zip Disks

The Magnetic Disk basically looks like:

Structure and Working of Magnetic Disks:

The basic structure of Magnetic Disks is:

A mechanical arm that travels across a revolving magnetic surface, known as the platter, makes up
the majority of a magnetic disk. They come together to make a "comb." Both reading from and
writing to the disk are done using the mechanical arm. A magnetization process is used to read and
write data on magnetic disks.

One or more disk-shaped platters with magnetic material covering them. Unlike "floppy" disks,
which are composed of more flexible plastic, hard disk platters are built of stiff metal.

Dept of CSE 2022-2023

There are two work areas on each plate. The very top and bottom surfaces of a stack of platters
were occasionally avoided by older hard disk drives because they are more prone to damage or
even breaking in some cases.

The arm's head slides across the platter's surface while it continues to spin rapidly. The head floats
on a small layer of air since the entire apparatus is hermetically sealed. Tiny patches on the disk
surface are magnetized and data is saved when a small current is delivered to the head. When the
head needs to read the data, a little current could be delivered to such tiny locations on the platter.

On the disk, data is arranged in sectors and tracks, with tracks serving as the disk's spherical
divisions. Blocks of data are separated into sectors, which are a subset of tracks. The sectors are
where the magnetic disk's read and write operations are carried out. Because the tracks are so close
together, the floating heads need to be controlled extremely precisely while reading or writing
data.

The tracks are a series of concentric circles that separate each working surface. A cylinder is a
group of tracks that are all at the same distance from the platter's edge, or in the accompanying
figure, all the tracks that are directly above one another.

A piece track is further split into sectors, generally storing 512 bytes of data each, however some
newer drives occasionally employ greater sector sizes.

(Sectors also include a header and a trailer, which among other things contain checksum data.
Although internal fragmentation and the quantity of disk that has to be designated bad in the event
of mistakes are increased by larger sector sizes, the percentage of the disk used by headers and
trailers is reduced.)

Read-write heads are used to read data from hard drives. In the typical setup (shown below), one
head is used for each surface, mounted on a separate arm, and moved concurrently from one
cylinder to the next by a shared arm assembly. (Other designs, such as separate read-write heads,
might accelerate disk access but present significant technical challenges.)

The number of heads (or working surfaces) times the number of tracks per surface times the
number of sectors per track times the number of bytes per sector equals the storage capacity of a
conventional disk drive. The head-sector-cylinder number of a specific physical block of data can
be used to identify it.

The time needed to move the heads from one cylinder to another and for the heads to settle down
after the transfer is known as the positioning time, also known as the seek time or random access
time. This is usually the stage that moves slowly and is the main obstacle to high transfer rates.

Dept of CSE 2022-2023

The time it takes for the requested sector to spin and enter the read-write head is known as
the rotational latency.

This can be anything from 0 and 1 complete revolutions, with an average of 12 revolutions. This is
a physical action that often follows seek time as the second-slowest step. (If a disk rotates at 7200
revolutions per minute, the average rotational delay is 1/2 revolution / 120 revolutions per second,
or just over 4 milliseconds, a long time by computer standards.

The amount of time needed to electronically transmit data from a disk to a computer is called the
transfer rate. (Some writers could also use the phrase "transfer rate" to refer to the entire transfer
rate, which includes search time, rotational delay, and the transfer rate of electronic data.)

Over the surface, disk heads "fly" on a paper-thin air cushion. In the event that they should
unintentionally make contact with the disk, a head crash takes place, which may or may not
permanently harm or even entirely destroy the disk. Due of this, it is customary to park the disk
heads while shutting off a computer, which entails moving the heads off the disk or to an empty
space on the disk.

Typically, floppy disks are removeable. Hard drives may also be taken out and replaced with fresh
ones, and some of them can even be swapped out while the computer is still functioning.

The I/O Bus, a connection used to connect disk drives to computers, is used for this purpose.
Enhanced Integrated Drive Electronics (EIDE), Advanced Technology Attachment (ATA), Serial
ATA (SATA), Universal Serial Bus (USB), Fiber Channel (FC), and Small Computer Systems
Interface (SCSI) are a few of the popular interface types.

The disk controller is included within the disk itself, whereas the host controller is located at the
I/O bus's computer end. Via Input Output ports, the CPU sends orders to the host controller. The
disk controller moves information from the onboard cache to the host controller and motherboard
memory at electronic speeds after moving information between the magnetic surface and onboard
cache.

 Solid State Disks

Old technologies are frequently employed in new ways as economic conditions and technology
evolve. The growing usage of solid state drives, or SSDs, is one illustration of this.

SSDs function as a tiny, quick hard disk using memory technology. To maintain the information
over power cycles, certain implementations may employ either flash memory or DRAM chips
protected by a battery.

Dept of CSE 2022-2023

Due to the lack of moving components, SSDs operate far more quickly than conventional hard
drives, and some issues, such the scheduling of disk accesses, simply do not exist.

SSDs do have certain drawbacks, too, including the fact that they cost more than hard drives, are
often smaller, and may have shorter life spans.

As a high-speed cache for information on hard disks that has to be retrieved fast, SSDs are
particularly helpful. One use is to store frequently requested file system meta-data, such as
directory and I node information. A boot drive is another version that has the OS and certain
application executables but no essential user data. In order to make laptops thinner, lighter, and
quicker, SSDs are also employed in them.

The throughput of the bus may become a limiting problem due to how much quicker SSDs are than
conventional hard drives, which leads to certain SSDs being linked directly to the system PCI bus.

 Magnetic Tapes
Prior to the advent of hard disk drives, magnetic tapes were frequently utilized for secondary
storage; today, they are mostly used for backups.

It might take a while to get to a specific location on a magnetic tape, but once reading or writing
starts, access rates are on par with disk drives.

Tape drive capacities may be anywhere from 20 and 200 GB, and compression can increase that
capacity by double.

Signature

1. Pallavi Bai N (1SP21CS070)

2. Nithin G (1SP21CS068)

3. Nandini B (1SP21CS063)

4. N Bhavana Sai (1SP21CS062)

5. Nithin B (1SP21CS067)

6. Neha A (1SP21CS065)

Dept of CSE 2022-2023