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CE8591 FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

UNIT I SITE INVESTIGATION AND SELECTION OF FOUNDATION

Scope and objectives – Methods of exploration – Auguring and boring – Wash
boring and rotary drilling – Depth and spacing of bore holes – Soil samples –
Representative and undisturbed – Sampling methods – Split spoon sampler,
Thin wall sampler, Stationary piston sampler – Penetration tests (SPT and
SCPT) – Data interpretation - Strength parameters - Bore log report and
Selection of foundation.

UNIT II SHALLOW FOUNDATION

Location and depth of foundation – Codal provisions – Bearing capacity of
shallow foundation on homogeneous deposits – Terzaghi’s formula and BIS

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formula – Factors affecting bearing capacity – Bearing capacity from in-situ

g.i
tests (SPT, SCPT and plate load) – Allowable bearing pressure – Seismic
considerations in bearing capacity evaluation. Determination of Settlement of

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foundations on granular and clay deposits – Total and differential settlement –
Allowable settlements – Codal provision – Methods of minimizing total and
differential settlements.
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UNIT III FOOTINGS AND RAFTS
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Types of Isolated footing, Combined footing, Mat foundation – Contact

pressure and settlement distribution – Proportioning of foundations for
conventional rigid behaviour – Minimum thickness for rigid behaviour –
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Applications – Compensated foundation – Codal provision

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UNIT IV PILE FOUNDATION

Types of piles and their functions – Factors influencing the selection of pile –
Carrying capacity of single pile in granular and cohesive soil – Static formula –
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Dynamic formulae (Engineering news and Hileys) – Capacity from insitu tests
(SPT and SCPT) – Negative skin friction – Uplift capacity-Group capacity by
w.

different methods (Feld’s rule, Converse – Labarra formula and block failure
criterion) – Settlement of pile groups – Interpretation of pile load test (routine
test only), Under reamed piles – Capacity under compression and uplift –
ww

Cohesive – expansive – non expansive – Cohesionless soils – Codal provisions.

UNIT V RETAINING WALLS

Plastic equilibrium in soils – Active and passive states – Rankine’s theory –
Cohesionless and cohesive soil – Coulomb’s wedge theory – Condition for
critical failure plane – Earth pressure on retaining walls of simple
configurations – Culmann’s Graphical method – Pressure on the wall due to line
load – Stability analysis of retaining walls – Codal provisions.

TOTAL: 45 PERIODS
TEXTBOOKS:
1. Murthy, V.N.S., “Text book of Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering”,
CBS Publishers Distribution Ltd., New Delhi. 2014.
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2. Arora, K.R., “Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering”, Standard

Publishers and Distributors, New Delhi, 7th Edition, 2017 (Reprint).
3. Punmia, B.C., “Soil Mechanics and Foundations”, Laxmi Publications Pvt.
Ltd. New Delhi, 16th Edition 2017.

REFERENCES:
1. Braja M Das, “Principles of Foundation Engineering” (Eigth edition),
Cengage Learning 2014.
2. Kaniraj, S.R. “Design aids in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering”,
Tata McGraw Hill publishing company Ltd., New Delhi, 2014.
3. Joseph E bowles, “Foundation Analysis and design”, McGraw Hill
Education, 5th Edition, 28th August 2015.

n
4. IS Code 6403 : 1981 (Reaffirmed 1997) “Bearing capacity of shallow

g.i
foundation”, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi.
5. IS Code 8009 (Part 1):1976 (Reaffirmed 1998) “Shallow foundations

rin
subjected to symmetrical static vertical loads”, Bureau of Indian Standards,
New Delhi.
6. IS Code 8009 (Part 2):1980 (Reaffirmed 1995) “Deep foundations subjected
ee
to symmetrical static vertical loading”, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi.
7. IS Code 2911 (Part 1): 1979 (Reaffirmed 1997) “Concrete Piles” Bureau of
gin

Indian Standards, New Delhi.

8. IS Code 2911 (Part 2): 1979 (Reaffirmed 1997) “Timber Piles”, Bureau of
En

Indian Standards, New Delhi.

9. IS Code 2911 (Part 3) : 1979 (Reaffirmed 1997) “Under Reamed Piles”,
Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi.
arn

10. IS Code 2911 (Part 4) : 1979 (Reaffirmed 1997) “Load Test on Piles”,
Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi.
11. IS Code 1904: 1986 (Reaffirmed 1995) “Design and Construction of
Le

Foundations in Soils”, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi.

12. IS Code 2131: 1981 (Reaffirmed 1997) “Method for Standard Penetration
w.

test for Soils”, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi.

13. IS Code 2132: 1986 (Reaffirmed 1997) “Code of Practice for thin – walled
tube sampling for soils”, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi.
ww

14. IS Code 1892 (1979): Code of Practice for subsurface Investigation for
Foundations. Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi.
15. IS Code 14458 (Part 1) : 1998 “Retaining Wall for Hill Area – Guidelines,
Selection of Type of Wall” , Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi.
16. IS Code 14458 (Part 2) : 1998 “Retaining Wall for Hill Area – Guidelines,
Design of Retaining/Breast Walls” , Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi.
17. IS Code 14458 (Part 3) : 1998 “Retaining Wall for Hill Area – Guidelines,
Construction Of Dry Stone Walls” , Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi.

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DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

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g.i
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SUBJECT NAME FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

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SUBJECT CODE : CE8591
gin
REGULATION : 2017
En
arn
Le
w.
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ANNA UNIVERSITY, CHENNAI-25

SYLLABUS COPY
REGULATION 2017

UNIT I SITE INVESTIGATION AND SELECTION OF FOUNDATION 9

Scope and objectives – Methods of exploration – auguring and boring – W ash boring
and rotary drilling – Depth of boring – Spacing of bore hole – Sampling techniques –
Representative and undisturbed sampling – methods - Split spoon sampler, Thin wall
sampler, Stationery piston sampler – Penetration tests (SPT and SCPT) - Bore log

n
g.i
report – Data interpretation - strength parameters and Liquefaction potential -
Selection of foundation based on soil condition.

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UNIT II SHALLOW FOUNDATION 9
Introduction – Location and depth of foundation – Codal provisions – bearing

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capacity of shallow foundation on homogeneous deposits – Terzaghi’s formula and
BIS formula – factors affecting bearing capacity – problems – Bearing capacity from
gin
in-situ tests (SPT, SCPT and plate load)Allowable bearing pressure – Seismic
considerations in bearing capacity evaluation. Determination of Settlement of
En

foundations on granular and clay deposits – Total and differential settlement –

Allowable settlements – Codal provision – Methods of minimizing total and
differential settlements.
arn

UNIT III FOOTINGS AND RAFTS 9

Types of footings – Contact pressure distribution: Isolated footing – Combined
Le

footings – Types and proportioning – Mat foundation – Types and applications –

Proportioning – Floating foundation – Seismic force consideration – Codal Provision.
w.

UNIT IV PILE FOUNDATION 9

Types of piles and their function – Factors influencing the selection of pile – Carrying
ww

capacity of single pile in granular and cohesive soil – static formula – dynamic
formulae (Engineering news and Hileys) – Capacity from insitu tests (SPT and
SCPT) – Negative skin friction – uplift capacity- Group capacity by different methods
(Feld’s rule, Converse – Labarra formula and block failure criterion) – Settlement of
pile groups – Interpretation of pile load test (routine test only) – Under reamed piles –
Capacity under compression and uplift.

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UNIT V RETAINING WALLS 9

Plastic equilibrium in soils – active and passive states – Rankine’s theory –
cohesionless and cohesive soil – Coulomb’s wedge theory – Condition for critical
failure plane – Earth pressure on retaining walls of simple configurations – Culmann
Graphical method – pressure on the wall due to line load – Stability analysis of
retaining walls.

TEXT BOOKS:

n
1. Murthy, V.N.S., “Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering”, CBS Publishers

g.i
and Distributers Ltd., New Delhi, 2007.

rin
2. GopalRanjan and Rao A.S.R. “Basic and Applied soil mechanics”, New Age
International Pvt. Ltd, New Delhi, 2005.

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3. Purushothama Raj. P., “Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering”, 2nd Edition,
Pearson Education, 2013
gin
4. Varghese, P.C., “Foundation Engineering”, Prentice Hall of India Private Limited,
New Delhi, 2005.
En

REFERENCES:
arn

1. Das, B.M. “Principles of Foundation Engineering” 5th edition, Thompson Asia Pvt.
Ltd., Singapore, 2003.
Le

2. Kaniraj, S.R. “Design aids in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering”, Tata
McGraw Hill Publishing company Ltd., New Delhi, 2002.
w.

3. Punmia, B.C. "Soil Mechanics and Foundations”, Laxmi Publications Pvt.Ltd.,

ww

New Delhi, 2005

4. Venkatramaiah, C. “Geotechnical Engineering”, New Age International

Publishers, New Delhi, 2007 (Reprint)

5. Arora K.R. “Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering”, Standard Publishers

and Distributors, New Delhi, 2005.

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6. IS 6403 : 1981 (Reaffirmed 1997) “Breaking capacity of shallow foundation”,

Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi, 1998

7. IS8009 (Part1):1976 (Reaffirmed 1998) “Shallow foundations subjected to

symmetrical static vertical loads”, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi, 1999

8. IS8009 (Part2):1980 (Reaffirmed 1995) “Deep foundations subjected to

symmetrical static vertical loading”, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi, 1992

9. IS2911(Part1):1979 (Reaffirmed 1997) “Concrete Piles” Bureau of Indian

n
Standards, New Delhi, 1994

g.i
10. IS2911(Part2):1979 (Reaffirmed 1997) “Timber Piles”,Bureau of Indian

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Standards, New Delhi, 2007

11. IS2911(Part 3) :1979 (Reaffirmed 1997) “Under Reamed Piles”,Bureau of Indian

Standards, New Delhi, 1998
ee
gin
12. IS2911 (Part 4) :1979 (Reaffirmed 1997) “Load Test on Piles”, Bureau of Indian
Standards, New Delhi, 1997
En
arn
Le
w.
ww

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Table of contents

S.NO CONTENTS PAGE NO

a Aim and Objective of the subject 6

b Detailed Lesson Plan 7

Unit I - Site investigation and selection of Foundation -

c 12

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Part-A

g.i
d Part-B 16

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e Unit II – Shallow Foundation -Part-A 39

f Part-B
ee 44
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g Unit III – Footings and Rafts -Part-A 58

h Part-B 61
En

i Unit IV – Pile Foundation -Part-A 84

arn

j Part-B 87
Le

k Unit V – Retaining walls -Part-A 107

w.

l Part-B 112
ww

m Industrial Practical connectivity of the subject 6

n University Questions 133

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Aim of the Subject

x To develop and enrich the knowledge on various types of foundations
x To find the suitability of foundations based on the soil conditions

Objective of the Subject

x Students will learn how to design shallow foundations, deep foundations,
retaining walls and slopes
x Students will learn how to utilize their knowledge in foundation engineering to

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perform various types of engineering calculations. This includes consolidation

g.i
analysis for foundation and stability analysis of slope and retaining walls

Applications

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Foundation plays a major role in transferring loads from the super structure to the

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ground and found major applications in buildings, bridges, transportation
infrastructures, underground and earth retaining structures, pavement designs, dam
gin
constructions.
En
arn
Le
w.
ww

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7

Department of CIVIL Engineering

Detailed Lesson Plan
Name of the Subject& Code: CE6502 FOUNDATION ENGINEERING
TEXT BOOKS:

1. Murthy, V.N.S., “Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering”, CBS Publishers

and Distributers Ltd., New Delhi, 2007.

2. GopalRanjan and Rao A.S.R. “Basic and Applied soil mechanics”, New Age

n
g.i
International Pvt. Ltd, New Delhi, 2005.

3. Purushothama Raj. P., “Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering”, 2nd Edition,

rin
Pearson Education, 2013

4. Varghese, P.C., ”Foundation Engineering”, Prentice Hall of India Private Limited,

New Delhi, 2005. ee
gin
REFERENCES:

1. Das, B.M. “Principles of Foundation Engineering” 5th edition, Thompson Asia Pvt.
En

Ltd., Singapore, 2003.

arn

2. Kaniraj, S.R. “Design aids in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering”, Tata
McGraw Hill Publishing company Ltd., New Delhi, 2002.
Le

3. Punmia, B.C. "Soil Mechanics and Foundations”, Laxmi Publications Pvt.Ltd.,

New Delhi, 2005
w.

4. Venkatramaiah, C. “Geotechnical Engineering”, New Age International

ww

Publishers, New Delhi, 2007 (Reprint)

5. Arora K.R. “Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering”, Standard Publishers

and Distributors, New Delhi, 2005.

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8

Hours
S l. Cumulative Books
Unit Topic / Portions to be Covered Required
No Hrs Referred
/ Planned

1 1 Definition, Methods of exploration 1 1 T2R3

1. Auger Boring
2 1 2.Auger and shell boring 3. W ash 2 3 T2R3
Boring

4. Rotary Drilling
3 1 2 5 T2R3
5. Percussion drilling 6. Core Boring

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Depth of boring ,Spacing of bore hole

g.i
4 1 1 6 T2R3
Sampling techniques

Sampling techniques, Representative

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5 1 1 7 T2R3
and undisturbed sampling ,Methods

Split spoon sampler

6 1 ee
Stationary piston sampler 2 9 T2R3
gin
Rotary samplers

Scraper bucket sampler

En

Shelby tubes and thin walled samplers

7 1 2 11 T2R3
Denison sampler
arn

Hand-curved samples

8 1 Penetration tests (SPT and SCPT) 1 12 T2R3

Le

9 1 Uses and application of Bore log report , 1 13 T2R3

Data interpretation
w.

10 1 Strength parameters and Liquefaction 1 14 T2R3

potential
ww

11 1 Selection of foundation based on soil 1 15 T2R3

condition

Introduction – Location and depth of

12 2 1 16 T2R3
foundation

Codal provisions – bearing capacity of

13 2 shallow foundation on homogeneous 1 17 T2R3
deposits

14 2 Terzaghi‟s bearing capacity analysis and 1 18 T2R3

BIS formula

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15 2 Factors affecting bearing capacity 1 19 T2R3

16 2 Problems on bearing capacity 2 21 T2R3

17 2 Problems on Depth 2 23 T2R3

18 2 Plate load Test 1 24 T2R3

Allowable bearing pressure – Seismic

19 2 considerations in bearing capacity 1 25 T2R3
evaluation

Settlement of foundations on granular

n
20 2 and clay deposits – Total and differential 1 26 T2R3

g.i
settlement – Allowable settlements

21 2 Problems on Settlement 2 28 T2R3

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22 2 Codal provision – Methods of minimizing 1 29 T2R3
total and differential settlements.
23 3 Types of footings 1 30 T2R3

24 3
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Contact pressure distribution for various
1 31 T2R3
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footings

Proportioning and procedure of

25 3 1 32 T2R3
rectangular combined footing.
En

Problems on Rectangular Combined

26 3 2 34 T2R3
Footings
arn

Proportioning and procedure of

27 3 1 35 T2R3
Trapezoidal combined footing.

Problems on Trapezoidal Combined

Le

28 3 2 37 T2R3
Footings

29 3 1 38 T2R3
w.

Mat foundation ,Types and applications

30 3 Proportioning and procedure of Mat 1 39 T2R3
foundation
ww

31 3 Problems on Mat foundation 2 41 T2R3

32 3 Floating foundation 1 42 T2R3

33 3 Seismic force consideration ,Codal 1 43 T2R3

Provision.
34 4 Types of piles and their function 1 44 T2R3

Factors influencing the selection of pile

35 4 Carrying capacity of single pile in 1 45 T2R3
granular and cohesive soil

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36 4 Problems on static formula 2 47 T2R3

37 4 Problems on dynamic formulae 2 49 T2R3

38 4 Pile Load Test, Negative skin friction 1 50 T2R3

39 4 Uplift capacity, Group capacity by 1 51 T2R3

different methods
40 4 Settlement of pile groups 1 52 T2R3

41 4 2 54 T2R3
Problem on settlement of piles
42 4 2 56 T2R3

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Problem on settlement of piles Group

g.i
43 4 Under reamed piles 1 57 T2R3

44 5 Plastic equilibrium in soils , active and 1 58 T2R3

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passive states
45 5 Rankine‟s theory for cohesionless soil 1 59 T2R3

46 5 1 60 T2R3

47 5
ee
Rankine‟s theory for cohesive soil

Coulomb‟s wedge theory 1 61 T2R3

gin
48 5 Earth pressure on retaining walls of 1 62 T2R3
simple configurations
49 5 1 63 T2R3
En

Culmann Graphical method

50 5 pressure on the wall due to line load 1 64 T2R3
arn

51 5 Stability analysis of retaining walls. 1 65 T2R3

52 5 Problems on calculation of active earth 2 67 T2R3

pressure on retaining wall
Le

53 5 Problems on calculation of passive earth 2 69 T2R3

pressure on retaining wall
w.

Problems on calculation of magnitude

54 5 and application of pressure on retaining 2 71 T2R3
wall
ww

55 5 Problems on Culmann’s Graphical 2 73 T2R3

method

Faculty In charge HOD

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UNIT I

SITE INVESTIGATION AND SELECTION OF FOUNDATION

PART A

1.Explain Representative and Non-Representative Samples. (May/June 2009)

(April/May 2015) (Nov/Dec 2011)
Representative samples – Natural moisture content and the proportion of the
mineral constituents are preserved even though the structure is disturbed.
Non-Representative samples – In addition to alteration in the original soil structure,

n
soils from the other layers gets mixed up or the mineral constituents gets altered.

g.i
2.What is mean by dilatancy? (Nov/Dec 2015)
Silty fine sands and fine sands below the water table develop pore pressure

rin
which is not easily dissipated. The pore pressure increases the resistance of the soil
and hence the Penetration number (N). Terzaghi and peck recommend th e
ee
following correction when the observed N value exceeds 15. The corrected
gin
Penetration Number,

Nc = 15 + ½ [NR – 15]
En

Where, Nc – corrected value

arn

NR – Recorded Value

If NR ≤ 15, then Nc = NR
Le

3.Write the uses of bore log report. (Nov/Dec 2012) (Nov/Dec 2015)
1. Used to record the change of layers depth
w.

2. Used to record the water level

3. Used to record the water quality in deeper level
ww

4.What is the objective of site investigation? (May/June

2013)

The objective of site investigation is to provide reliable, specific and detailed

information about the soil and ground water conditions of the site, economic design
and execution of the engineering works.

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5.What is site reconnaissance? (May/June 2013) (May/June 2011)

Site reconnaissance is defined as the inspection of the site and study of

topographical features, the soil and ground water conditions and in deciding the
future programme of exploration.

6.What is significant depth? (Nov/Dec 2009) (Nov/Dec 2014)

Exploration in general should be carried out to a depth up to which the
increase in pressure due to structural loading is likely to cause perceptible settlement

n
or shear failure. Such a depth is known as significant depth.

g.i
7.How is the depth of exploration decided? (Nov/Dec2010)(April/May 2015)
(May/June 2014)

rin
The depth of exploration required, depends on the type of proposed structure,
its total weight, the size, shape and disposition of the loaded areas, soil profile and

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the physical properties of the soil that constitutes each individual stratum.
8.List the field tests used in subsurface investigations. (Nov/Dec
gin
2013)
1. Standard Penetration Test.
En

2. Static Cone Penetration test

3. Dynamic Cone Penetration test
arn

The outside clearance will help in reducing the friction while the sampler is
being driven and when it is being withdrawn after the collection of the sample.
Le

9.What is detailed Exploration? (Nov/Dec 2009), (Nov/Dec 2012)

w.

A detailed Exploration is meant to furnish information about soil properties

such as Shear strength, Compressibility, Density index and Permeability. Detailed
ww

Exploration is followed by the general exploration in case of large engineering works,

heavy loads, and complex and costly foundations are involved.
10.What are the factors affecting quality of a sample? (Nov/Dec 2010)
The following are the factors affecting quality of the sample.
1. Cutting edge
2. Inside clearance
3. Outside clearance
4. Inside wall friction

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5. Non-return valves

11.What are the various methods of site investigation? (Nov/Dec 2010)

1. Open Excavation
2. Borings
3. Sub- Surface soundings
4. Geophysical method

12.The internal diameter of a sampler is40mm and the external diameter is

n
g.i
42mm. Will you consider the sample obtained from the sampler as disturbed or
undisturbed? (April/May 2011)

rin
Given data: D1 = 40mm,
D2 = 42mm
Ar= Do2 – Di2 x 100%
Area Ratio ,
Di2 ee
gin
= 422 -402 x 100%
402
En

=10.25% < 15%

The sample is undisturbed one
arn

13. How to Select the foundation based on soil condition? (Nov/Dec

2015)
Le

i. Adequate depth
ii. Bearing capacity
w.

iii. Settlement
iv. Quantity
ww

v. Adequate strength
vi. Adverse soil change
vii. Seismic forces

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14.What are the guidelines in terms of inside and outside clearance for
obtaining undisturbed sample? (May/June 2012)

An undisturbed sample is that in which the natural structure and properties

remain preserved. The inside clearance should lie between 1 to 3% and the outside
clearance 0 to 2%. The walls of the sampler should be smooth and should be kept
properly oiled.

15.What is meant by inside and outside clearance? What is its use?

n
(Nov/Dec 2013)

g.i
Inside clearance (Ci) , Uses:
The inside clearance is given to reduce
Ci = D3 – D1 x 100% the friction between the tube, by allowing

rin
D1 for the elastic expansion of the soil.
D1 - Inner diameter of cutting edge
D3 - Inner diameter of sample tube

Outside clearance (Co) ee Uses:

The outside clearance will help in
gin
Co = D2 – D4 x 100% reducing the friction while the sampler is
D4 being driven and when it is being
D4 - Outer diameter of cutting edge withdrawn after the collection of the
En

D2 - Outer diameter of sample tube sample

Outside clearance should not be much

arn

greater than inside clearance. It maybe

small (or) 1-2%
Le

PART-B
w.

1. Describe the various methods of drilling bore holes for sub surface
ww

investigations. (April/May 2011) (Nov/Dec 2014) (May/June 2016)

 When the depth of exploration is large, borings are used for exploration.
 A vertical bore hole is drilled in the ground to get the information about the
subsoil strata samples are taken from the bore hole and tested in the
laboratory.
 The bore hole may be used for conducting in-situ tests and for locating the
water table.
Depending upon the type of soil and the purpose of boring, the following methods
are used for drilling the holds.

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1. Auger Boring 2.Auger and shell boring

3. W ash Boring 4. Rotary Drilling

5. Percussion drilling 6. Core Boring

1. Auger Boring:

1. Augers are used in cohesive and other soft soils above water table.

2. Hands augers are used for depth up to 6m.

3. Mechanically operated augers are used for greater depths and they can also be

n
used in gravelly soils.

g.i
4. Samples recovered from the soil brought up by augers are badly disturbed
nature of soil sample; it becomes difficult to locate the exact changes in the soil

rin
strata.

5. It can be operated manually or mechanically. Mechanical augers are driven

ee
by power. These are used for making holes in hard strata to a great depth.
Even mechanical augers become inconvenient for depth greater than 12m
and other methods of boring are used.
gin
6. The hand augers used in boring are
about 15to 20cm in diameter. It is attached to
En

the lower end of the pipe of about 18mm

diameter.
arn

7. W hen the auger is filled with soil, it is

taken out. If the hole is already driven,
another type of auger known as post hole
Le

auger is used for taking soil samples.

Limitation or Disadvantages:
w.

x Sandy soil below water table, a casing

is normally required. For such soils, the
ww

method of auger boring becomes slow

and expensive.
x It cannot be used when there are large
cobbles, boulders or other obstructions
which prevent drilling of the hole.
x Auger boring is fairly satisfactory for
highways, railways, airfield exploration at shallow depth. The sub-surface
explorations are done quite rapidly and economically by auger boring.

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2. Augers and shell Boring:

1. Cylindrical augers and shell with cutting edge on teeth at the lower end can be
used for making deep borings.
2. Hand operated rings are used for depth up to 2.m and the mechanical ring up
to 50m.
3. This Augers are suitable for soft to stiff clays, shells for very stiff and hard
clays and shells or sand pumps for sandy soils.
4. Small boulders, thin soft strata or rock or cemented gravel can be broken by
chisel bits attached to drill rods. The hole usually requires a casing.
3. Wash Boring:

n
1. In wash boring, the hole is drilled by first driving a casing about 2 to 3m

g.i
long and then inserted into a hollow drill rod with a chisel shaped chopping bit at its
lower end. W ater is pumped down the hollow drill rod, which is known as wash pipe.

rin
2. W ater emerges as a strong jet through a small opening of the chopping bit.
The hole is advanced by a combination of chopping action and the jetting action as

ee
the drilling bit and the accompanying water jet disintegrates the soil.

3. The water and chopped soil particles rise upward through the annular
gin
space between the drill rod and the casing. The return water also known as wash
water which is collected in a tub through a T-shaped pipe fixed at the top of the
casing.
En

4. The hole is further advanced by alternately raising and dropping the

chopping by a winch. The swivel joint provided at the top of the drill rod facilitates the
arn

turning and twisting of the rod. The process is continued even below the costing till
the hole begins to cave in. At that stage the bottom of the casing can be extended by
providing additional pieces at the top.
Le

5. However in stable, cohesive soils the casing is required only in the top
portion. Sometimes instead of casing, special drilling fluids made of suspension or
w.

emulsion of fat clays or bentonite combined with some special additives are used for
supporting walls of the hole.
ww

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6. The change in strata is

provided by the reaction of the
chopping bit as the hole is
advanced. It is also indicated by
a change in color of the wash
water. The wash boring is mainly
used for advancing a hole in the
ground. Once the hole has been
drilled, a sampler is inserted to
obtain soil samples for testing in
the laboratory.

n
Limitation or Disadvantages:

g.i
x The equipment used in

rin
wash boring is relatively
light and inexpensive. The
main disadvantage of the

stiff soils and coarse ee

method is that it is slow in

grained soils. It cannot be

gin
used efficiently in hard soils, rocks and the soil containing boulders.
x The method is not suitable for taking good quality undisturbed samples above
ground water table, as the wash water enters the strata below the bottom of
En

the hole and causes an increase in its water content.

arn

4. Percussion Drilling:

1. The percussion drilling method is used for making holes in rocks, boulders
and other hard strata.
Le

2. The main advantage of the percussion drilling method is that it can be used
for all types of materials. It is particularly useful for drilling holes in is glacial
w.

tills containing boulders.

3. In this method a heavy chisel is alternately lifted and dropped in a vertical
hole. The material gets pulverized. If the point where chisel strikes is above
ww

the water table, water is added to the hole. The water forms slurry with the
pulverized material which is removed by a sand pipe.
4. Percussion drilling may require a casing. It is also used for drilling tube wells.
Limitation or Disadvantages:

x One of the major disadvantages is that the material at the bottom of the hole
is disturbed by heavy blows of the chisel.
x It is not possible to get good quality undisturbed samples. This method is
generally more expensive.

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5. Rotary Drilling:

1. Rotary boring or drilling is a very fast method of advancing hole in the both
rocks and soils.
2. Rotary drilling can be used in clay, sand and rocks.
3. Bore holes of diameter 50mm to 200mm can be easily made by this method.
4. A drill bit, fixed to the lower end of the drill rods, is rotated by a suitable chunk
and is always kept in firm contact with the bottom of the hole.
5. A drilling mud, usually a water solution of bentonite with or without other
admixtures is continuously forced down the hollow drill rods.
6. The mud entering upwards brings the cuttings to the surface. This method is
also known as ‘MUD ROTARY DRILLING ‘and the hole usually requires no

n
casing.

g.i
6. Core Drilling:

1. The core drilling method is used for drilling holes and for obtaining rock cores.

rin
2. In this method a core barrel fitted with a drilling bit is fixed to a hollow drilling
rod. As the drilling rod is rotated, the bit advances and cuts an annular hole an
intact hole.
ee
3. The core is then removed from its bottom and is retained by a core –lifter and
brought to the ground surface.
gin
4. The core drilling may be done using either a diamond studded bit or cutting
edge consists of chilled shot. The diamond driller is superior to the other type
of drilling, but it is costlier
En

5. Water is pumped continuously into the drilling rod to keep the drilling bit cool
and to carry the disintegrated materials to the ground surface.
arn

2.Explain the (i) Seismic refraction method and (ii) Electrical resistivity method of
soil exploration. (May/June 2009), (Nov/Dec 2015)
Le

(OR)
w.

Explain in detail the geophysical methods of soil explorations with neat sketch.

(Nov/Dec 2012),(Nov/Dec 2013), (May /June 2013)

ww

(i) SESMIC REFRACTION METHOD

General

x This method is based on the fact that seismic waves have different velocities
in different types of soils and besides the wave refract when they cross
boundaries between different types of soils.
x In this method an artificial impulse are produced either by detonation of
explosive or mechanical blow with a heavy hammer at ground surface or at
the shadow depth within a hole.

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These shocks generate three types of w aves:

x Longitudinal or compressive wave or primary (p) wave

x Transverse or shear waves or secondary (s) waves
x Surface waves

It is primarily the velocity of longitudinal or the compression waves which is

utilized in this method. The equation on the p-waves (Vc) and s-waves (Vs) is given
as

E 1 P
Vc
1  P 1  2P U

n
g.i
E
Vs
2U 1  P

rin
These waves are classified as direct, reflected and refracted waves.

x
impulse. ee
The direct waves travel in approximately straight line from the source of

x The reflected and refracted wave undergoes a change in direction when they
gin
encounter a boundary separating media of different seismic velocities.
x This method is more suited to the shallow explorations for civil engineering
purpose.
En

x The time required for the impulse to travel from the shot point to various
points on the ground surface is determined by means of geophones which
arn

transform the vibrations into electrical currents and transmit them to a

recording unit or oscillograph, with a timing mechanism.
Le

Assumptions
w.

The various assumptions involved are

x All the soil layers are horizontal

ww

x The layers are sufficiently thick to produce a response

x Each layer is homogeneous and isotropic
x Velocity should increase with depth following the Snell’s law as given

i1 is the angle of incidence

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i2 is the angle of refraction

v1 and v2 are velocity in two different mediums

Procedure

x The detectors are generally placed at varying distance from the shot point but
along the straight line.
x The arrival time of the first impulse at each geophone is utilized.
x If the successfully deeper strata transmit the waves with increasingly greater
velocities the path travelled by the first impulse will be similar to those.
x Those recorded by the nearest recorders pass entirely through the

n
overburden, whereas those first reaching the after detectors travel downward

g.i
through the lower velocity material, horizontally within the higher velocity
stratum and return to the surface.
x (A T1 and A T2) as the function of the distances between the geophones and

rin
the shot points (L1 and L2).
x A curve obtained which indicates the wave velocity in each stratum and which

ee
may be used to determine the
depths to the boundaries
gin
between the strata.
En

l1V1 L1 V2  V1
H1
2 co s D 2 V2  V1
arn

l 2V2 L2  L1 V3  V2
H2 0.85H 1 
2 co s E 2 V3  V2
Le

Where H1 and H2 are the depths of the

w.

strata

l1 = AB1
ww

l2 = AC1-AB1

sin α= (V1 – V2)

sin β=(V2/V3)

Applications

x Depth and characterization of

the bed rock surfaces.
x Buried channel location.

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x Depth of the water table.

x Depth and continuity of stratigraphy interfaces.
x Mapping of faults and other structural features.

Advantages

x Complete picture of stratification of layer up to 10 m depth.

x Refraction observations generally employ fewer source and receiver location
and thus relatively cheap to acquire.
x Little processing is done on refraction observations with the exception of trace
scaling or filtering to help in the process of picking the arrival times of the

n
initial ground motion.
x Because such a small portion of the recorded ground motion is used

g.i
developing models and interpretations is no more difficult than our previous
efforts with other geophysical surveys.

rin
x Provides seismic velocity information for estimating material properties.
x Provides greater vertical resolution than electrical, magnetic or gravity
methods.
x ee
Data acquisition requires very limited intrusive activity is non- destructive.
gin
Disadvantages
x Blind zone effect: If v2< v1, then wave refracts more towards normal then the
thickness of the strata is neglected.
En

x Error also introduced due to some dissipation of the velocity as longer the
path of travel, geophone receives the erroneous readings.
arn

x Error lies in all assumptions.

(ii) ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY METHOD

Le

Electrical resistivity method is based on the difference in the electrical

conductivity or electrical resistivity of different soils. Resistivity is defined as
the resistance in ohms between opposite phases of a unit cube of a material.
w.

ρ � (𝑅𝐴)/𝐿
ww

ρ is resistivity in ohm-cm

R is resistance in ohms

A is the cross sectional area (cm2)

L is the length of the conduction (cm)

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Procedure:

x In this method the electrodes and driven approximately 20 cms in to the

ground and a dc or a very low frequency ac current of known magnitude is
passed between the outer electrodes thereby producing within the soil an
electrical field and the boundary conditions.
x The electrical potential at point C is Vc and at the point D is Vd which is
measured by means of the inner electrodes respectively.

IU §1 1 ·
Vc ¨
¨r  r ¸¸
2S © 1 2 ¹

n
g.i
IU §1 1·
VD ¨¨  ¸¸
2S © r3 r4 ¹

rin
Where ρ is resistivity

I is current

ee
r1, r2, r3 and r4 are the distances between the various electrodes
gin
Potential difference between C and D = VCD
En

IU ª§ 1 1 · § 1 1 ·º
Vc  V D «¨¨  ¸¸  ¨¨  ¸¸»
2S ¬© rr r2 ¹ © r3 r4 ¹¼
arn

ª º
« »
2SVCD « 1 »
Le

U
I «§ 1 1 · § 1 1 · »
« ¨¨  ¸¸  ¨¨  ¸¸ »
«¬ © r1 r2 ¹ © r3 r4 ¹ »¼
w.

If r1=r4= (r2/2)= (r3/2)Then the resistivity is given as

ww

2SRr1
U
I

Where,

Resistances R= VCD/I

x Thus the apparent resistivity of the soil to the depth approximately equal to
the spacing r1 of the electrode can be computed.
x The resistivity unit is often so designed that the apparent resistivity can be
read directly on the potentiometer.

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x In resistivity mapping or transverse profiling the electrodes are moved from

place to place without changing their spacing and the apparent resistivity and
any anomalies within a depth a depth equal to the spacing of the electrodes
can thereby be determined for a number of points.
x In resistivity sounding or depth profiling the center point of the set up is
stationary whereas the spacing of the electrode is varied.
x A detailed evaluation of the results of the resistivity sounding is rather
complicated, but preliminary indications of the subsurface conditions may be
obtained by plotting the apparent resistivity as a function of electrode spacing.
x When the electrode spacing reaches a value equal to the depth to a deposit
with a resistivity materially different from that of overlying strata, the resultant

n
diagram will generally show a more or less pronounced break in the strata

g.i
depth beyond A2 .

rin
ee
gin
En
arn

x I practice many several different arrays are used. For simple sounding a
Le

Wenner array is used. Then the resistivity is given as

2SRa
w.

U
I
ww

Where a is the spacing between the electrodes.

x The Schlumberger array is used for profiling and sounding. In sounding

configuration the current electrodes separated by AB are symmetric about the
potential electrodes MN.
x The current electrodes are then expanded and the resistivity is given as

S s2  a2 / 4
U R
a

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Applications

x Characterize subsurface hydrogeology.

x Determine depth to bedrock /over burden thickness.
x Determine depth to ground water.
x Map stratigraphy.
x Map clay aquitards.
x Map salt water intrusion.
x Map vertical extent of certain types of soil and ground water contamination.

Resistivity profiling

n
x Map faults.

g.i
x Map lateral extent of conductive contaminant process.
x Locate voids.

rin
x Map heavy metals soil contamination.
x Delineate disposal areas.
x Map paleochannels.
x
x
ee
Explore for sand and gravels.
Map archaeological sites.
gin
Advantages of this method are

x It is very rapid and economical method.

En

x It is good up to 30 m depth.
x The instrumentation of this method is very simple.
arn

x It is a non destructive method.

Disadvantages of this method are

Le

x It can only detect absolutely different strata like rock and water.
x It provides no information about the sample.
w.

x Cultural problems cause interference.

x Data acquisition can be slow compared to other geophysical methods,
ww

although that difference is disappearing with the very latest techniques.

3. Briefly explain with neat sketch Standard Penetration Test and the
correction to be applied to find ‘N’ value. (May/June 2016), (May/June 2014),
(Nov/Dec 2011), (May /June 2012), (Nov/Dec 2013)

Standard Penetration Test.:

1. The standard Penetration Test is the most commonly used in –site test,
especially for cohesion less soils which cannot be easily sampled.

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2. The test is extremely useful for determining the relative density and the
angle to determine the UCC strength of the cohesive soil.

3. The standard penetration test is conducted in a bore hole using a standard

split spoon sampler, when the bore hole has been drilled to the desired depth, the
drilling tools are removed and the sampler is lowered to the bottom of the hole.

4. The sampler is driven into the soil by a drop hammer of 63.5kg mass falling
through a height of 750mm at the rate of 30blows per minutes.

5. The number of hammer blows required to drive 150mm of the sample is

counted.

n
6. The sampler is further driven by 150mm and the number of blows recorded.

g.i
7. Likewise the sampler is once again further driven by 150mm and the
number of blows recorded. The number of blows recorded for the first 150mm is

rin
disregarded.

8. The plumber of blows recorded for the last two 150mm intervals are added
ee
to give the standard Penetration Number (N).
gin
9. In other words, ‘N’ is equal
to the number of blows required for
300mm of penetration beyond a
En

seating drive of 150mm.

10. If the number of blows for

arn

150mm drive exceeds 50, it is taken

as refusal and the test is
discontinued. The standard
Le

Penetration number is corrected for

decadency correction and our burden
correction.
w.

(a) Dilatancy Correction.

x Silty fine sands and fine sands
ww

below the water table develop

pore pressure which is not
easily dissipated.
x The pore pressure increases
the resistance of the soil and
hence the Penetration number
(N).
x Terzaghi and peck recommend the following correction when the observed N
value exceeds 15. The corrected Penetration Number,

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Nc = 15 + ½ [NR – 15]

Where, Nc – corrected value

NR – Recorded Value

If NR ≤ 15, then Nc = NR

(b) Over burden Pressure Correction:

x In granular soils, the overburden pressure affects the penetration resistance.
x Generally, the soil with high confining pressure gives higher penetration
number.

n
x As the confining pressure in cohesion soil increases with depth, the

g.i
penetration number for the soils at shallow depths is under estimated and that
at greater depths is over estimated for uniformity, the N values obtained from
field tests under different effective overburden pressure are corrected to a

rin
standard effective overburden pressure.

For dry or moist clean sand, (Gibbs and Holtz)

Nc = NR X 350 ee
gin
V̅0 +70

Nc - corrected value
En

NR - Recorded Value

V̅0 - effective over burden pressure

arn

It is applicable for V̅ ≤ 280kN/m 2. Usually the overburden correction is applied first

and then dilatancy correction is applied
Le

first and then dilatancy correction is

applied.
w.

The correction given by Bazara & peck is

N =4NR if V̅0 < 71.8 kN/m2

ww

1+ 0.0418V̅0

N= 4NR if V̅0 > 71.8 kN/m2

3.25+ 0.0104V̅0

N = NR if V̅0 = 71.8 kN/m2

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Correction of N with engineering properties:

x The value of standard Penetration number N depends upon the relative

density of the cohesionless soil and the unconfined compressive strength of
the cohesive soil.
x If the soil is compact or stiff, the penetration number is high.
x The angle of sheaing resistance (ɸ) of the cohesionless soil depends upon the
number N.
x In general, greater the N-value greater the ɸ value.
x The consistency &UCC strength of cohesive soils can be approximately
determined from SPT, N-value.

n
Correction between N, Dr, ɸ

g.i
Relative density, Angle of internal
N Condition
Dr friction, ɸ

rin
0-4 Very Loose 0-15% <28˚
4-10 Loose 15-35% 28˚-30˚
10-30
30-50 ee
Medium
Dense
35-65%
65-85%
30˚-36˚
36˚-42˚
gin
>50 Very Dense >85% 42˚ & greater

For Clays the following data are given.

En

Correlation between N and qu

arn

N Consistency qu(kN/m2)
0-2 Very soft <25
2-4 Soft 25-50
Le

4-8 Medium 50-100

8-15 Stiff 100-200
15-30 Very stiff 200-400
w.

>30 Hard >400

ww

4.Explain in detail the various types of samplers with sketches. (May/June

2016) (May/June 2013) (May/June 2011)

OPEN DRIVER SAMPLER:

x Most commonly used for disturbed samples.

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x Driving shoe made up of tool steel about 75mm long. Steel tube of 450mm
long.
x The coupling head provided with check valve and 4 venting port of 10mm
diameter.
x After borehole sampler attached to drilling rod and lowered into the hole.
x Drop hammer is used for forcing the sampler.
x When the sample is taken out removing the shoe and coupling transported to
lab.

n
x Spring core catches is used for taking sand below ground water level and

g.i
spring closes when lifted up and forms a dome.
x Water level slightly above the piezometric level at the bottom of the hole to

rin
avoid quick sand condition.

SPLIT SPOON SAMPLER:

ee
The most commonly used sampler for obtaining disturbed sample of soil is the
gin
standard split spoon sampler. It consists mainly of three parts

i) Driving shoe, made of tool steel, about 75mm long

En

ii) Steel tube abut 450mm long, split longitudinal in two halves and
iii) Coupling at the top of the tube about 150mm long.
arn

x The inside diameter of the split tube is 38mm and the outside diameter is
50mm.
Le

x The coupling head may be provided with a check valve and 4 venting ports of
10mm diameter to improve sample recovery.
w.

x This sampler is also used in conducting standard penetration test.

ww

x After the bore hole has been made, the sampler is attached to the drilling rod
and lowered into the hole.
x The sample is collected by jacking or forcing the sampler into the soil by
repeated blows of a drop hammer.
x The sampler is then withdrawn.
x The split tube is separated after removing the shoe and the coupling and the
sampler is taken out. It is then paced in a container, sealed and transported to
the laboratory.

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x If the soil encountered in the bore hole is fine sand and it lies below the water
table, the sample is recovery becomes difficult.
x For such soil, a spring core catcher device is used to aid recovery.
x As the sampler is lifted springs close and form a dome and retain the sample.
x While taking samples, care should be taken to ensure that the water level in
the hole is maintained slightly higher than the piezometric level at the bottom
of the hole.
x It is necessary to prevent quick sand conditions.

n
x The split tube may be provided with a thin metal or plastic tube liner to protect

g.i
the sample and to hold it together.
x After the sample has been collected, the liner and the sample it contains are

rin
removed from the tube and ends are sealed.

STATIONARY PISTON SAMPLER:

x
ee
Stationary piston sampler consists of a sampler with a piston attached to a
gin
long piston rod extending up to the ground surface through the drill rods.
x The lower end of the sampler is kept closed with piston while the sampler is
En

lowered through the bore hole.

x When the desired elevation reached, the piston rod is clamped; thereby
arn

keeping the piston stationary and the sampler tube is advanced further into
the soil.
x The sampler is then lifted and the piston rod clamped in position.
Le

x The piston prevents the entry of water and soil into the tube, when it is being
w.

lowered and also helps to retain the sample during the process of lifting the
tube.
ww

x The sampler is therefore very much being suited for sampling in soft soils and
saturated sands.

ROTARY SAMPLERS:

x Rotary samplers are core barrel type with an outer tube provided with cutting
teeth and a removable thin liner inside. It is used for sampling in stiff cohesive
soils.

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SCRAPER BUCKET SAMPLER:

x If a sandy deposit contains pebbles it is not possible to obtain samples by

standard split spoon sampler by standard split spoon sampler or split spoon
fitted with a spring core catcher.
x The pebbles come in between the springs and prevent their closure.
x For such deposits, a scraper bucket sampler can be used.
x A scraper bucket sampler can also be used for obtaining the samples of
cohesion less soils below the water table.

n
g.i
rin
ee
gin
SHELBY TUBES AND THIN WALLED SAMPLERS:
En

x Shelby tubes are thin wall tube samplers made of seamless steel.
x The outside diameter of the tube may be between 40 to 125mm.
arn

x The area ratio is less than 15% and the inside clearance is between 0.5 to
3%.
Le

x The length of the tube is 5 to 10 times the diameter for sandy soils and 10 to
15 times the diameter for clayey soils.
w.

x The diameter generally varies between 40 and 125mm and thickness varies
from 1.25 to 3.15mm.
ww

x The sampler tube is attached to the drilling rod and lowered to the bottom of
the bore hole.
x It is then pushed into the soil.
x Care should be taken to push the tube into the soil by a continuous rapid
motion without impact or twisting.
x The tube should be pushed to the length provided for the sample.

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x At least 5 minutes after pushing the tube into its final position, the tube is
turned revolutions to shear the sample off at the bottom before it is
withdrawn.
x The tube is taken out and its ends are sealed before transportation. Shelby
tubes are used for obtaining undisturbed samples of clay.

DENISON SAMPLER:

x The Denison sampler is a double walled sampler.

n
x The outer barrel rotates and cuts into the soil.

g.i
x The sample is obtained in the inner barrel.
x The inner barrel is provided with a liner. It may also be provided with a basket

rin
type core retainer.
x The Denison sampler is mainly used for obtaining samples of stiff to hard

x
ee
cohesive soils and slightly cohesive sands.
However, it cannot be used for gravelly soils, loose cohesion less sands and
gin
silts below ground water table and very soft cohesive soils.

HAND-CURVED SAMPLES:
En

x Hand curved samples can be obtained if the soil is exposed, as in a test pit,
arn

shaft or tunnel.
x Hand curved samples are also known as chunk samples.
x The soil should have at least a trace of cohesion so that it can stand
Le

unsupported for sometimes.

x To obtain a sample, a column of soil is isolated in the pit.
w.

x The soil is carefully removed from around the soil column and it is properly
ww

trimmed.
x An open ended box is then placed over the soil column.
x The space between the box and the soil column is fitted with paraffin.
x A spade or a plate with sharp edges is inserted below the box and the
sample is cut at its base.
x The box filled with the soil sample is removed.
x It is turned over and the soil surface in the box is trimmed and any
depression is filled with paraffin.

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x A chunk sample may be obtained without using the box if the soil is cohesive.
x A column of soil is isolated.
x The block of soil is carefully removed from the soil column with sharp knife.
x The chunk sample is then coated with paraffin wax to prevent loss of
moisture.
x Samples from open pits can also be obtained by pressing a sampling tube
provided with a cutting edge.
x The soil surrounding the outside of the tube is carefully removed while the

n
tube is being pushed into the soil. Hand – curved samples are undisturbed.

g.i
5.Explain in detail the cone penetration test w ith sketches. (Nov/Dec 2014)
(Nov/Dec 2013) (May/June 2011)

rin
Cone Penetration Test

x
ee
The cone test was developed by the dutch government, soil mechanics
gin
laboratory at Defit and is therefore also known as Dutch cone test.
x The test is conducted either by the Static method or by dynamic method.
En

Static Cone Penetration Test.:

arn

x The Dutch cone has an apex angle of 60 and an overall diagram of 35.7mm
giving an overall diagram of 35.7mm giving an end area of 10cm2.
x For obtaining the cone resistance, the cone is pushed downward at a steady
Le

rate of 10mm/sec through a depth of 35mm each time.

x The cone is pushed by applying thrust and not by driving.
w.

x After the cone resistance has been determined the cone is withdrawn.
ww

x The sleeve is pushed onto the cone both are driven together into the soil and
the combined resistance is also determined.
x The resistance of the sleeve alone is obtained by subtracting the cone
resistance from the combined resistance.
x A modification of the dutch cone pentrometers is the refined dutch cone.
x It has got a friction sleeve of limited length above the cone point.
x It is used for obtaining the point resistance of the cone and the frictional
resistance of the soil above cone point.

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x For effective use of the cone penetration test, some reliable calibration is
required.
x This consists of comparing the results with those dutch cone obtained from
conventional tests conducted on undisturbed sample in a laboratory.
x It is also convenient to compare the cone test results with SPT results, are
related to the SPT number N, indirect correlations are obtained between the
cone tests and the engineering properties of the soil.

The following relation holds approximately good between the point resistance

n
of the cone (9c) and the standard penetration Number (N)

g.i
i) Gravels 9c = 800N to 1000N

rin
ii) Sands 9c = 500N to 600N
iii) Silly sands 9c = 300N to 400N
iv) Sills & clayey 9c
b. Dynamic Cone Penetration Test. ee = 200N where 9c is in KN/m2 silts
gin
x The test is conducted by driving the cone by blows of a hammer.
x The number of blows for driving the cone through a specified distance is a
En

measure of dynamic cone resistance.

x It is performed either by using a 50mm cone without bentonite slurry or by
arn

using a 65mm cone with bentonite slurry (IS 4968 – part I &II 1976) The
driving energy is given by 65kg hammer falling through a height of 75cm.
Le

x The number of blows required for 30cm of penetration is taken as the

dynamic cone resistance (Ncbr).
w.

x If the skin friction is to be eliminated, the test is conducted in a cased bore

hole.
ww

x When a 65mm cone with bentonite slurry is used, the set up should have
arrangement for circulating slurry so that the friction on the driving rod is
eliminated.
x The dynamic cone resistance (Ncbr) is correlated with the SPT number N.
x The following approximate relations may be used when a 50mm diameter
cone is used.

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Ncbr Depth
1.5N <3m
1.75N 3-6m
2.0N >6m

x The central building research Institute, Roorkee has developed the following
correlation between the dynamic cone resistance (Nbcr) of SPT Number N.
x It is applicable for medium to fine sand.

n
g.i
Ncbr Depth
1.5N <4m

rin
1.75N 4-9m
2.0N >9m

ee
6.The field N value in a deposit of fully submerged fine w as 40at a depth of 6m.
gin
The average saturated unit w eight of the soil is 19 kN/m3. Calculate the
corrected N value as per IS: 2131- 1981.
(April/May 2015)
En

Solution:
arn

x Since the soil is submerged fine sand, dilatancy correction is also to be

applied in addition to the correction for overburden pressure.
Le

γ¹ = γ sat - γ w
w.

= 19 - 9.8
ww

= 9.2 kN/m3

Effective overburden pressure p at 6 m depth = 9.2 X 6

= 55.2 kN/m2

(a) Correction for overburden pressure:

According to IS : 2131- 1981
CN = 0.77 log 2000/ p

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35

= 0.77 log 2000/ 55.2

= 1.2
N¹ = CNN
= 1.2 X 40
= 48
(b) Correction for dilatancy effect:
N¹¹ = 15 + 0.5 ( N¹ - 15 )
= 15 + 0.5 (48 – 15 )
= 31.5

n
g.i
rin
ee
gin
En
arn
Le
w.
ww

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UNIT II

SHALLOW FOUNDATION

PART A

1. A footing 2m square is laid at a depth of 1.3 m below the ground surface.

Determine the net ultimate bearing capacity using BIS formula. Take γ =20
kN/m3, ɸ =30˚ and c= 0. For ɸ =30˚, take Nc =30.1, Nq =18.4 and Nγ = 22.4.
(April/May 2011) (Nov/Dec 2015)

n
g.i
qnu = q( Nq-1) Sq dq + 0.5 γ B Nγ Sγ dγ

rin
q = 1.3 x 20 =26 kN/m2

ee
Sq = 1.2 for square footing

Sγ = 0.8 for square footing

gin
dq = dγ =1 + 0.1 Df tan (45˚ +ɸ )
En

B 2

= 1 +0.1 x 1.3/2 x tan ( 45˚ +30˚/2)

arn

= 0.112 + 1
Le

= 1.112
w.

qnu = 26 (18.4 -1)1.2 x1.112 + 0.5 x 20 x2 x 0.8 x 1.112

= 603.68 + 17.792
ww

= 621.472 kN/m2

2.What are the modes of shear failure of shallow foundation (May/June 2016)
Types of shear failure:

x General shear failure

x Local shear failure
x Punching shear failure

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3.List the various method of minimizing settlement (May/June

2016)

x Improve the soil character

x Select suitable or better foundation system to distribute the structural load as
smooth pressure on soil.
x Take precaution measures to avoid soil disturbances in the surroundings of
the structure; and also below the structural foundations including any vibratory
motion disturbances.

n
g.i
4.What is ultimate bearing capacity? (April/May 2014), (May/June 2013)
The ultimate bearing capacity is defined as the minimum gross pressure

rin
intensity at the base of the foundation at which the soil fails in shear.

5.What is net pressure intensity? (May/June 2013) (April/May 2014)

ee
The difference in intensity of gross pressure after the construction of a
gin
structure and the original overburden pressure is called Net pressure
En

Net pressure intensity = Net load on the base of the foundation

Area of footing
arn

6.What are the limitations of Terzaghi’s analysis? (May/June 2011)

x The theory is applicable to shallow foundations

Le

x As the soil compresses, increases which is not considered. Hence fully plastic
zone may not develop at the assumed.
w.

x All points need not experience limit equilibrium condition at different loads.
ww

x Method of superstition is not acceptable in plastic conditions as the ground is

near failure zone.

7.What are the major criteria to be satisfied in the design of a foundation?

(Nov/Dec 2013)

x Foundation design is based on providing a means of transmitting the loads

from a structure to the underlying soil without

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x A soil shear failure, shear failure means that, it is a plastic flow and/ or a
lateral expulsion of soil from beneath the foundation.
x Causing excessive settlements of the soil under the imposed loads.

8.What is the effect of rise of w ater table on the bearing capacity and the
settlement of a footing on sand? (Nov/Dec
2013)

The pressure of water affects the unit weight of soil. Hence bearing capacity is

n
affected due to the effect of water table. For practical purpose it is more sensitive

g.i
when the water table rises above depth 13 m from footing.
9.Define punching shear failure. (Nov/Dec 2012)

rin
Punching Shear failure occurs when there is relatively high compression of
soil under the footing, accompanied by shearing in the vertical direction around the

ee
edges of the footing. Punching shear may occur in relatively loose sand with relative
density.
gin
10.What is mean by swelling potential? (Nov/Dec 2012)
En

The swelling potential of expansive soils is defined as the percentage swell of

a laterally confined soil sample, when tested in a consolidometer test, when soaked
arn

under a surcharge load of 7 kN/m2 after being compacted to maximum dry density
at O.M.C (Optimum moisture content) according to AASHO compaction test.
Le

11.What are the Assumptions of Terzaghi’s analysis? (Nov/Dec 2011)

w.

Assumptions:
ww

x Soil is homogeneous and Isotropic.

x The shear strength of soil is represented by Mohr Coulombs Criteria.
x The footing is of strip footing type with rough base. It is essentially a
two dimensional plane strain problem.
x Elastic zone has straight boundaries inclined at an angle equal to to
the horizontal.
x Method of superposition is valid.

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x Effect of water table is neglected.

x Footing carries concentric and vertical loads.
x Footing and ground are horizontal.
x The properties of foundation soil do not change during the shear failure

12.Compare general and local shear failure. (May/June 2009)

S.NO General Shear Failure Local Shear Failure

1 Well defined failure pattern Well defined wedge and slip

n
surfaces only beneath th e

g.i
foundation
2 A sudden – catastrophic failure There is no tilting of foundation.

rin
accompanies by tilting of Slip surface not visible beyond the
foundation. edges of the foundation.
3 Bulging ee
of ground surface Slight bulging of ground surface
gin
adjacent to the foundation. adjacent to the foundation.
4 The load – Settlement curve The load – Settlement curve does
indicates the ultimate load clearly. not indicate the ultimate load
En

clearly.
arn

13.Sketch the pressure distribution beneath a rigid footing on cohesive and

cohesion less soil. (Nov/Dec 2013), (May/June 2012) , (May/June
Le

2016)
w.
ww

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14. What is the total settlement of a footing? List the various components of
settlement. (April/May 2010) ,(May/June 2013), (May/June 2014)
Total settlement is defined as the settlement due to elastic settlement,
consolidation settlement and secondary settlement.

S =Si + Sc + Ss

The settlement of foundation base is due to (a) Elastic / Immediate settlement

(b) Consolidation Settlement (c) Secondary Consolidation Settlement

n
15.What are the criteria used for the determination of bearing capacity?

g.i
(Nov/Dec 2010)

rin
The following criteria must always be used in evaluating the bearing capacity.
1. Adequate factor of safety against failure (collapse)

ee
2. Adequate margin against excessive settlement. Although failure or
collapses of foundation have been reported from time to time, by far the
gin
most common difficulty of foundations arises from excessive settlement.
Therefore, this criterion warrants skillful and careful attention of the
En

practicing engineers.

PART B
arn

1. Explain plate load test with sketch. (May/June 2014,2011) (Nov/Dec 2013)
Le

PLATE LOAD TEST:

x The allowable bearing pressure can be determined by conducting a plate load

w.

test at the site.

x The conduct a plate load test, a pit of the size 5Bp X 5Bp,where Bp is the size
ww

of the plate, is excavated to the depth equal to the depth of foundation(Df).

x The size of the plate is usually 0.3m square. It is made of steel and is 25mm
thick.

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x Occasionally circular plates are also used. Sometimes large size plates of
0.6m square are used.

n
g.i
rin
ee
gin
A central hole of size Bp X Bp is excavated in the pit the depth of the central
hole(Dp)is obtained from the following relation
En

𝐷𝑝 𝐷𝑓
�
𝐵𝑝 𝐵𝑓
arn

Dp=(Df/Bf)Bp

=(Bp/ Bf)Df
Le

W here, Bf-width of the pit

w.

Bp-size of plate
ww

x The conducting the plate load test, the plate is placed in the central hole and
the load is applied by means of a hydraulic jack. the reaction to the jack is
provided by means of a reaction beam.
x Sometimes truss are used instead of a reaction beam to take up the
reaction. Alternatively, a loaded platform can be used to provide reaction.
x A seating load of KN/m2 is first applied, which is released after the
sometimes. The is then applied in increments of about 20% of the estimated
safe load or 1/10th of the ultimate load.

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x The settlement is recorded after 1,5,10,20,40,60 minutes and further after

an internal of one hour
x These hourly observations are continued for clayey soils, until the rate of
settlement is less than 0.2mm per hour.
x The test is conducted until failure or at least until the settlement of 25mm
has occurred

n
g.i
rin
ee
gin
x The ultimate load for the plate is indicated by a break on the log-log between
En

the load intensity q and the settlements.

x If the break is not will defined the ultimate load is taken as the
arn

corresponding to the settlement of 1/5th of the plate width(Bp) on the natural

plot.
Le

x The ultimate load is obtained from the intersection of the tangents drawn.

LIMITATIONS OF PLATE LOAD TEST:

w.

1. SIZE EFFECT:
ww

x The results of the plate load test reflect the strength and the settlement
characteristics of the soil within the pressure bulbs.
x As the pressure bulb depends upon the size of the loaded area it is much
deeper for the actual foundation as compared to that of plate.
x The plate load test does not truly represent the actual conditions to a large
depth.

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2. SCALE EFFECT:

x The ultimate bearing capacity of saturated clays is independent of the size

of the plate but for cohesion less soils.
x It increases with the size of the plate to reduce scale effect, it is desirable to
repeat the plate load test with plates of two or three different sizes and the
average of the bearing capacity values obtained.

3. TIME EFFECT:

n
x A plate load test is essentially a test of short duration for clayey soils it does

g.i
not give the ultimate settlement. the load settlement curve is not truly
representative.

rin
4. INTERPRETATION OF FAILURE:

x ee
The failure load is not well defined except in the case of a general shear
failure an error of personal interpretation may be involved in other type of
gin
failures
En

5. REACTION LOAD:
It is not practicable to provide a reaction of more than 250KN.Hence the test
on a plate of size larger than 0.6m width is difficult.
arn

6. WATER TABLE:
Le

x The level of water table affects the bearing capacity of the sandy soils.
x If the water table is above the level of the footing it has to be lowered by
w.

pumping before placing at the water table level if it is within about 1m below
the footing.
ww

2. Explain Terzaghi’s bearing capacity theory. (Nov/Dec 2012)

Assumptions:
1. Soil is homogeneous and Isotropic.

2. The shear strength of soil is represented by Mohr Coulombs Criteria.

3. The footing is of strip footing type with rough base. It is essentially a two
dimensional plane strain problem.

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4. Elastic zone has straight boundaries inclined at an angle equal to t o th e

horizontal.

5. Failure zone is not extended above, beyond the base of the footing. Shear
resistance of soil above the base of footing is neglected.

6. Method of superposition is valid.

7. Passive pressure force has three components (PPC produced by cohesion, PPq
produced by surcharge and PPγ produced by weight of shear zone).

n
8. Effect of water table is neglected.

g.i
9. Footing carries concentric and vertical loads.

rin
10. Footing and ground are horizontal.

ee
11. Limit equilibrium is reached simultaneously at all points.
gin
Complete shear failure is mobilized at all points at the same time.

12. The properties of foundation soil do not change during the shear failure
En

Limitations:
arn

1. The theory is applicable to shallow foundations

2. As the soil compresses, increases which is not considered. Hence fully plastic
Le

zone may not develop at the assumed.

3. All points need not experience limit equilibrium condition at different loads.
w.

4. Method of superstition is not acceptable in plastic conditions as the ground is near

ww

failure zone.

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n
g.i
Terzaghi’s concept of Footing with five distinct failure zones in foundation soil

rin
Concept:

x
ee
A strip footing of width B gradually compresses the foundation soil underneath
due to the vertical load from superstructure.
gin
x Let qf be the final load at which the foundation soil experiences failure due to
the mobilization of plastic equilibrium.
En

x The foundation soil fails along the composite failure surface and the region is
divided in to five zones, Zone 1 which is elastic, two numbers of Zone 2 which
arn

are the zones of radial shear and two zones of Zone 3 which are the zones of
linear shear.
Le

x Considering horizontal force equilibrium and incorporating empirical relation,

the equation for ultimate bearing capacity is obtained as follows.
w.

qult = (Pp)γ + (Pp)c + (Pp)q

ww

(Pp)γ = Component produced by cohesive stress.

(Pp)c = Component produced by surcharge q = γDF

(Pp)q = Component produced by the weight of soil in zone II, III.

qult = C Nc + q Nq + 0.50 γ B Nγ

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Nc, Nq, Nγ = Bearing Capacity factor which are dimensionless depend on

angle of shear resistance φ.

Nq =

e
a =

n
g.i
Nc =

rin
Nγ =

Ultimate bearing capacity,

ee
gin
γ q f = cNc + γDNq + 0.5γBNγ
En

If the ground is subjected to additional surcharge load q, then

γ q f = cNc + (γD + q)Nq + 0.5γBNγ

arn

Net ultimate bearing capacity, qn = cNc + γD(Nq – 1) + 0.5γBNγ − γD

Le

γqn = cNc + γD(Nq −1) + 0.5γBN

Safe bearing capacity, qs = cNc + γD (Nq – 1) + 0.5γBNγ1/F + γD

w.

Here, F = Factor of safety (usually 3)

ww

c = cohesion

γ = unit weight of soil

D = Depth of foundation

q = Surcharge at the ground level

B = W idth of foundation

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Nc, Nq, Nγ = Bearing Capacity factors

Nc = cot φ (Nq –1)

Nq=e2(3π/4-φ/2)tanφ / [2 cos2(45+φ/2)]

Nγ=(1/2) tanφ( Kpr /cos2φ -1)

Kp=passive pressure coefficient.

n
g.i
Kp = = coefficient of passive earth pressure.

rin
Strip footings: Qu = c Nc + γ D Nq + 0.5 γ B Nγ

Square footings:
ee
Qu = 1.3 c Nc + γ D Nq + 0.4 γ B Nγ
gin
Circular footings: Qu = 1.3 c Nc + γ D Nq + 0.3 γ B Nγ
En
arn
Le
w.
ww

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n
g.i
rin
ee
gin
En
arn
Le
w.
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49

n
g.i
rin
ee
gin
En
arn
Le
w.
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n
g.i
rin
ee
gin
En
arn
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w.
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n
g.i
`

rin
ee
gin
En
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n
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rin
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En
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n
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rin
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UNIT III

FOOTINGS AND RAFTS

PART A

1.What are types of foundation? (Nov/Dec 2015)

x Shallow foundation
x Deep foundation
2.What are the footings comes under shallow foundation? (Nov/Dec 2015)

n
x Spread footing or pad footing,

g.i
x Strap footings,
x Combined footings,

rin
x Raft or mat foundation
3.Under w hat circumstances, a strap footing is adopted? (May/June
2016) ee
gin
When the distance between the two columns is so great, so that trapezoidal
footing is very narrow and so it is uneconomical. It transfers the heavy load of one
column to other column.
En

4.What is safe bearing pressure? (May/June 2013)

arn

In conventional design, the allowable bearing capacity should be taken as the

smaller of the following two values.
Le

x The safe bearing capacity based on ultimate capacity

x The allowable bearing pressure on tolerable settlement.
w.

5.What is a mat foundation? Where mat foundation is used? (April/May 2015)

ww

(Nov/Dec 2013) (Nov/Dec 2012) (May/June 2011)

It is a combined footing that covers the entire area beneath a structure and
supports all the walls and columns.
It is used when the area of isolated footing is more than fifty percentage of
whole area or the soil bearing capacity is very poor.

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6.Define floating foundation? Give the advantages of floating foundation.

(May/June 2011)
It is defined as a foundation in which the weight of the building is approximately
equal to the full weight of the soil including water excavated from the site of the
building.
The structural load on a floating foundation is reduced,
Q’ = Q -Ws, where Q – gross load and W s – excavated soil weight.

7.Define spread footing? (May/June

n
g.i
2014)
It is a type of shallow foundation used to transmit the load of isolated column,

rin
or that of wall to sub soil. The base of footing is enlarged and spread to provide
individual support for load.

ee
8.List the different types of raft foundation. Under what circumstances, a raft
gin
footing is adopted? (Nov/Dec 2013) (Nov/Dec 2011)
x Flat plate
En

x Flat plate thickened under column

x Beam and slab construction
arn

x Box structures
x Mat on piles
Raft foundation is used where settlement above highly compressible soils, by
Le

making the weight of the structure and raft approximately equal to the weight of the
soil excavated. Flat type is commonly used since uniform thickened bottom slab is
w.

provided over the entire area.

ww

9.What is mean by proportioning of footing? (May/June 2012)

Portioning of footing is defined as the arrangement of footing in the
combined footing system, in which it is arranged in such a way that, the centroid of
the area in contact with the soil lies on the line of action of the resultant of the loads.

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10.What are the assumptions made in combined footing? (Nov/Dec 2010)

x The footing is rigid and rests on a homogenous soil to give rise to linear
stress distribution on the bottom of the footing.
x The resultant of the soil pressure coincides with the resultant of the loads,
and then it is assumed to be uniformly distributed.

11.What is the function of strap beam in a strap footing? (Nov/Dec 2010)

x The strap connects the two isolated footing such that they behave as one unit.

n
x The strap simply acts as a connecting beam.

g.i
PART-B

rin
1.What is combined Footing? Elaborate the proportioning of rectangular
combined footing. (Nov/Dec 2015) (May/June 2014) (May/June 2013) (Nov/Dec
2012) ee
gin
x A combined footing supports two columns.
x When a foundation is built close to an existing building or the property line,
En

there may not be sufficient space for equal projections on the sides of the
exterior column.
arn

x This results in a eccentric loading on the footing. It may lead to yilting of

the foundation.
x To counteract the tilting tendency a combined footing is provided which
Le

joins the exterior column with interior column.

x A combined footing is also required when the two individual footings
w.

overlap.
ww

x The footing is proportioned such that the centre of gravity of the footing
lies on the line of action of the resultant of the column loads.
x The pressure distribution thus becomes uniform.
x A combined footing is generally rectangular in plan if sufficient space is
available beyond each column, If one of the columns is near the property
line, the rectangular footing can still be provided if the interior column is
relatively heavier.

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x However, if the interior column is lighter, a trapezoidal footing is required

to keep the resultant of the column loads through the centroid of the
footing.
x Thus the resultant of the soil reaction is made to coincide with the resultant
of the column loads.

Rectangular Combined Footing:

x The design of a combined footing consists of selecting length and width of

n
the footing such that the centroid of the footing and the resultant of the

g.i
column loads coincide.
x With the dimensions of the footing established, the shear force and

rin
bending moment diagram are drawn.
x The thickness of the footing is selected from the bending moment and

x
ee
shear force considerations.
The footing is designed as a continuous beam supported by two columns
gin
in the longitudinal direction.
x The reinforcement is provided as in a continuous beam.
En

The procedure consists of following steps:

arn

1. Determine the total column loads.

Q = Q1 + Q2
Where Q1 – exterior column load
Le

Q2 – interior column load

2. Find the base area of the footings.
w.

A = Q / qna
ww

Where qna– allowable soil pressure.

3. Locate the line of action of the resultant of the column loads measured from one
of the column, say exterior column.
x̅ = Q2 X x2/Q
Where x2 - distance between columns.
4. Determine the total length of footing.
L = 2(x̅ + b1/2)
Where b1 – width of exterior column.

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5. Find the width of the footing.

B = A /L
6. As the actual width and length that are provided may be slightly more due to
rounding off, the actual pressure is given by
q0 = Q / A0
Where A0 – actual area
7. Draw the shear force and bending moment diagrams along the length of the
footing, considering the pressure q0. For convenience the column loads are taken
as concentric column loads acting at the centres.

n
g.i
8. Determine the bending moment at the face of the columns and the maximum
bending moment at the point of zero shear.

rin
9. Find the thickness of the footing for the maximum bending moment.
10. Check the diagonal shear and punching shear as in the case of isolated footings.

ee
Check for bond at the point of contra flexure.
11. Determine the longitudinal reinforcement for the maximum bending moment.
gin
For transverse reinforcement, assume a width of (b + d) to take all the bending
moment in the short direction, where b is the column side and d is the effective
En

depth.
arn
Le
w.
ww

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2.Elaborate the proportioning of Trapezoidal Combined Footing: (Nov/Dec

2015) (May/June 2014) (Nov/Dec 2013) (Nov/Dec 2012)
Trapezoidal combined footings are provided to avoid eccentricity of loading
with respect to the base. Trapezoidal footings are required when the space
outside the exterior column is limited and the exterior column carries the heavier
load.
1. Determine the total column loads.
Q = Q1 + Q2

n
g.i
Where Q1 – exterior column load
Q2 – interior column load

rin
2. Find the base area of the footings.
A = Q / qna

ee
Where qna– allowable soil pressure.
3. Locate the line of action of the resultant of the column loads measured from
gin
one of the column, say exterior column.
x̅ = Q2 X x2/Q
En

Where x2 - distance between columns.

4. Determine the distance ‘x’ of the resultant from the outer face of the exterior
column.
arn

x’ =x̅ + b1 / 2
where b1 – width of exterior column.
Le

A trapezoidal footing is required if L/3 < x’ < L/2

Where L – length of the trapezoidal footing determined from L = 2(x̅ + b1/2)
w.

If x’ = L/2, a rectangular footing is provided. However if x’< L/3, a combined

footing cannot be provided. In such a case, a strap footing is suitable.
ww

5. Determine the width B1 and B2 from the following relations.

𝐵1 � 𝐵2
𝑋𝐿� 𝐴
2
�𝐵1 � 2𝐵2�𝐿
� 𝑥
�𝐵1 � 𝐵2�3
Solving the above two equations, we get

2𝐴 3𝑥′
𝐵2 � � � 1�
𝐿 𝐿

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2𝐴
𝐵1 � � 𝐵2
𝐿

Once the dimension B1 and B2 has been found, the rest of the design can be
done as in the case of rectangular combined footing.
6. As the actual width and length that are provided may be slightly more due to
rounding off, the actual pressure is given by
q0 = Q / A0
W here A0 – actual area
7. Draw the shear force and bending moment diagrams along the length of the

n
footing, considering the pressure q0. For convenience the column loads are

g.i
taken as concentric column loads acting at the centers.
8. Determine the bending moment at the face of the columns and the maximum

rin
bending moment at the point of zero shear.
9. Find the thickness of the footing for the maximum bending moment.
ee
10. Check the diagonal shear and punching shear as in the case of isolated
gin
footings. Check for bond at the point of contra flexure.
11. Determine the longitudinal reinforcement for the maximum bending moment.
En
arn
Le
w.
ww

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3.Define mat foundation. What are the various types of raft foundations?
(Nov/Dec 2015), (May/June 2016) (Nov/Dec 2012)
MAT FOUNDATION:

x A raft or mat is a combined footing that covers the entire area beneath the
structure and supports all the walls and columns; when the allowable soil
pressure is low, or the building loads are heavy, the use of spread footings
would cover more than one-half of the area and it may prove more
economical to use mat or raft foundation.

n
x They are also used where the soil mass contains compressible less or the

g.i
soil is sufficiently erratic so that the differential settlement would be difficult
to control.

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x The mat or raft trends to bridge over the erratic deposits and eliminates the
differential settlement.
x ee
Raft foundation is also used to reduce settlement above highly
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compressive soils, by making the weight of structure and raft approximately
equal to the weight of the soil excavated.
En

TYPES OF RAFT FOUNDATION:

(a) FLAT TAPE TYPE:

arn

x In this type of mat foundation a mat of uniform thickness is provided.

x This type is most suitable when the column loads are relatively light and
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the spacing of columns is relatively small and uniform.

w.

(b) FLAT PLATE THICKENED UNDER COLUMN:

x When the column loads are heavy this column is thickened to provide
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enough thickness for negative bending moment and diagonal shear.

x Sometimes instead of thickening a slab, a pedestal is provided under each
column above the slab to increase the thickness.

(c) BEAM AND SLAB CONSTRUCTION:

x In this type of construction, the beams run in two perpendicular directions

and a slab is provided between the beams.

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x The columns are located at the intersection of beams.

x This type is suitable when the bending stresses are high because of large
column spacing and unequal column loads.

(d) BOX STRUCTURES:

x In this type of mat foundation, a box structure is provided in which the

basement walls acts as a stiffeners for the mat.
x Boxes may be made of cellular construction or rigid frame consisting of

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slabs and basement walls.

g.i
x This type of mat foundation can resist very high bending stresses.

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w.

(e) MATS PLACED ON PILES:

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x The mat is supported on the piles in this type of construction.

x This type of mat is used where the soil is highly compressible and the water
table is high.
x This method of construction reduces the settlement and also controls
buoyancy.

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4.Explain various types of foundation with neat sketches. (May/June 2016)

SHALLOW FOUNDATION:

x According to Terzaghi, if the depth of a footing is less than or equal to the

width, it may be considered a shallow foundation.

STRIP FOOTING:

x A strip footing is provided for a load bearing wall.

x A strip footing is also provided for a row of columns which are so closely

n
placed that their spread footings overlap or nearly touch each other. In such

g.i
a case that is more economical to provide a strip footing than to provide a
number of spread footings in one line.

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x A strip footing is also known as continuous footing. Generally, footing
required to support a wall is known as a continuous, wall footing.

SPREAD FOOTING: ee
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x A spread or isolated or pad footing is provided to support an individual
column.
En

x An isolated footing may be square, circular or rectangular in shape of

uniform thickness. Sometimes it is stepped or hunched to spread the load
arn

over a large area.

STRAP FOOTING:
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x A strap footing consists of two isolated footing connected with a structural

w.

strap beam or lever.

x The strap connects the two columns such that they behave as one unit.
ww

x The strap simply acts as a connecting beam and does not take any soil
reaction.
x The strap is designed as a rigid beam.
x The individual footings are so designed that their combined line of action
passes through the resultant of the total load.
x A strap footing is more economical than a combined footing when the
allowable soil pressure is relatively high and the distance between columns
is large.

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n
g.i
rin
ee
gin
En

MAT OR RAFT FOUNDATION:

arn

x A mat or raft foundation is large slab supporting a number of columns and

walls under the entire structure or a large part of the structure.
x A mat is required when the allowable soil pressure is low or where the
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columns and walls are so close that individual footings would overlap or
nearly touch each other.
w.

x Mat foundations are useful in reducing the differential settlements on non-

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homogeneous soils or where there is a large variation in the loads on

individual columns.

COMBINED FOOTING:

x A combined footing supports two columns.

x It is used when the two columns are close to one column that a spread
footing would be eccentrically loaded when kept entirely within the property
line.

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x By combining it with that of an interior column, the load is evenly

distributed.
x A combined footing may be rectangular or trapezoidal in plan.

DEEP FOUNDATIONS:

x If the depth is more, the footings are considered as deep footings.

Meyerhof developed the theory of bearing capacity for such footings.

1. PILE FOUNDATIONS:

n
g.i
x The foundations are intended to transmit structural loads through zones
of poor soil to the depth where the soil has the desired capacity to

rin
transmit the loads.
x They are somewhat similar to columns in that loads developed at one

ee
level are transmitted to a lower level; but piles obtain lateral support
from the soil in which they are embedded so that there is no concern
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with regard to buckling and it is in this respect of that they differ from
columns.
En

x Piles are slender foundation units which are usually driven into a place.
They may also be cast-in-place.
arn

x A pile foundation usually consists of a number of piles, which together

support a structure. The piles may be driven or placed vertically or with
a batter.
Le

2. PIER FOUNDATION:
w.

x Pier foundations are somewhat similar to pile foundation but are

typically larger I area than piles.
ww

x An opening is drilled to the desired depth and concrete is poured to

make a pier foundation.
x Much distinction is now being lost between the pile and the pier
foundation, adjectives such as driven, bored or drilled and, cast in-situ
and pre cast being used to indicate the method of installation and
construction. Usually pier foundations are used for bridges.

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3. CAISSON FOUNDATION:

x A caisson is a structural box or chamber that is sunk into place or built

in place by systematic excavation below the bottom.
x Caissons are classified as ‘Open Caisson’, ‘Pneumatic Caisson and
box or floating caisson.

x Open caisson may be box type of pile type. The top and bottom are
open during installation for open caissons. The bottom may be finally

n
sealed with concrete or may be anchored into rock.

g.i
x Pneumatic caisson is one in which compressed air is used to keep
water from entering the working chamber, the top of the caisson is

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closed. Excavation and concreting is facilitated to be carried out in the
dry. The caisson is sunk deeper as the excavation proceeds and on

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reaching the final position, the working chamber is filled with concrete.
gin
x Box or floating caisson is one in which the bottom is closed.
x It is cast on land and towed to the site and launched in water after the
concrete has got cured.
En

x It is sunk into position by filling the inside with sand, gravel, concrete.
arn
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w.
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x False bottoms are temporary base of timber are sometimes used for floating
the caisson to the site

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5.(i).State the design requirement of a foundation? Explain the conventional

method of design of raft foundation. (May/June 2014)

1. The pressure coming on the soil from the superstructure should be below the
safe bearing capacity of soil

2. The foundation must not settle more to damage the structure

3. The foundation is located such that loose fill, etc., are avoided.

4. The foundation is located such that any future influence does not adversely

n
affect its performance

g.i
5. The foundation should be located below the depth of frost penetration

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6. The foundation should be located below the constant moisture zone in highly
expansive and swelling soils
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7. The foundation should be located below the depth of scour.
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Conventional method of design of raft foundation
En

Assumption:

1. Raft is rigid
arn

2. Contact pressure is uniform or linear or planar as per super structure loading.

3. So the centroid of the soil pressure coincides with the line of action of the
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resultant force of all the loads action on the mat foundation.

Design procedure
w.

1. Compute the column loads (dead load, live load, wind load, earthquake load,
ww

snow load etc. From super structure )

2. Determine the line of action of all the loads
3. Calculate the contact pressure as per the assumption and the conventional –
empirical analysis design formula
q =(Qt /A)� (Qt ex/Iy)𝑥 � (Qt ey / Ix)y

W here Qt = total load on mat

A = total area of the mat

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X, Y = coordinates of any given points on the with respect to the x and y axes

passing through the centroid of the area of the mat.

ex, ey = eccentricities of the resultant forces.

Ix , Iy = moment of inertia of the mat with respect to the x and y axes

respectively.

4. The mat is treated as strip in X and Y direction for the analysis for shear force

n
and bending moment

g.i
5. The design dimensions and reinforcement are arrived in both the direction.

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Filename: CE6502 MSM FINAl 1 - 3 .

Directory: D:\CIVIL DEPT\nisha
Template: C:\Users\CIVIL
HOD\AppData\Roaming\Microsoft\Templates\Normal.dotm
Title:
Subject:
Author: gopi
Keywords:
Comments:
Creation Date: 05-08-2016 13:54:00
Change Number: 2
Last Saved On: 05-08-2016 13:54:00
Last Saved By: CIVIL HOD

n
Total Editing Time: 1 Minute

g.i
Last Printed On: 05-08-2016 13:55:00
As of Last Complete Printing
Number of Pages: 77

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Number of Words: 11,835 (approx.)
Number of Characters: 67,463 (approx.)

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84

UNIT IV

PILE FOUNDATION

1.What are methods to determine the load carrying capacity of a pile?

(Nov/Dec 2015)
x Dynamic formulae
x static formula
x pile load test

n
x penetration test

g.i
2.Define negative skin friction. (May/June 2014), (Nov/Dec 2012),
(May/June 2011), (Nov/Dec 2011)

rin
When the soil layer surrounding a portion of the pile shaft settles more than a
pile, a downward drag occurs on the pile. The downward drag is known as negative
skin friction. ee
gin
3.Define group efficiency of pile. (May/June 2016), (May/June
2011)
En

The ratio of resting capacity of a pile group to the sum of individual capacities of
piles in the group is termed as group efficiency.
arn

Group efficiency , n = Qg
Le

Np x Qp

W here, Qg - Group capacity

w.

Qp – Pile load on single pile

ww

Np – Number of piles

4.What are the conditions where a pile foundation is more suitable than a
shallow foundation?

x Huge vertical load with respect to capacity

x Very weak soil
x Huge lateral loads

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x For fills having very large depth

x Uplift situation
x Urban areas for future and huge construction near the existing building.

5.What are the limitations of dynamic pile load test?

x It is largely depend on the nature of the ground through which the pile was
driven to get down to finished level.
x It takes very little account of the effect of friction on sides of pile, and this

n
friction tends only to develop later.

g.i
6.List the piles based on materials of installation. (Nov/Dec 2013)

rin
x End bearing pile
x Friction pile
x
x
Compaction pile
Tension pile
ee
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x Anchor pile
x Fender pile and dolphins
En

x Batter pile
x Sheet pile
arn

7.What are the factors governing selection of pile? (Nov/Dec 2012)

x Soil condition
Le

x Type of structure or building

w.

x Adjacent site condition

x Construction techniques availability
ww

x Location of ground water table

x Durability etc.

8.Define end bearing pile.

End bearing piles are used to transfer load through water or soft soil to a
suitable bearing stratum. The end bearing pile is driven through poor soil strata
and rests on a firm incompressible stratum such as rock, developing the bearing
pressure of its base and passing it to that firm stratum.

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9.How is the selection of pile carried out? (Nov/Dec2014)

The selection of the type, length and capacity is usually made from estimation
based on the soil condition and magnitude of the load.
10.For identical soil conditions, the load permitted on bored pile is lesser than
driven pile of identical shape and dimensions, why?

The load carrying capacity of bored cast in situ pile will be much smaller than that
of a driven pile in sand. The angle of shearing resistance of the soil is reduced by 30,
to account for the loosening of the sand due to the drilling of the hole.

n
g.i
11.What are fender piles? (May/June 2013)

Fender piles are the type of the piles which are used to protect water front

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structures against impact from ships or other floating objects.

12.What is meant by friction pile? (May/June 2014)

ee
Friction piles are used to transfer loads to a depth of a friction load carrying
gin
material by means of skin friction along the length of the pile.
En

PART-B (16MARK)

1.Explain the under reamed pile foundation with neat sketch. (Nov/Dec2015)
arn

(May/June 2015), (May/June 2013), (Nov/Dec2012)

Under – reamed pile foundation

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x Under reamed piles are bored cast in-situ concrete piles having one or
more bulbs formed by enlarging the bore hole for the pile stem by an under
w.

reaming tool.
ww

x These piles find applications in widely varying situations in different types

of soils where foundation are required to be taken down to a certain depth
to avoid the undesirable effect of seasonal moisture changes as in
expansive soils or to reach strata or to obtain adequate capacity for
downward, upward and lateral loads or to take the foundations below scour
level and for moments.
x When the pile has only one bulb, it is known as single under –reamed pile,
while the pile with more than one bulb is known as multi –under –reamed

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pile. Generally, the diameter of under –reamed bulbs is kept equal to 2.5
times the diameter of pile stem.
x However, it may vary from 2 to 3 times the stem diameter, if required,
depending upon the design requirements and feasibility of construction.
Details of pile and under reamed bulb:

x In deep layers of expansive soils, the minimum length of pile required is

3.5 m where the ground movements become negligible.
x In shallow depths of expansive soils and other poor soils depending upon

n
the load poor soil requirements the length may be reduces and the piles

g.i
may be taken upto at least 50 cm in stable zone pile length may be
increased for higher loads.

rin
x The diameter manually bored piles range from 20 cm to 37.5 cm.
x The spacing of the piles of the piles shall be considered in relation to the

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nature of the ground, the types of piles and the manner in which the piles
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transfer the loads to the ground.
x Generally, the center to center spacing for under-reamed piles should not
be less than 3 Du.
En

x It may be reduced to 1.5 Du when a reduction in load carrying capacity of

10 % should be allowed.
arn

x For the spacing of 2 Du the bearing capacity of pile group may be taken
equal to the number of piles multiplied by the bearing capacity of
Le

individual pile.
x If the adjacent piles are of different diameters, an average value for
w.

spacing should be taken.

x The maximum spacing of the under-reamed pile should not normally
ww

exceed 2 ½ meters so as to avoid heavy capping beams.

x In building, the piles should generally be provided under all wall junctions
to avoid point loads on beams.
x Position of intermediate piles are then decided trying to keep the door
opening fall in between two piles as far as possible.
x In double and multi-under-reamed piles of size less than 30 cm dia., the
center-to-center vertical spacing between the two under reams may be
kept equal to 1.5 Du while for piles of 30 cm and more this distance may

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be reduced to 1.25 Du. the upper bulb should not bulb is 1.5m or 2 Du
whichever is greater.
x Under reamed piles can be made at a better also, for sustaining large
lateral loads, thus making them suitable for tower footing, retaining walls
and abutments. They have also been found useful for factory buildings,
machine foundations and transmission line towers and poles.
x In black cotton soils and other expansive soils, the under reamed pile
anchors the structures at a depth where the volumetric changes in soils

n
due to seasonal and other variation is negligible.

g.i
x The under reamed pile is nominally reinforced with 10 to 12 mm dia.
Longitudinal bars, and 6mm Ø rings. A clear cover of 4 cm is provided.

rin
Clayey soils:

Q u = A p NcCp + AaNcCa’ + Ca’ As’ + αCaAs

Sandy soils: ee
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Qu= ᴨ/2 (Du2 – D) [ ½ Du . n . Ƴ . NƳ + Ƴ .Nq…………………………….
En
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2.Enumerate the various types of pile in detail. (May/June

2016),(Nov/Dec2015), (May/June 2015), (Nov/Dec2012)

CLASSIFICATION OF PILES

Piles can be classified according to

1. The material used

2. The mode of transfer of load
3. The method of construction

n
4. The use and

g.i
5. Displacement of soil

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1. Classification according to material used

There are four types of piles according to materials used

(i) Steel piles ee

gin
(ii) Concrete piles
(iii) Timber piles
(iv) Composite piles
En

(i) Steel piles

x Steel piles are generally either in the form of thick pipes or rolled steel H-
arn

section. Pipe steel piles are driven into ground with their ends open or closed.
Piles are provided with a driving point or shoe at the lower end.
Le

x Epoxy coatings are applied in the factory during manufacture of pipes to

reduce corrosion of the steel pipes. Sometimes concrete encasement at site
w.

is done as a protection against corrosion. To take into account the corrosion,

an additional thickness of the steel section is usually recommended.
ww

(ii) Concrete piles

x Cement concrete is used in the construction of concrete piles. Concrete piles
are either precast or cast in- situ. Precast concrete piles are prepared in a
factory or a casting yard. The reinforcement is provided to resist handling and
driving stresses. Precast piles can also be pre-stressed using high strength
steel pre-tensioned cables.

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x A cast in-situ pile is constructed by making a hole in the ground and then
filling it with concrete. A cast in situ pile may be cased or uncased. A cased
pile is constructed by driving a steel casing into the ground and filling it with
concrete.
x An uncased pile is constructed by driving to the desired depth and gradually
withdrawing casing when fresh concrete is filled. An un-casted pile may have
a pedestal.
(iii) Timber piles

n
x Timber piles are made from tree trunks after proper trimming. The timber used

g.i
should be straight, sound and free from defects.
x Steel shoes are provided to prevent damage during driving. To avoid damage

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to the top of the pile, a metal bond or a cap is provided. Splicing of timber
piles is done using pipe sleeve or metal straps and bolts. The length of the

x
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pipe sleeve should be at least five times the diameter of the pile.
Timber piles below the water table have generally long life. However above
gin
the water table, these are attacked by insects. The life of the timber piles can
be increased by preservatives such as creosote oil. Timber piles should be
En

used in massive environment where these are attacked by various.

(iv)Composite piles
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x A composite pile is made of two materials. A composite pile may consist of

the lower portion of steel and the upper portion of cast in-situ concrete.
x A composite may also have the lower portion of timber below the permanent
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water table and the upper portion of the concrete.

x As it is difficult to provide a proper joint between two dissimilar materials,
w.

composite piles are rarely used in practice.

ww

2. Classification based on mode of transfer of load

Based on the mode of transfer of loads, the pile can be classified into three
categories:

(i) End bearing piles

(ii) Friction piles

(iii) Combined end bearing and friction piles

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(i) End bearing piles

x End bearing piles transmit the loads through their bottom tips. Such piles act
as columns and transmit the load through a weak material to a firm stratum
below. If bed rock is located within a responsible depth, piles can be extended
to the rock.
x The ultimate capacity of the pile depends upon the bearing capacity of the
rock. If instead of bed rock, a fairly compact and hard stratum of soil exists at
a reasonable depth, piles can be extended a few minutes piles are also

n
known as “point-bearing piles”.

g.i
x The ultimate load carried by the pile (Qu) is equal to the load carried by the
point or bottom end (Qp)

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(ii) Friction piles

x ee
Friction piles do not reach the hard stratum. These piles transfer the loads
through skin friction between the embedded surface of the pile and the
gin
surrounding soil. Friction piles are used when a hard stratum does not exist at
a reasonable depth.
En

x The ultimate load (Qu) carried by the pile is equal to the sum of the load
carried by the pile is equal to the load transferred by skin friction (Qs).
arn

x Friction piles are known as floating piles as these do not reach the hard
stratum.
Le

(iii) Combined end bearing and friction piles

w.

x The piles transfers loads by a combination of end bearing at the bottom of

the pile and friction along the surface of the pile shaft, the ultimate load
ww

carried by the pile is equal to the sum of the load carried by the pile point (Qp)
and the load carried by the skin friction(Qs).

3. Classification based on method of installation

Based on the method of construction, the piles may be classified into the following 5
categories

(i) Driven pile

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(ii) Driven and cast in situ piles

(iii) Bored and cast in situ piles
(iv) Screw piles
(v) Jacked piles
(i) Driven piles
x These piles are driven into the soil by applying blows of a heavy hammer on
their tops.
(ii) Driven and cast in situ piles

n
x These piles are formed by drawing a casing with a closed bottom end into the

g.i
soil. The casing is later filled with concrete. The casing may or may not be
withdrawn.

rin
(iii) Bored and cast in situ pile
x These piles are formed by a hole into the ground and then filling it with
concrete.
(iv) Screw piles
ee
gin
x These piles are screwed into soil.
(v) Jacked piles
En

x These piles are jacked into the soil by applying a downward force with the
help of a hydraulic jack.
arn

4. Classification based on use

The piles can be classified into the following 6 categories depending upon their use.
Le

(i) Load bearing piles

w.

(ii) Compaction piles

(iii) Tension piles
ww

(iv) Sheet piles

(v) Fender piles
(vi) Anchor piles

(i) Load bearing piles

x These piles are used to transfer the load of the structure to a suitable stratum
by end bearing by friction or by both.

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(ii) Compaction piles

x These piles are driven into the loose granular soil to increase the relative
density. The bearing capacity of the soil is increased due to densification
caused by vibrations.
(iii)Sheet piles
x Sheet piles forms a continuous wall or bulk head which are used for retaining
earth or water.
(iv)Fender piles

n
x Fender piles are sheet piles which are used to protect water front structures

g.i
from impact of ships and vessels.
(v) Anchor piles

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x These piles are used to protect anchorage for anchored sheet piles. These
piles provide resistant against horizontal pull for a sheet pile wall.

ee
5. Classification based on displacement of soil:
gin
Based on the volume of the soil displacement during installation the piles can be
classified into 2 categories
En

(i) Displacement piles

(ii) Non- displacement piles
arn

(i) Displacement piles

x All driven piles are displacement piles as the soil is displacement laterally
when the pile is installed. The soil gets densified. The installation may cause
Le

heaving of the surrounding ground.

x Precast concrete pile and closed end pipe pile are high displacement piles.
w.

Sheet H- piles are low displacement piles.

(ii) Non- displacement piles
ww

x Bored piles are non- displacement piles. As the soil is removed when the hole
is bored, there is no displacement of the soil during installation. The
installation of these piles causes very little change in the stresses in the
surrounding soil.

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3.Explain with neat sketch about pile load test method of determination of load
carrying capacity of piles. (May/June 2016), (May/June 2014),
(May/June 2013), (Nov/Dec2013)

PILE LOAD TESTS:-

x The pile load test can be performed either on a working pile which form the
foundation of the structure or on a test pile.
x The test load is applied with the help of calibrated jack placed over a rigid

n
circular or square plate which in turn is placed on the head of the pile

g.i
projecting above ground level.
x The reaction of the borne by a truss or platform which have gravity loading or

rin
alternatively, the truss can be anchored to the ground with the help of anchor
pile. In the later case, under-reamed piles or soil anchor may be used for

x
anchoring the truss.
ee
The load is applied in equal increments of about one-fifth of the estimated
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allowable load.
x The settlements are recorded with the help of three dial gauge of sensitivity
En

0.02mm, symmetrically arranged over the test plate, and fixed to an

independent datum bar.
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x A remote controlled pumping unit may be used to hydraulic jack. Each load
increment is kept for sufficient time till the rate of settlement becomes less
than 0.02mm per hour.
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x The test pile are loaded until ultimate load is reached. Ordinarily, the test load
is increased to a value 2.5times the estimated allowable load or to a load
w.

which causes a settlement equal to one-tenth of the pile diameter, whichever

occur earlier.
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x The results are plotted in the form of load settlement curve. The ultimate load
is clearly indicated by load settlement curve approaching vertical. If ultimate
load cannot be obtained from the load settlement curve, the allowable load
taken as follows:

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CYCLIC LOAD TEST:

x The cyclic load test is particularly useful in separating the load carried by the
pile into the skin friction and point bearing resistance.
x Each load increment is kept on the pile for sufficient time till the settlement
decreases the value less than 0.02mm per hour.
x The load is then completely removed and the elastic rebound of the pile top is
measured by means of dial gauge. The next load is then applied and the
process repeated.

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x The cycle of loading and unloading with measurement of settlement and

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recovery is continued till the final load which causes a marked progressive
settlement of the pile is reached.

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x The result plotted between loads versus settlement.

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The elastic compression of the pile corresponding to any load Q can be calculated
from the following expression based on HOOK’s law,
gin
Elastic compression = ((Q-Rf/2)L)/AE
En

x The separation of Q at any stage of loading into Rp and Rf is based on that the
load on the pile toe increases linearly with the elastic compression of soil, and
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that straight line showing the relationship between point resistance and elastic
compression of soil is parallel to the straight line portion of the curve drawn
between the load on the pile and elastic compression of soil.
Le

x The elastic compression of the soil is equal to the total elastic recovery of the
pile top minus the elastic compression of the pile. The procedure described in
w.

the following steps:

ww

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STEPS:
ee
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1. If Rf is not known to start with, it is assumed that the elastic compression
of the pile is zero, and hence the elastic compression of the soil is equal
to the total elastic recovery of the pile top. A curve OA1 is then drawn
En

between load Q on pile top as abscissa and the elastic compression of

the soil as ordinate.
arn

2. Through origin O, a line OA1’ is drawn parallel to the straight portion of

bearing Rp and skin friction Rf.
Le

3. For various loads Q1, Q2, Q3, etc., the skin friction Rf1, Rf2 Δ, Rf3 etc., are
determined.
w.

4. Corresponding to each value of Rf, the elastic compression of pile is

determined. The elastic compression of the soil is calculated from the
ww

relation.
Δ soil = Δ – Δ pile
Where, Δ = total elastic recovery of the pile top.
5. Knowing Δ soil for each load Q1 ,Q2,Q3etc. A curve is drawn between
Q and Δ soil.
6. Through the origin O, line OA2’ is drawn parallel to the straight line
portion of curve OA2’.

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97

7. Step 3, 4, 5 and 6 are repeated to get the final curve and OA’ parallel to
the straight line portion of curve OA. The third trial of curves gives
sufficiently accurate results. From this two, any load Q can be divided to
skin friction and point resistance.
8. The value of skin friction and point resistance corresponding to a load
causing a total settlement of one-tenth of the pile diameter are by factors
of safety of 2 and 2.5 respectively and added together to give the
allowable load for the pile.

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UNIT V
RETAINING WALLS
PART A
1. Draw the lateral earth pressure diagram of clay depends for active and
passive condition.
(May/June 2016)
The value of active earth pressure is

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The value of passive earth pressure is
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En
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2. Draw the lateral earth pressure diagram of sand depends for active and
Le

passive condition. (May/June 2016)

w.

The value of active earth pressure is

ww

The value of passive earth pressure is

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107

3. What is surcharge angle? (Nov/Dec 2015), (May/June 2015), (May/June

2013)The angle of surcharge of a material is the angle to the horizontal, which the
urface of the materials assumes, while the material is at rest on a moving conveyor
belt. The surcharge angle is generally 5’ to 15’ less than the angle of repose.

n
4.What is earth pressure at rest? (May/June 2014), (May/June

g.i
2013), (Nov/Dec2011)

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The earth pressure at rest is defined as the intensity of lateral earth pressure
when the lateral strain is zero and it is expressed as PR = KR . γ’ . Z, where KR –
ee
coefficient of earth pressure.
gin
5.What are the assumptions in coulomb’s theory? (May/June
2011)
En

x Uniform c – Φ
x Failure plane is straight
arn

x Failure wedge is a rigid body

x Frictional force is developed along the wall boundary during the movement
Le

of wedge

6.What is meant by critical depth of vertical cut for a clay soil? (Nov/Dec2013)
w.

Due to negative pressure, a tension crack usually developed in the soil near the
ww

top of the wall, upto to a depth Z0. Also, the total pressure upon a depth 2Z0 is zero.
This means that a cohesive soil should be able to stand with a vertical face upto a
depth 2Z0 without any lateral support. The critical height Hc of an unsupported
vertical cut in cohesive soil is thus given by,
Hc = 2Z0 = 4 C tanα
γ

7.Why retaining walls are usually designed for active earth pressure?
(Nov/Dec2013)

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From Rankine’s assumption, no-existence of frictional forces at the wall face, the
resultant pressure must be parallel to the surface of the backfill. The existence of
friction makes the resultant pressure inclined to the normal to the wall at an angle
between the soil and the wall.

8.What do you understand by plastic equilibrium in soil?

A body of soil is said to be in plastic equilibrium, if every point of it is on the verge

of failure.

9.What is critical failure plane?

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Critical failure plane defined as the plane along which the failure occurs in which the
shear stress on the plane is less than the maximum shear stress.

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10.Write the types of retaining wall.
(Nov/Dec2012)
ee
The earth retaining walls are of following types:
gin

(a) Gravity wall

(i) Mass concrete or masonry wall
En

(ii) Wall on wells

(iii) Precast block wall
arn

(iv) Two row sheet pile wall

(v) Crib wall
Le

(b) Reinforced concrete wall

(i) Cantilever type ‘T’ wall or ‘L’ wall
w.

(ii) Counterforted or butteressed wall

(c) Sheet pile wall
ww

(i) Cantilever sheet pile wall

(ii) Anchored sheet pile wall or Anchored bulkhead.

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109

11.Compare Rankine’s and Coulomb’s theory.

Rankine’s theory Coulomb’s theory

Only the total earth pressure value

acting on the retaining structures can be
The intensity of earth pressure at each calculated. The point of application of
depth is known. So point of application earth pressure can be calculated from
of the earth pressure is known at any Coulomb’s assumption that all points on
depth the back of the retaining wall are

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essentially considered as feet of failure

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surface

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Wall is smooth and vertical Wall is rough and sloped

Wall moved sufficiently so soil is i9n Wall is rigid, straight failure plane and
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plastic failure mass rigid failure wedge
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En

12.What are the conditions to be satisfied while designing a retaining wall?

arn

Sliding resistance:
𝑆𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
Factor of safety = 𝑆𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
Le

Factor of safety against sliding should be atleast 1.5 for sandy soil and 2.0 for
clayey soil.
w.

Overturning:
ww

To avoid overturning the resultant thrust must fall within the middle third of the wall
base.
𝑆𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
Factor of safety = 𝑆𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒

Factor of safety against overturning should be atleast 1.5 for sandy soil and 2.0 for
clayey soil.
Bearing Capacity:
𝐴𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒
Factor of safety = 𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑐𝑡 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒

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110

Factor of safety against bearing capacity should be atleast 2.5 for sandy soil and
3.0 for clayey soil.

13.Write down any two assumptions of Rankine’s theory?

(Nov/Dec2012)

x Semi infinite soil

x Cohesion-less backfill
x Homogenous soil
x The top surface is a plane which may be inclined or horizontal.

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14. How do you check the stability of retaining walls?

rin
x The wall should be stable against sliding
x The wall should be stable against overturning
ee
x The base of the wall should be stable against bearing capacity failure.
gin

15.Define angle of repose?

Maximum natural slope at which the soil particles may rest due to their internal
En

friction, if left unsupported for sufficient length of time.

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PART B

1.Explain Rankine’s theory for the cases of cohesion less backfill. (May/June
2016), (Nov/Dec 2015), (May/June 2013)

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2.Explain with neat sketch the culmann’s method of calculating active earth
pressure. (Nov/Dec2015), (May/June 2016), (Nov/Dec2012)
gin
CULMANN’S GRAPHICAL METHOD FOR ACTIVE PRESSURE:
Culmann (1866) also gave a graphical solution to evaluate the active pressure and
En

can be conveniently used for ground surface of any shape, for various types of
surcharging loads, and for a layered backfill of different densities.
arn

PROCEDURE:
Le

1. Draw the ground line ₵ line and the ψ line as usual

2. Take a slip plane BC1 .calculate the weight of the wedge ABC1and plot it as
w.

BE1to some scale on the ₵ line.

3. Through E1, draw E1,F1 parallel to the line ψ, to cut the slip plane BC2 IN F1.
ww

4. Similarly take another slip plane BC2 , calculate the weight of wedge ABC2 and
plot it as BE2 on the line. Draw E2F2 parallel to the line cut the slip plane BC2 in F2
5. Take number of such slip planes BC3, BC4. Plot the weight of the corresponding
wedge s on the ψ line and obtain point’s f3, f4.
6. Draw a smooth curve through points B, F1, F2, F3, F4 etc. This curve is known as
the culmann’s line.
7. Draw a tangent to the culmann’s line parallel to the ₵ line .the maximum value of
the earth pressure is represented by the intercept EF, on the adopted scale. EF

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117

being drawn through the points of tangency parallel to the line ψ line. BFC
represents the critical slip plane.
8. To locate the points of application of the resultant pressure, draw a line parallel to
the critical slip plane BC, through the centre of gravity of the sliding wedge ABC
and obtain its intersection on the back AB.
When the ground line is a plane, the weights of the wedges ABC1, AC1 (=L3), etc.
since the height of soil wedge is constant being equal to H1, . Hence the weights
of these wedges are plotted as their base lengths L1, L2, L3, etc. on the ₵ line.

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Pa=1/2ṛH1(EF)
If the backfill also carries a surcharge of intensity q, ṛ1

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Determination of Active Earth Pressure by Graphical Method

w.

EFFECT OF LINE LOAD:

ww

Culmann’s graphical method can also be used to take into account the running
parallel to the retaining wall. A line load of intensity q per unit length, acting at a
point C1, distant from the top of the wall. BEF1, Fn shows the culmanns line and
BC is the failure plane in absence of the line load. Let w1 be the weight of the
wedge ABC1 which is plotted as BE1 on the line ₵ and point F1 is obtained if
there were no line load. However when the line load is there the weight of the
wedge ABC1 increases by q. thus BEI represents and a point change in the
culmann line the change being proportional to q. for all other failure wedges to the

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right , the weight q is added to the weight of the wedge and then plotted on the ₵
line. The modified culmann’s line is thus represents by BFF1FFn. when the slip
plane is BC the pressure on the wall is represented by EF and when the slip plane
is BC1, the pressure is represented by E,aF. if EIFI<EF slip occurs along BCI and
the pressure on the wall is increased

The culmann line BFF2 is plotted by ignoring the line load .the modified
culmann line BFIFI2 is then plotted by taking into account the line load, when the
load q is added to the weight of each soil wedge considered. By drawing tangents

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to two culmann’s lines parallel to ₵ line, intercepts FE and FIEI are obtained. The

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intercept EIF gives the greatest value of pressure due to backfill acted upon by q,

rin
whereas FE gives the maximum pressure in the absence of the line load. If the
tangent at F is prolonged to meet the modified culmann line in FI2 the intercept
EI2FI2 equals to FE. This means that if the line is placed beyond C2, there is no
ee
effect of the line load on the pressure .for the other plotted. it will be seen that is
gin
maximum when the load is just at face of the wall , it remains constant with the
position of q up to point c1 and then decreases gradually to zero at C2. For load
En

positions beyond C2 .the pressure on the wall is not due to q. This method is very
much used in locating the position of the railway line or the footing of building on
the backfill at such a safe distance that the earth pressure on the (existing) wall
arn

does not increase.

3.Explain the coulomb’s Wedge theory of earth pressure w ith a neat sketch.
Le

(May/June 2014), (May/June 2013)

w.

COULOMB’S WEDGE THEORY.

x Coulomb considered the equilibrium of whole of the material supported by a

ww

retaining wall when the wall is on the point of moving slightly away from the
filling.
x In the case of active earth pressure, the sliding wedge moves downwards
and outwards on slip surface.
x In case of passive earth pressure, the sliding wedge moves upwards and
inwards on slip surface.

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x The pressure on the wall is a force of reaction to keep the sliding wedge in
equilibrium.
x Factors such as well friction, irregular soil surfaces and different soil strata
can be taken into account in this method.

Following are the basic Assumptions of the wedge theory:

1. The backfill is dry, cohesionless, homogenous, isotopic and elastically

underformable but breakable.

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2. The slip surface is plane which passess through the heel of the wall.

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3. The sliding wedge itself acts as a rigid body and the value of earth pressure is
obtained by considering the limiting equilibrium of the sliding wedge as a whole.

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4. The position and direction of the resultant earth pressure are known.
5. The resultant pressure acts on the back of the wall at one-third the height of the

ee
wall from the base and is inclined at an angle 𝛿 (called the angle of wall friction)
The forces acting on a wedge of soil are:
gin
(i) Its weight W ,
(ii) The reaction R along the plane of sliding
En

(iii) Active thrust Pa against the retaining wall. R will act at an angle ∅ to the normal of
the plane of sliding. The pressure P is inclined at an angle of wall friction 𝛿 to the
arn

normal which is considered positive. Both R and P will be inclined in a direction so

as to oppose the movement of the wedge.
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Condition for maximum pressure from a sliding w edge.

w.

x BD shows a plane inclined at an angle ϕ to the horizontal at which the soil is

expected to stay in the absence of any lateral support.
ww

x The line BD, therefore, is called the natural slope line, repose line or the ∅ –
line. AD, inclined at 𝛽 to the horizontal, is called the ground line or surcharge
line.
x Plane BC, inclined at angle λ (to be determined) is the line or rupture plane or
slip plane; the angle λ is called the critical slip angle.
x The reaction R inclined at an angle ϕ to the normal to the slip line; R is also
inclined at an angle (λ-ϕ) to the vertical.
x The wall reaction Pa is inclined at an angle to the normal to the wall.

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x The inclination of Pa to vertical is represented by angle ψ = 90˚- θ - δ (=

constant for given value of 𝜃 and 𝛿 ).
x The value of Pa depends upon the slip angle λ. Pa is zero when λ = ϕ. As λ
increases beyond ϕ, P also increases and after reaching a maximum value it
again reduces to zero when λ equals 90 +𝜃. Thus, the critical slip plane lies
between the line and back of the wall.

In order to derive the condition for maximum active pressure Pa from the sliding
wedge, draw line CE at an angle ψ to the ϕ –line. Let x and n be the perpendicular

n
distance of points C and A from the ϕ -line, and m be the length of line BD. It will be

g.i
seen triangle BCE and the force triangle similar.

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𝑃𝑎 𝐶𝐸
Hence 𝑊
� 𝐵𝐸
(1)

Now, CE = x cosec ψ = A1 x (where A1 = cosec ψ = constant)

ee
BE = BD – (DF - FE) = m – x {cot (ϕ – β) – cot ψ} = m – A2 x
gin
A2 = [cot (ϕ – β) – cot ψ] = constant.
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W = γ(∆ABD) = γ(∆ABD - ∆BCD) = 0.5 γ m (n – x)

Subsituting the value of CE, BE and W in (1), we get

arn

𝑛𝑥−𝑥2
Pa = 0.5m A1𝑚−𝐴2𝑥 (2)
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In the above expression x is the only variable which depends upon the position of
slip plane BC. For maxima dPa/dx = 0
w.

(n-2x)(m- A2 x) = - A2 (n x - x2)
ww

mn – mx = mx - A2 x2 = x ( m - A2 x)

∆ABC = ∆BCE

Thus the criterion for maximum active pressure is that the slip plane is so chosen
that ∆ABC and ∆BCE are equal in area.

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