STUDY GUIDE FOR READING & WRITING 11

PATTERNS OF DEVELOPMENT IN WRITING

-Paragraphs or essays can be developed using a variety of patterns that are identified after a logical
arrangement of ideas. This arrangement is known as a pattern of development in writing. This refers
to the strategy that writers use to develop ideas. In other words, the texts in the paragraphs or essays
must be comprehensive. This means that there must be a logical arrangement of ideas or a pattern
of development. This pattern helps sort out information and shape these paragraphs or essays.

The following are the patterns of development:

1. Definition:

This pattern explains a concept, term, or subject. Its main purpose is to tell what something is. It
consists of three parts: 1) the term concept, or subject to be defined; 2) the general class to which it
belongs; and 3) the characteristics that differentiate it from the other members of its class. This pattern
is commonly used in the sciences, humanities, and business. The signal words are defined as, as
defined, means, refers to, to define, and to illustrate.

Example:
The viola is a stringed instrument in the violin family. It is only slightly larger than the violin and is
tuned to a lower pitch. Like its smaller relative, the viola is held on the shoulder under the chin and is
played with a bow. While the viola has many uses, it is used mainly in orchestral and chamber music.

2. Exemplification and Classification:

Exemplification, often considered the most effective pattern for explaining an idea, involves
presenting a general statement or topic sentence supported by specific examples.

Example:
When discussing the importance of exercise for maintaining good health, one might cite examples
such as jogging, swimming, or yoga to illustrate different forms of physical activity. To clarify further,
it is essential to provide concrete examples of the benefits of each activity, such as improved
cardiovascular health, increased flexibility, and stress reduction. In short, by using exemplification,
writers can effectively elucidate their points by grounding them in real-life examples that readers can
easily grasp and relate to.

On the other hand, classification is utilized when a writer needs to categorize subjects based on
common characteristics.

Example:
In discussing different types of pets, one might classify them into categories such as mammals, birds,
and reptiles. Each category can then be further subdivided into specific types, such as dogs, cats,
parrots, snakes, etc. By categorizing subjects in this manner, writers can provide clarity and
organization, making it easier for readers to understand complex topics.

3. Narration/Chronology

It tells a story. It relates an incident or a series of events that leads to a conclusion or ending. The
following are some transition words used to signal time or sequence: first, second, etc.; after; next;
then; eventually; meanwhile; a short time later; during; at the same time; simultaneously; suddenly;
instantly; and momentarily.

Example:
Last year was the first time I had ever been the new kid at school. For the first four days, I was
completely alone. I don’t think I even spoke to a single person. Finally, at lunch on the fifth day, Karen
Watson walked past her usual table and sat down right next to me. Even though I was new, I had
already figured out who Karen Watson was. She was popular. Pretty soon, all of Karen’s friends were
sitting there right next to me. I never became great friends with Karen, but after lunch that day, it
seemed like all sorts of people were happy to be my friends. You cannot convince me that Karen did
not know what she was doing. I have great respect for others, and I learned a great deal about what
it means to be a true leader.

Useful Transitional Devices/Signals in Each Pattern:

Pattern of Development Transitional Devices/Signals

in other words, put simply, to clarify,
DEFINITION also known as, alternatively, in essence,
and in simple terms,
for instance, in other words, in particular,
EXEMPLIFICATION AND in short, namely, put another way,
CLASSIFICATION specifically, stated differently, that is, to be
specific, to clarify, and to illustrate
first, second, etc., after, next, then,
eventually, meanwhile, a short time later,
NARRATION/CHRONOLOGY
during, at the same time, simultaneously,
suddenly, instantly, and momentarily.
4. Description:

It gives information about what a person, an object, a place, or a situation is like. It appeals to the
reader’s senses; it makes the reader see, hear, taste, smell, or feel the subject.

A descriptive paragraph has concrete and specific details, which are carefully chosen by a writer to
paint a picture in the mind of the reader. Literary analyses, descriptive essays, business plans, lab
reports, and research papers are some examples of writing genres that use descriptive paragraphs.
The following are the signal words used in description: above, across, along, alongside, amidst,
around, away from, back of, behind, below, beneath, beside, between, beyond, by, down, farther,
here, in front of, inside, into, near, off, on top of, opposite to, outside, over, throughout, to the right,
and under.

Example:
Sunset is the time of day when our sky meets the outer space solar winds. There are blue, pink, and
purple swirls, spinning and twisting, like clouds of balloons caught in a whirlwind. The sun moves
slowly to hide behind the line of the horizon, while the moon races to take its place in prominence
atop the night sky. People slow to a crawl at the entrance, fully forgetting the deeds that must still be
done. There is a coolness, a calmness, when the sun does set.

The following are types of Description:

1. Objective Description – pertains to where the writer presents an impartial and actual picture of
the subject without biases and excluding personal impressions of the subject, just like when you give
your description of an experiment in class.
2. Subjective Description – underscores to where the writer gives a personal impression of what is
observed. This is often used in making fiction stories. For instance, when you are asked to write about
a place you visit during summer vacation, you tend to give your personal judgment of how you
experience the place.

5. Comparison and Contrast:

Comparison in writing discusses elements that are similar, while contrast in writing discusses
elements or ideas that are different. A compare-and-contrast essay then analyzes two subjects,
comparing them, contrasting them, or both. However, its purpose is not to simply state the obvious
but rather to illustrate subtle differences or unexpected similarities between two subjects. As a writer,
you should help the readers see how these two ideas are similar or different by showing their
advantages and disadvantages so they can weigh the pros and cons before they make a judgment
or decision.

Example:
My sisters are as different as yin and yang in terms of personality, appearance, and intelligence. Tina,
the middle child in the family, prefers staying at home to going out with her friends. She is slim, petite,
and has dark skin. As she is not sociable, she finds friends with the characters from the books she
reads most of the time. In addition, she is very clever in subjects like math and science, which made
her graduate with the highest honors from senior high school. In contrast, my youngest sister, Joni,
is the opposite. She has an outgoing and friendly personality. There is never a dull moment, as she
is always ready with stories to tell. She is tall, has a round, plump face, and has fair skin. Being the
youngest in the family, she is often asked to perform during family gatherings since she sings and
dances well. My sisters may be different from each other, but they adore one another so much.

6. Cause & Effect

This pattern of development organizes details based on the cause, the reasons, and the result or
consequences of a certain phenomenon. This may discuss both the causes and effects, the causes
only, or the effects only. The signal words for causes are as, because (of the fact), being that, due to
(the fact that), for, for the reason that, In view of the fact, in as much as one reason, owing to the fact,
seeing that, since. The signal words for effects are accordingly, as a consequence, as a result (of
this), because (of this), consequently, for this reason, hence, in consequence, so, so much (so) that,
so that, therefore, and thus.
Example:
The advancement in technology and the economy has created major changes in modern society.
One of these changes is globalization. As we know, globalization has affected the world in many
ways. First, it served as the catalyst for worldwide trading, thus allowing countries to access foreign
products. Although this had positive effects, it also posed a real threat to the merchandise of local
traders. Second, globalization affected the financial market. As a result, different countries had more
access to funds, and the exchange in national currencies dramatically increased. Finally, globalization
also led to the privatization of various facilities, such as public health institutions. These Institutions
were being privatized due to the idea that the private sector could better manage and provide health
services. In consequence, health policies become more and more of a commodity on a global scale.

Useful Transitional Devices/Signals in Each Pattern:

Pattern of Development Transitional Devices/Signals

above, across, along, alongside, amidst,
around, away from, back of, behind,
below, beneath, beside, between,
DESCRIPTION beyond, by, down, farther, here, in front
of, inside, into, near, off, on top of,
opposite to, outside, over, throughout, to
the right, and under
also, as, both, equally, in similar fashion,
in comparison, in the same way, like,
likewise, similarly, to compare, while the
signal word for contrasting are although,
and yet, as opposed to, but, conversely,
COMPARISON AND CONTRAST counter to, despite, even so ,even though,
in contrast, in spite of, in the meantime,
instead, however, nevertheless,
nonetheless, on the contrary, on the other
hand, otherwise, still, the fact remains,
unlike, whereas, and yet
Causes: because (of the fact), being that,
due to (the fact that), for, for, for the
reason that, in view of the fact, in as much
as one reason, owing to the fact, seeing
that, and since.
CAUSE & EFFECT
Effects: as a consequence, as a result (of
this), because (of this), consequently, for
this reason, hence, in consequence, so,
so much (so) that, so that, therefore, and
thus.

7. Problem-Solution

The problem-solution pattern of development is a structured approach used in communication and

problem-solving. It involves identifying and presenting a problem or challenge, followed by proposing
one or more potential solutions to address it. This pattern aims to provide a clear understanding of
the issue at hand and offer practical remedies or strategies for resolution. It is commonly used in
various contexts such as essays, speeches, presentations, and problem-solving discussions to
effectively communicate problems and propose actionable solutions. The following are the word
signals for this pattern: but, first, second, etc. nonetheless, and one way is, the problem, and the
solution.

Example:
The problem of childhood obesity has reached alarming levels globally, with sedentary lifestyles and
unhealthy eating habits contributing to its rise. To address this issue, schools can introduce
mandatory physical education classes and promote nutritious meal options in cafeterias. By
prioritizing physical activity and healthy eating habits from an early age, we can empower children to
lead healthier lives and combat the obesity epidemic.

8. Persuasion

A persuasion paragraph intends to convince readers to do or believe in something. Many writing

genres, such as critiques or reviews, reaction papers, editorials, proposals, advertisements, and
brochures, make strong use of persuasive paragraphs to state opinions and influence others.
Knowing how to write it allows you to express your personal conviction or opinion about an issue or
topic and make the readers agree with or adopt your conviction or opinion. Paragraphs become
convincing when evidence is stated. To illustrate your points, it is helpful to use signal words such as
first, second, etc., another, next, last, finally, because, since, for, and although when you want to give
reasons. In answering oppositions, words such as of course, nevertheless, on the other hand, some
may say may be used while therefore, hence, consequently, and thus are appropriate words when
you want to draw conclusions.

Example:
Have you ever stopped to consider the unsung hero of the writing world—the pencil? It's time to shed
light on the numerous advantages that pencils offer. From flexibility to reliability and environmental
friendliness, pencils stand out as a superior choice for various writing and drawing tasks.

First, there is a need for you to like pencils because they provide unparalleled flexibility. With a pencil
in hand, mistakes are easily erased and corrected, fostering a sense of freedom to explore ideas
without the fear of permanence.
Moreover, pencils with their graphite cores remain consistent and dependable. Never worry about ink
spills or faded lines again—pencils are always ready to deliver a smooth writing or drawing
experience.

In conclusion, the pencil emerges as a versatile, reliable, and environmentally friendly alternative to
pens. With its erasable nature, consistent performance, and minimal environmental impact, the pencil
stands as a timeless tool for expressing creativity and communicating ideas. So, the next time you
reach for a writing utensil, consider the enduring virtues of the humble pencil and embrace its
undeniable charm.

Useful Transition Devices/Signals in Each Pattern:

Pattern of Development Transitional Devices/Signals

but, first, second, etc. nonetheless, and
PROBLEM-SOLUTION
one way is, the problem, and solution
first, second, etc., another, next, last,
finally, because, since, for, and although
when you want to give reasons. In
answering oppositions, words such as of
PERSUASION course, nevertheless, on the other hand,
some may say may be used while
therefore, hence, consequently, and thus
are appropriate words when you want to
draw conclusions.
PROPERTIES OF A WELL-WRITTEN TEXT

-Evaluating written text helps writers refine their communication skills by identifying areas for
improvement in clarity, coherence, and cohesion. Writers can learn to express their ideas more
effectively and persuasively through thoughtful evaluation and feedback.

The following are the properties of a well-written text:

1. Organization:

-This refers to the structure or arrangement of ideas, information, or elements within the text. It
encompasses how the content is ordered, grouped, and presented to convey a coherent message or
argument to the reader. Effective organization is essential for clarity, logical flow, and readability of
the text.

Key aspects of organization in evaluating written text include:

• Introduction
• Body
• Transitions
• Conclusion
• Textual features

2. Coherence:

-This refers to the clarity and logical consistency of ideas, information, and arguments presented
within the text. A coherent text is one where all the parts fit together smoothly, making it easy for the
reader to understand the message or the author's intent. Coherence ensures that the text flows
logically from one point to the next, creating a unified and cohesive whole.

Key aspects of coherence in written text include:

• Transitions
• Consistent point of view
• Clear connections between ideas
 3. Cohesion:

-This refers to the interconnectedness and flow between individual words, phrases, sentences, and
paragraphs. It's about how well the elements within the text stick together and create a unified whole.
Cohesion ensures that the text is smooth and easy to follow, with clear connections between ideas,
making it coherent and understandable for the reader.

Key aspects of cohesion in written text include:

• Lexical cohesion
• Conjunctive cohesion
• Grammatical cohesion
• Textual formatting

A sample text which observes organization, coherence, and cohesion.

Introduction:
Are school uniforms necessary? In educational institutions worldwide, the contentious topic of student uniforms remains a
hotly debated issue. While some advocate for the freedom of individual expression and creativity, others champion the
implementation of student uniforms as a means to foster equality and enhance academic focus. Thus, school uniforms
should be imposed as they can promote equality among students, alleviate social pressures, and contribute to a conducive
learning environment.

Body:
First, student uniforms serve as a great equalizer within school settings, mitigating the visibility of socioeconomic differences
among students. In schools where uniforms are not mandated, students from affluent families may flaunt expensive attire,
inadvertently creating a divide between themselves and their less fortunate peers. Conversely, uniforms ensure that all
students, regardless of economic background, are dressed uniformly, thus diminishing the stigma often associated with
financial disparities.

Second, the adoption of student uniforms alleviates the burden placed on students to conform to societal fashion trends,
allowing them to redirect their focus towards academic pursuits. In contemporary society, where peer pressure and the
desire to fit in are pervasive, the imposition of uniforms provides a respite from the relentless scrutiny of one's clothing
choices. By standardizing attire, uniforms foster a more inclusive environment where students are judged based on their
character and academic achievements rather than their outward appearance.

Third, student uniforms contribute to an environment conducive to learning by minimizing distractions and instilling a sense
of discipline. When students are uniformly dressed, the emphasis shifts away from fashion and towards academic
endeavors. Furthermore, uniforms imbue students with a sense of professionalism, preparing them for future academic and
professional endeavors. With fewer distractions and a heightened sense of purpose, students are better equipped to
concentrate on their studies and excel academically.

However, some critics argue that enforcing uniforms could stifle students' freedom of expression and hinder their ability to
develop a sense of personal identity. Yet, despite these concerns, it's evident that uniforms can play a role in mitigating
certain social pressures, though they may not be a cure-all for all issues related to peer conformity and self-expression. For
instance, a study conducted by the National Association of Elementary School Principals found that schools with uniform
policies reported fewer instances of bullying and violence. This suggests that uniforms may contribute to a more positive
and inclusive school climate.

Conclusion:
In conclusion, the implementation of student uniforms offers numerous advantages, including the promotion of equality,
alleviation of social pressures, and enhancement of academic focus within educational institutions. By standardizing attire,
uniforms foster a sense of unity and camaraderie among students, thereby cultivating a positive learning environment where
all individuals are valued for their intrinsic qualities rather than their outward appearance. While the debate over student
uniforms may persist, it is evident that they hold considerable merit in contributing to the holistic development and success
of students.

Yellow - Pertains to an organization of the text.

Purple - Highlights the coherence of the text.
Bluegreen - Emphasizes cohesion of the text.
4. Language Use

-This refers to the effective and skillful utilization of language to convey meaning, evoke emotions,
and engage the reader. It encompasses various aspects of linguistic expression, including vocabulary
choice, sentence structure, tone, style, and register.

Levels of Language Use:

1. Informal/ Personal - Slang, Local Expressions, Text Messaging

Examples:

• Hey Bes
• Yow Sup
• OTW

• GNyt Dude
• BRB
• SML

2. Standard/Academic - Widely accepted words and phrases found in books, magazines, articles,
and newspapers

Example: Note to a professor

I am writing to inform you that I will be unable to attend our class on January 27,2024 due to having
a high fever. I apologize for any inconvenience this may cause and will ensure to provide a medical
certificate and catch up on my classes once I got recovered. Thank you!

3. Business/Technical - Scientific terms, Jargons, and Special expressions

Example: Psychiatrist’s Report

Diagnosis and Recommendations: Based on the evaluation findings, John Doe meets criteria for
major depressive disorder, recurrent, and generalized anxiety disorder. It is recommended that Mr.
Doe initiate pharmacotherapy with a selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI) and adjunctive
cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) to address both mood and anxiety symptoms.

Principles in Language Use/ Diction:

1. Use clear and concise sentences, usually about 18 words long.

2. Avoid redundancies, cliches wordiness, and highfalutin.
3. Although may be used, avoid overusing “There” and “It”, drop it.
4. Use precise vocabulary. Be accurate. Condensed.
5. Be consistent in pronoun POV.
6. Avoid sexist language.
7. Use appropriate levels of formality.

Use clear and concise sentences, usually about 18 words long.

Unconcise Clear and Concise

Image is a very important factor in politics Image is an important factor in politics.
because once the reputation of a person Once the reputation of a person is
is smeared by accusations, the people’s smeared by accusations, the people’s
perception of the person is forever perception of the person is forever
tainted, and it may cause him to lose tainted. The person may lose his
credibility and trust even when the truth credibility and trust, even when the
behind allegations is not yet verified. allegations are not yet verified.

Avoid redundancies, cliches wordiness, and highfalutin.

Wordy, and Uses Highfalutin Word Brief and Uses Simple Language
Although offsprings are taught not obtain
Although children are told not to take gifts
free gifts from strangers, at the present
from strangers, many still do.
moment many still do.
Sample Cliches:
Time will tell, in a jiffy, brave as a lion, opposites attract, all is well that ends well, once
upon a time, time and time again
Sample highfalutin words:
• Hackslaver - to hesitate or stammer in speech
• Hedley-medley - a confused jumble
• Heimate - to spend the winter somewhere
Although may be used, avoid overusing “There” and “It”, drop it.

Overuse of “There and It” Restraint use of “There and It”

There’s a book on a table. A book is on a table.
There’s a coffee shop next to the station. (Students will try to answer)
It was John who cleaned the car. (Students will try to answer)

Use precise vocabulary. Be accurate. Condensed.

Vague and Imprecise Precise and Condensed

There is a requirement that all students
The college requires that the admissions
have an evaluation of their transcripts for
office evaluate all student transcripts for
placement purposes or to meet a
placement and prerequisites.
prerequisite.
We are endeavoring to construct a more
(Students will try to answer)
inclusive society.

Be consistent in pronoun POV.

Inconsistency of Pronoun POV Consistent of Pronoun POV

We should simply accept that fate is
We should simply accept that fate is
simply an illusion; we must not leave our
simply an illusion; you must not leave our
decisions to something that does not
decisions to something that does not exist
exist.
They might start out by joking, but calling
someone a name with the intent of hurting
you is not okay. Be sure your child
understands calling someone a (Students will try to answer)
name, even if he feels the person
deserves it, is not okay and is a form of
bullying.

Avoid sexist language.

Sexist Language Non-Sexist Language

The fireman rushed into the burning The firefighter rushed into the burning
building. building.
The chairman called the meeting to order. (Students will try to answer)

Use appropriate levels of formality.

Informal Formal
Can you hook me up with the deets? Could you provide me with the details?
I'm gonna pass on that, not really feeling
(Students will try to answer)
it.

5. Mechanics

-This focuses on the technicalities of the structure. It determines errors in subject-verb agreement,
prepositions, tenses, grammar, spelling, capitalization, abbreviations and acronyms, the use of
numbers as part of the statement, and the punctuation marks.

Spelling - It involves correctly forming words by arranging their letters in the right order and using the
appropriate letters for each word.
Ex. The students printed out their assaynments.

Correct Spelling: Assignments

Punctuation Marks - It involves correctly forming words by arranging their letters in the right order
and using the appropriate letters for each word.

1. PERIOD (.) - used after sentences, in abbreviations, and as decimals.

2. EXCLAMATION POINT (!) - placed at the emphatic or forceful sentences
3. QUESTION MARK (?) - placed at the end of a question and to note questionable items
4. QUOTATION MARKS (“ ”) - to indicate direct quotations
- for titles of poems, short stories, chapters, essays, songs, and episodes of television shows.
5. APOSTROPHE (’) - to show possession. Ex. (Angel’s bag); to show missing letters and number
(you’re, ’95); and to show plurals of letters (I got all A’s last semester).
6. COLON (:) - after independent clauses to introduce elements. Ex. “The coach demanded three
things from his players: loyalty, devotion, and teamwork.”; and to separate items in numerals, ratios,
titles and subtitles, time references, scripture references.
7. PARENTHESES ( ) - to set off nonessential details and explanations, to enclose letters and
numbers used when listing items.
8. BRACKETS [ ] - to set off clarifications inserted in quotations. Ex. Eric observed, “I think [Rodrigo]
Duterte was the greatest president.”
9. HYPHEN (-) - to separate or join words. Ex. We saw her on tele-
vision last night. Never pay a higher-than-average price.
10. DASH ( -- ) - to show sudden break of thought. Ex. “Ted was angry after his car was stolen—who
wouldn’t be?
11. SLASH (/) - to separate words or to show alternatives. Ex. (he/she)
12. SEMICOLON (;) - to join independent clauses when and, or, yet, but, or so are not present, and
to separate items in a series that contains commas. Ex. “The governor will meet with Rey Simon, the
mayor of Concepcion; Bert Vesca, the vice mayor; and Peter Cayabyab.”
13. ELLIPSIS (. . .) - to indicate that words have been deleted from quoted material
Ex. Original text: The mayor said, “Our city, which is one of the country’s most progressive, deserves
a high-tech light-rail system.”
With Ellipsis:
The mayor said, “Our city . . . deserves a high-tech light-rail system.”
14. COMMA (,) - to signal pauses and shifts in sentences, used with and, or, so, but, yet to join
independent clauses. Ex. “Chinatown is a popular tourist attraction, and it serves as an important
cultural center.”

Capitalization - It involves using uppercase letters at the beginning of sentences, for proper nouns,
and in certain specific situations.

• Sentence Start: The first word of a sentence is always capitalized. Ex. "The sun is shining."
• Proper Nouns: Capitalize proper nouns, which are specific names of people, places,
organizations, and things. Ex. "John, Paris, Microsoft."
• Titles: Capitalize titles that come before a person's name, such as "Doctor," "Professor," or
"Captain." Ex. "Captain Smith."

Abbreviations - These are shortened forms of words or phrases and are typically formed by taking
the initial letters of a word or words.

Examples: "Ave." for "Avenue," "etc." for "et cetera," "Dr." for "Doctor."

Acronyms - Acronyms are a type of abbreviation formed from the initial letters of a multi-word name
or phrase, with those letters pronounced together as one term.

Examples: "NASA" for National Aeronautics and Space Administration, "UNESCO" for United Nations
Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization.

Grammar - refers to the set of rules and conventions governing the use of language.

Verb Tense - This indicates the time of an action in a sentence whether it is happening in the past,
present, or future.
Examples:
Past Tense: She walked to the store.
Present Tense: He walks to the store.
Future Tense: They will walk to the store.

Subject-Verb Agreement - This rule ensures that the subject and the verb in a sentence agree in
number (singular or plural).

Examples:
Singular Subject: The cat is sleeping.
Plural Subject: The cats are sleeping.

Possessives - These show ownership or possession of something. The form varies depending on
whether the owner is singular or plural.

Examples:
Singular Possessive: The dog's bone.
Plural Possessive: The dogs' bones.

CLAIM

- A claim is a statement that is not considered accepted by all. It may be unverified or controversial to
a certain degree. It is usually related to one side of the issue. Claim is also called a position. A claim
is argumentative and specific.

Explicit claim - refers to clearly and directly stated in the text which means that you can easily point
out the information in the passage.

Implicit claim – pertains to indirectly expressed but are being suggested or implied to be the meaning
of the text.

Examples:

• Don’t press that button—it will give you an electric shock. (Explicit claim)
• I wouldn’t press that button if I were you. (Implicit claim)

The following are the types of Claims:

1. Claim of Fact

- These are grounded with factual evidence that is sufficient, reliable, and appropriate. These are
statements about how things were in the past, how they are in the present, or how they will be in the
future. This claim can also be factual or historical, relational or predictive. To verify whether these
statements are claims of fact or not, ask these questions: Is it debatable? Is it verifiable? Is it specific?
Can it be solved objectively?

Examples:

• Teens who engage in unprotected sex will develop STDs, become pregnant, and/or contract
AIDS.
• Cancer is a common disease, but it is not contagious.
• The Philippine Eagle is a critically endangered species.

2. Claim of Value

- This involves judgments and evaluations. It judges whether something is good or bad, right or
wrong, just or unjust, ethical or non-ethical, etc. We judge the worth of something. It attempts to prove
that some things are more or less desirable than others. Some claims of value are simply expressions
of taste, preferences, and prejudices. The most important way to prove a claim of value is by
establishing standards of evaluation.

Examples:
 • Monet’s art is more beautiful than Picasso’s because of its use of soft color, uplifting subject
matter, and unique technique.
• Requiring community service in high school will produce more community awareness.
• Honesty is the best policy.

3. Claim of Policy

- This advocates a specific course of action. It asserts that specific policies should be instituted as
solutions to problems. Claims of policy argue that certain conditions should exist. Almost always,
"should,” “ought to," or "must" are included in this claim.

Examples:

• Uniforms should be required at all public high schools.

• There should be criminal charges brought against people who use social media to bully others.
• The mayor should suspend the classes today.

CONTEXT OF TEXT DEVELOPMENT

What is context?

Context in text development refers to the circumstances, environment, background, and situation
surrounding the creation, reception, and interpretation of a piece of text. It includes various factors
such as cultural, social, historical, and linguistic aspects that shape the meaning and understanding
of the text.

Examples:

1. If your teacher asks you to write an essay about global warming, all the things that you will write
must be associated with it. Otherwise, you will be out of context.
2. Someone writing a text regarding the Corona Virus Disease (COVID-19) and how the world is
doing so far in managing the disease. If the writer mentions the past pandemic, such as the
Spanish Flu, it is relevant and still in context because the previous pandemic has a major influence
on experts today in containing the virus.

Things to Consider in Identifying the Deeper Meaning of Texts:

1. The time or the period the text was written.

2. What circumstances produced the text?
3. Issues the text tackles or deals with.

Types of contexts in text development:

1. Hypertext
2. Intertext

What is Hypertext?

Hypertext comes from the prefix "hyper,” which means beyond or above. It is characterized by
external links embedded in a text by the writer as it enables the reader to arrive at the intended
interpretation of the author. In the online medium, hypertexts are the embedded links, while in print
media, these are the commentaries or footnotes in the margin.

Example of a Hypertext
NINE (9) ADVANTAGES OF HYPERTEXT:

1. Multiple Paths of Inquiry - Readers or users of hypertext are often presented with multiple paths
of inquiry to select at any given time. Any option taken can be quickly backtracked to investigate
another option or link.
2. Individualized Learning - These multiple paths of inquiry can be customized for learners
according to their ability. That’s why more links, more to click.
3. Reader/Learner Control - Hypertexts allow the readers/learners to make choices in navigating
and manipulating the content on sites.
4. Supports Connection of Ideas - Hypertexts emulate the way we think through an association of
ideas. According to Bush, we associate words and that starts our curiosity.
5. Some Text is Suited to Hypertext - Some textual information is not easily presented in a linear
form. So, arguments and counterarguments are easier to present in hypertext.
6. Creating New References - Learners can contribute their own work to be published in cyberspace
and can easily link to existing documentation. They can share in authorship of documents as well as
creating their own references.
7. Promotes Critical Thinking - Hypertexts allows readers to analyze information from multiple
perspectives. Various information gathered engages the reader’s critical thinking as they choose
content, discover, and problem-solve their own topic.
8. Ease of Navigation - Navigational age such as bookmarks and history lists allow the user quick
access within a particular document. Bookmarks allow return to point of interests and history lists
allow backtracking of the learner’s navigational steps.
9. Asynchronous Communication - Hypertexts enable direct communication with an author or
expert.

Differences between linear and non-linear text:

What is a linear text?
- Linear texts present information in a sequential and chronological order, following a straight line or
a single path from beginning to end.
For example: Novels, essays, traditional textbooks, and articles that follow a clear and structured
progression.

What is a non-linear text?

- Non-linear texts do not follow a strict sequential order, allowing readers to navigate and consume
content in a more flexible, non-sequential manner.
For example: Hypertexts, interactive websites, choose-your-own-adventure books, video games with
branching storylines, mind maps, and other formats that allow for non-sequential exploration of
content.
Intertext

Intertextuality, or intertext, is one method of text development that enables the author to make another
text based on another text. It happens when some properties of an original text are incorporated into
a text that was created by another author. One good reason why it occurs is that perhaps the second
writer is greatly affected or influenced by the first writer, leading to a combination of imitation and
creation.

Intertextuality has its roots in the work of a Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure (1857-1913).
Meanwhile, the term itself was first used by the Bulgarian-French philosopher and psychoanalyst
Julia Kristeva in the 1960s.

Types of Intertext:

1. Allusion: Allusion occurs when a text references another text indirectly. This could be through a
mention of a character, event, or concept from another work.
For example: In George Orwell's "Animal Farm," the characters Napoleon and Snowball allude to
Joseph Stalin and Leon Trotsky, respectively, referencing real historical figures within a fictional
narrative.

2. Parody: Parody involves deliberately imitating another work in a humorous or satirical way, often
commenting on or critique the original work.
For example: The film "Scary Movie," which parodies various horror films such as "Scream," "The
Blair Witch Project," and "I Know What You Did Last Summer."

3. Pastiche: Pastiche is a literary or artistic work that imitates the style or character of the works of
previous artists or periods. Unlike parody, pastiche doesn't necessarily aim to mock or critique but
rather to pay homage or celebrate the original works.
For example: The Quentin Tarantino's film "Pulp Fiction," which draws upon and pays homage to
various genres and film styles, including crime, noir, and pulp fiction.

4. Adaptation: Adaptation involves taking a work from one medium and reworking it into another.
This can include novels being adapted into films, plays being adapted into novels, etc.
For example: The novel "To Kill a Mockingbird" by Harper Lee was adapted into a film of the same
name, bringing the story from the page to the screen while maintaining its core themes and
characters.

FIVE (5) ADVANTAGES OF HYPERTEXT:

1. More Meaning: Intertextuality makes stories richer by adding extra layers of meaning through
references to other stories.
2. Cultural Connections: It helps connect stories to our shared cultural knowledge, making them
feel more familiar and relatable.
3. Thinking Skills: Intertextuality encourages us to think more deeply about stories by recognizing
and understanding how they connect to each other.
4. Respect and Honor: It's a way for creators to show respect and honor to the stories and creators
that came before them.
5. Creativity: Intertextuality inspires new ideas and creativity by allowing creators to mix and match
elements from different stories.

"Nothing great ever achieved without enthusiasm."

– Ralph Waldo Emerson