CHAPTER 3

DATA TRANSMISSION AND NETWORKING

MEDIA

1
 DATA TRANSMISSION
 Data transmission is the physical transfer of data over a
point-to-point or point-to-multipoint communication
channel/medium/media.

 Examples of such channels are copper wires, optical

fibers, wireless communication channels and storage
media.

 The data is represented as an electro-magnetic signal,

such as an electrical voltage, radiowave, microwave or
infra-red signal.

 While analog communications is the transfer of

continuously varying information signal, digital
communications is the transfer of discrete messages.

2
 BASIC DATA TRANSMISSION CONCEPTS

a) Analog and digital signaling

b) Data modulation
c) Simplex, half-duplex and full-duplex
transmission
d) Multiplexing
e) Point-to-point transmission
f) Broadcast transmission
g) Throughput
h) Bandwidth

3
 ANALOG SIGNALING
 Electronic signal that varies directly with time changes
for an infinite range of time.

 Your speech, a siren and live music are all examples of

analog waves.

 Using of continuous signals to represent information/data.

 An analog signal is characterized by four fundamental

properties : amplitude, frequency, wavelength and phase.

4
 ANALOG SIGNALING…cont.
 Amplitude is a measure of its strength at any given point in time.

 Frequency is a number of wave cycles in one second (f = 1/t). t = The

times of wave’s amplitude cycles from its starting point, through its
highest amplitude and its lowest amplitude.

 Wavelength is a distance between corresponding points on a wave’s

cycle.

 Phase refers to the change or movement of the signal in the form of angle.

5
ANALOG SIGNALING…cont.

6
ANALOG SIGNALING…cont.

7
 DIGITAL SIGNALING
 Digital signals are composed of pulses of precise, positive
voltages and zero voltages.

 A pulse of positive voltage represents a 1. A pulse of zero

voltage represents a 0.

 Every pulse in the digital signal called a binary digit or bit.


 A bit can have only one or two possible values : 1 or 0.
Eight bits together form a byte.

8
 DIGITAL SIGNALING…cont.
 Using of discrete signals to represent information/data.

 Number, letters or icons are all examples of digital signal.

 Advantage :
- more reliable than analog transmission
- noise affects digital transmission less
severely

9
DIGITAL SIGNALING…cont.

10
 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN ANALOG & DIGITAL

 Analog signals are continuous where digital

signals are discrete.

 TV, some telephones and tape recorders all use

analog signals while the digital signal is
numbers letters or icons

11
CRITERIA FOR ANALOG AND DIGITAL SIGNAL

12
 DATA MODULATION
 A traditional telephone network operates with analog
signals, whereas computers work with digitals signals.

 The data signals issued by your computer must be

converted into analog form before they get to the media
transmission.

 They must be converted back into digital form when they

arrive at the ISP’s access server.

 A modem (modulator/demodulator) accomplishes this

translation.

 Modulates digital signals into analog signals at the

transmitting end then demodulates analog signals into
digitals at the receiving end.
13
 DATA MODULATION…cont.
 Modulation is a technology used to modify analog signals
to make them suitable for carrying data over a
communication media.

 In modulation, a simple wave called a carrier wave, is a

combined with another analog signal to produce a unique
signal that gets transmitted from one node to another.

 The carrier wave has preset properties (including

frequency, amplitude and phase)

14
 DATA MODULATION…cont.

 Its purpose is to help convey information ; in

other words, it is only a messenger.

 Another signal, known as the information wave

(data wave) is added to the carrier wave.

 When the information wave is added, it modifies

one property of the carrier wave ( for example
the frequency, amplitude or phase).

15
 DATA MODULATION…cont.
 The result is a new, blended signal that contains
properties of both the carrier wave and added
data.

 When the signal reaches its destination, the

receiver separates the data from the carrier
wave.

16
DATA MODULATION…cont.

17
DATA MODULATION…ANALOG.

18
DATA MODULATION…DIGITAL

19
 TRANSMISSION DIRECTION MODE

 Three types :

1. simplex
2. half-duplex
3. full-duplex

20
 TRANSMISSION DIRECTION MODE
 Simplex
- signals may travel in only one direction.
- sometimes called one-way or unidirectional
communication.
- example : radio

21
 TRANSMISSION DIRECTION MODE…cont.
 Half-Duplex
- signals may travel in both directions over
a medium but in only one direction at a
time.
- example : walkie-talkie

22
 TRANSMISSION DIRECTION MODE…cont.
 Full-Duplex
- signals are free to travel in both directions
over a medium simultaneously.
- also be called bidirectional transmission.
- example : telephone

23
EXERCISES :

1. Communication between a computer and a wireless mouse is an

example of :
a. Automatic transmission
b. Full-duplex transmission
c. Simplex transmission
d. Half-duplex transmission

2. Which of the following is NOT a mode type data transmission?

a. Simplex transmission
b. Half-simplex transmission
c. Half-duplex transmission
d. Full-duplex transmission

24
3. What the technology that has been used to modify analog signals to
make them suitable for carrying data over a communication path?
a. modem
b. controller
c. bandwidth
d. data modulation

4. Describe the differences between throughput and bandwidth.

25
 MULTIPLEXING
 A form of transmission that allows multiple signals to
travel simultaneously over one medium.

 Used to increase the amount of data that can be

transmitted in a given time span.

 A device that can combine many signals on a channel

called multiplexer (mux).

 Demultiplexer (demux) separates the combined signals

and regenerates them in their original form.

26
MULTIPLEXING…cont.

27
MULTIPLEXING…cont.

28
MULTIPLEXING…cont.

29
 MULTIPLEXING…cont.

 Frequency-Division Multiplexing (FDM)

- FDM is an analog technique.

- The signal was modulated by n separate

modulator’s into n different carrier
frequencies.

30
MULTIPLEXING…cont.

31
 MULTIPLEXING…cont.
 Time-Division Multiplexing (TDM)

- TDM is a digital technique.

- Can be used when loading/capacity of data rates for

media transmission is greater.

32
MULTIPLEXING…cont.

33
 MULTIPLEXING…cont.
 Wavelength-Division Multiplexing (WDM)

- is equivalent with FDM.

- is a technology used with fiber-optic cable.

- WDM enables one fiber-optic connection to

carry multiple light signals simultaneously.

34
MULTIPLEXING…cont.

35
 RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN NODES

 Point-to-point
- when a data transmission involves only one
transmitter and one receiver.

 Broadcast
- transmission involves one transmitter and multiple
receivers.

36
RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN NODES…cont.

37
 RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN NODES…cont.

 Throughput
- the measure of how much data is
transmitted during a given period of time.

 Bandwidth
- measure of the difference between the
highest and lowest frequencies that a
medium can transmit.

38
 COMMON TRANSMISSION FLAWS AFFECTING DATA
SIGNALS
i. Noise – any undesired electrical disturbance in
a circuit, degrading the useful information in a
signal.

ii. Attenuation – the loss of energy suffered by

radiation as it passes through matter, esp. as a
result of absorption or scattering.

iii. Latency - Latency depends on the speed of the

transmission medium (e.g., copper wire, optical fiber or
radio waves) and the delays in the transmission by
devices along the way (e.g., routers and modems). A low
latency indicates a high network efficiency.

39
 NOISE

 Noise is any undesirable influence that may degrade or

distort a signal.

 A common source of noise is EMI (electromagnetic

interference) or waves that emanate from electrical
devices or cables carrying electricity.

 One type of EMI is RFI (radiofrequency interference) or

electromagnetic interference caused by radiowaves.

40
 NOISE…cont.

 Strong broadcast signals from radio or TV

towers can generate RFI.

 When EMI noise affects analog signals, this

distortion can result in the incorrect
transmission of data, just as if static prevented
you from hearing a radio station broadcast.

41
 NOISE…cont.
 Crosstalk
- occurs when a signal traveling on one wire
or cable infringes on the signal traveling
over an adjacent wire or cable.

42
 ATTENUATION
 The strength of a signal falls off with distance over any
transmission medium.

 Problems are dealt by the use of amplifiers or repeaters.

 A device the regenerates a analog signal is called a

amplifier. Analog signals pass through an amplifier, an
electronic device that increases the voltage or strength of
the signals.

 A device that regenerates a digital signal is called a

repeater.

43
ATTENUATION…cont.

44
ATTENUATION…cont.

45
 LATENCY

 Delay between the transmission of a signal and

its eventual receipt.

 Although electrons travel rapidly, they still have

to travel and a brief delay takes place between
the moment you press the key and the moment
the server accepts the data. This delay is called
latency.

46
TRANSMISSION MEDIA
IN NETWORKS

47
 TWISTED PAIR CABLE

 Twisted-pair cable consists of color-coded pairs

of insulated copper wires.

 Every two wires are twisted around each other

to form pairs and all the pairs are encased in a
plastic sheath.

 The more twists per inch in a pair of wires, the

more resistant the pair will be to crosstalk.

48
 TWISTED PAIR CABLE…cont.

 It is relatively inexpensive, flexible and easy to

install.

 Twisted-pair cable falls into one of two

categories :
- STP (shielded twisted-pair)
- UTP (unshielded twisted-pair)

49
 TWISTED PAIR CABLE…cont….STP
 Surrounded by a shielding made of a metallic
substance such as foil.

 The shielding acts as a barrier to external

electromagnetic forces, thus preventing them
from affecting the signals traveling over the wire
inside the shielding.

50
 TWISTED PAIR CABLE…cont….UTP
 UTP does not contain additional shielding for the
twisted pairs.

 On consists of one or more insulated wire pairs

encased in a plastic sheath.

51
 TWISTED PAIR CABLE…cont….UTP
 Throughput – STP and UTP can both transmit
data at 10, 100 and 1000 Mbps (1Gbps),
depending on the grade of cabling and the
transmission method in use.

 Cost – STP is more expensive than UTP because

it contains more materials and it has a lower
demand.

 Connector – STP and UTP use RJ-45 (Registered

Jack) and RJ-11.

52
 TWISTED PAIR CABLE…cont….UTP
 Noise immunity – because of its shielding, STP
is more noise-resistant than UTP.

 Size and scalability – the maximum segment

length for both STP and UTP is 100m or 328 feet.

53
 TWISTED PAIR CABLE…cont….UTP
 CAT 5e (Enhanced Category 5) – A higher-grade version of
CAT 5 wiring that contains high-quality copper, offers a
high twist ratio and uses advanced methods for reducing
crosstalk. Enhanced CAT 5 can support a signaling rate as
high as 350 Mhz, more than triple than capability of
regular CAT 5.

 CAT 6 (Category 6) – A twisted-pair cable that contains

four wire pairs, each wrapped in foil insulation. Additional
foil insulation covers the bundle of wire pairs and a fire-
resistant plastic sheath covers the second foil layer. The
foil insulation provides excellent resistance to crosstalk
and enables CAT 6 to support a 250 MHz signaling rate
and at least six times the throughput supported by regular
CAT 5.

54
 TWISTED PAIR CABLE…cont….UTP

 CAT 6e (Enhanced Category 6) – A higher-grade version of

CAT 6 wiring that reduces attenuation and crosstalk and
allows for potentially exceeding traditional network
segment length limits. CAT 6e is capable of a 550 MHz
signaling rate and can reliably transmit data at multi-
Gigabit per second rates.

 CAT 7 (Category 7) – A twisted-pair cable that contains

multiple wire pairs, each surrounded by its own shielding,
then packaged in additional shielding beneath the sheath.
CAT 7 cabling is that it can support signal rates up to 1
GHz.

55
 COAXIAL CABLE
 Coaxial cable consists of a central copper core
surrounded by an insulator, a braided metal shielding
called braiding and an outer cover called the sheath or
jacket.

 The core carries the electromagnetic signal and the

braided metal shielding acts as both a shield against
noise.

 All types have been assigned an RG (radio guide)

specification number.

56
COAXIAL CABLE…cont.

57
 COAXIAL CABLE…cont.
 Two categories :
i. Thicknet
ii. Thinnet

Thicknet
- its diameter is approximately 1 cm.
- IEEE has designed Thinnet as 10BASE-5 Ethernet.
- maximum segment length are 500 meters.

Thinnet
- its diameter is approximately 0.64 cm.
- IEEE has designated thinnet as 10BASE-2
Ethernet.
- maximum segment length are 185 meters (or
roughly 200).
58
 FIBER OPTIC CABLE
 Fiber optic cable or simply fiber, contains one or
several glass or plastic fibers at its center or
core.

 Surrounding the fibers is a layer of glass or

plastic called cladding.

 Outside the cladding, a plastic buffer protects

the cladding and core.

59
FIBER OPTIC CABLE…cont.

60
 FIBER OPTIC CABLE…cont.
 To prevent the cable from stretching and to
protect the inner core further, strands of Kevlar
(an advanced polymeric fiber) surround the
plastic buffer.

 Finally a plastic sheath covers/outer jacket the

strands of Kevlar.

 Two categories :
- single-mode
- multimode

61
 FIBER OPTIC CABLE…cont..SMF (SINGLE-MODE FIBER)
 SMF (single-mode fiber) uses a narrow core (less than 10
microns in diameter) through which light generated by a
laser travels over one path, reflecting very little.

 Because it reflects little, the light does not disperse as

the signal travels along the fiber.

 Accommodate high bandwidths and long distance.

62
 FIBER OPTIC CABLE…cont..MMF (MULTIMODE FIBER)
 MMF (multimode fiber) contains a core with a larger
diameter than single-mode fiber (between 50 and 115
microns in diameter; the most common size is 62.5
microns) over which many pulses of light generated by a
laser or LED travel at different angles.

 It is commonly found on cables that connect a router to a

switch or a server on the backbone of a network.

63
FIBER OPTIC CABLE…cont..

64
FIBER OPTIC CABLE…cont..connector

65
 FIBER OPTIC CABLE…cont…characteristics
 Throughput – fiber has proved reliable in transmitting data
at rates that exceed 10 Gigabits (or 10,000 Megabits) per
second.

 Cost – fiber optic cable is the most expensive

transmission medium.

 Noise immunity – because fiber does not conduct

electrical current to transmit signals, it is unaffected by
EMI.

 Size and scalability – depending on the type of fiber optic

cable used, segment lengths from 150 to 40,000 meters.

66
Benefits and limitations in terms : throughput, noise immunity,
size & scalability and cost
UTP STP COAXIAL FIBER OPTIC
CABLE
Throughput

Noise Immunity

Size and
Scalability

Cost

Diagram cable
67
 WIRELESS TRANSMISSION
 Networks that transmit signals through the
atmosphere via infrared or radio frequency (RF)
waves are known as wireless networks.

 All wireless signals are carried through the air

along electromagnetic waves.

 Wireless spectrum is a wave line of

electromagnetic waves used for data and voice
communication.

68
WIRELESS TRANSMISSION…cont.

69
 CHARACTERISTIC OF WIRELESS TRANSMISSION

i. Signal propagation. (perambatan isyarat)

 Reflection
 Diffraction
 Scattering

ii. Signal degradation. (kemerosotan isyarat)

iii. Narrowband, broadband and spread spectrum

signal.

iv. Fixed and mobile wireless communication.

70
 i. SIGNAL PROPAGATION
 The signal may pass through the object or be absorbed by
the object or it may be subject to any of the following
phenomena : reflection, diffraction or scattering.

a) Reflection
- the wave encounters an obstacle and reflects – or
bounces back – toward its source.

- A wireless signal will bounce off objects whose

dimensions are large compared to the signals
average wavelength.

71
 i. SIGNAL PROPAGATION…cont.
b) Diffraction
- a wireless signal splits into secondary waves when it
encounters an obstruction. The secondary waves
continue to propagate in the direction in which they
were split.

c) Scattering
- is reflection in multiple different directions, of a
signal.
- Scattering occurs when a wireless signal encounters
an object that has small dimensions compared to the
signals wavelength.

72
i. SIGNAL PROPAGATION…cont.

73
 ii. SIGNAL DEGRADATION
 The original signal issued by the transmitter will
experience fading or a change in signal strength as a
result of some of the electromagnetic energy being
scattered, reflected or diffracted after being issued by the
transmitter.

 The strength of the signal that reaches the receiver is

lower than the transmitted signals strength.

 The farther it moves away from the transmission antenna

the more it weakens.

74
 ii. SIGNAL DEGRADATION…cont.

 Interference can distort and weaken a wireless signal in

the same way that noise distorts and weakens a wire-
bound signal.

 Because wireless signals cannot depend shielding to

protect them from extraneous EMI, they are more
vulnerable to noise.

75
 iii. NARROWBAND, BROADBAND AND SPREAD
SPECTRUM SIGNAL
 In narrowband, a transmitter concentrates the signal
energy at a single frequency or in a very small range of
frequencies.

 Broadband uses a relatively wide band of the wireless

spectrum. As a result of their wider frequency bands,
offer higher throughputs than narrowband technologies.

76
 iii. NARROWBAND, BROADBAND AND SPREAD
SPECTRUM SIGNAL…cont.

 The use of multiple frequencies to transmit a

signal is known as spread spectrum technology.

 Spread spectrum signaling is called FHSS

(frequency hopping spread spectrum) & DSSS
(direct sequence spread spectrum).

77
 iii. NARROWBAND, BROADBAND AND SPREAD
SPECTRUM SIGNAL…cont.
 FHSS a signal jumps between several different
frequencies within a band in a synchronization pattern
known only to the channel’s receiver and transmitter.

78
 iii. NARROWBAND, BROADBAND AND SPREAD
SPECTRUM SIGNAL…cont.
 DSSS a signal’s bits are distributed over an entire
frequency band at once. Each bit is coded so that the
receiver can reassemble the original signal upon receiving
the bits.

79
Assignment
Explain with aid diagram and find the differences
between FHSS (frequency hopping spread
spectrum) and DSSS (direct sequence spread
spectrum).

80
 iv. FIXED AND MOBILE WIRELESS COMMUNICATION
 Two categories of wireless communication :
fixed or mobile wireless.
a) Fixed wireless
- the locations of the transmitter and receiver
do not move.

- the transmitting antenna focuses its energy directly

toward the receiving antenna.

- advantage of fixed wireless is that because the

receiver’s location is predictable, energy need not be
wasted issuing signals across a large geographical
area.

81
 iv. FIXED AND MOBILE WIRELESS
COMMUNICATION..cont.

b) Mobile wireless
- the receiver can be located anywhere within the
transmitter`s range.

- allows the receiver to from one place to another

while continuing to pick up its signal.

82
 TYPES OF WIRELESS CONNECTIONS…INFRARED
 Two types of wireless connections used on computer
networks : infrared and wireless LAN’s.

❖ Infrared
- transmitted by frequencies in the 300 GHz to 300,000
GHz range, which is just above the top of the wireless
spectrum.

- infrared transmission is most often used for

communications between devices in the same room.

83
 TYPES OF WIRELESS CONNECTIONS…infared/wireless LANs

 Infrared signaling requires more power, travels shorter

distances and transmission around obstacles less
successfully than wireless technique.

❖ Wireless LANs

- WLAN relies on lower frequencies in the 2.4 – 2.4835

GHz band, more commonly known as the 2.4 GHz
band, to send and receive signals.

- two categories : ad hoc and infrastructure

84
 WIRELESS LANS….ad hoc

 Smaller wireless networks, in which a small number of

nodes closely positioned need to exchange data, can be
arranged in an ad hoc.

 In an ad hoc WLAN, wireless nodes or stations, transmit

directly to each other via wireless NICs without an
intervening connectivity device.

85
INFRARED AND WIRELESS LANs CONNECTION

86
 WIRELESS LANs ….infrastructure

 WLANs can use the infrastructure mode, which depends

on an intervening connectivity device called an access
point.

 AP (access point) is a device that accepts wireless

signals from multiple nodes and retransmits them to the
rest of the network.

87
 WIRELESS LANs ….infrastructure

 An access point must have sufficient power and be

strategically placed so that stations can communicate
with it.

 Like other wireless devices, access points contain an

antenna connected to their transceivers.

88
WIRELESS LANs ….infrastructure

89
WIRELESS LANs …. infrastructure

90
NETWORK CABLING
PREPARATION

91
 NETWORK CABLING

 Cable is the medium through which information usually

moves from one network device to another.

 There are several types of cable which are commonly

used with LANs.

 The type of cable chosen for a network is related to the

network`s topology, protocol and size.

 Understanding the characteristics of different types of

cable and how they relate to other aspects of a network
is necessary for the development of a successful network.

92
 NETWORK CABLING…cont.
Some tips :
 A straight-thru cable has identical ends. (wiring)

 A crossover cable has different ends. (wiring)

 A straight-thru is used as a patch cord in Ethernet

connections.

 A crossover is used to connect two Ethernet devices

without a hub or for connecting two hubs.

 A crossover has one end with the Orange set of wires

switched with the Green set.

 Looking at RJ-45 with the clip facing away from u, brown

is always on the right and pin 1 is on the left.
93
 STRAIGHT-THRU UTP CABLE

 The ANSI/TIA/EIA (American National Standards

Institute/Telecommunication Industry
Association/Electronic Industry Association) 568-A
standard which was ratified in 1995, was replaced by the
TIA/EIA 568-B standard in 2002 and has been updated
since.

 Both standards define the T-568-A and T-568-B pin-outs for

using Unshielded Twisted Pair cable (UTP) and RJ-45
connectors for Ethernet connectivity.

Note : A patch cord (sometimes called a patch cable) is a length of cable with connectors
on the ends that is used to connect an end device to something else, such as a power
source. One of the most common uses is connecting a laptop, desktop or other end device
to a wall outlet.

94
STRAIGHT-THRU UTP CABLE…cont.

95
STRAIGHT-THRU UTP CABLE…cont.

96
 CROSS-OVER UTP CABLE
 If you require a cable to connect two Ethernet devices
directly together without a hub or when you connect two
hubs together, you will need to used a cross-over cable
instead.

97
 TIA/EIA-568A or TIA/EIA-568B Standard
(colour code)
Straight- thru UTP Cross-over UTP
1) 1) 1) 1)
2) 2) 2) 2)
3) 3) 3) 3)
4) 4) 4) 4)
5) 5) 5) 5)
6) 6) 6) 6)
7) 7) 7) 7)
8) 8) 8) 8)

98
 PATCH PANELS AND WALL JACKS
 A patch panel is a panel designed for the management of
cable connections.

 On the front side of a patch panel there are jacks

designed to receive short patch cables, while on the back
of the panel there are either jacks or punch down blocks
that receive the connections of longer and more
permanent cables.

Figure : Sample of patch panels

99
 PATCH PANELS AND WALL JACKS…cont.
 Wall Jacks will be installed on the wall near the computer
to be networked as a mediator between the computer and
hub/switch.

Figure : Sample of Wall Jacks

100
 CABLE TESTER
 A cable tester is an electronic device used to verify the
electrical connections in a cable or other wired assembly.

 It used to verify that all the intended connections exist

and that there are no unintended connections in the cable
being tested.

Figure : Sample of Cable Tester

101
102
103
JUN 2019 – DEC30023

1(C)
TIA/EIA-568A or TIA/EIA-568B is a standard for Ethernet which determine
color wire used on each pin for the cable. Show and label the color for peer-to-
peer network using both TIA/EIA-568A and TIA/EIA-568B standard.
(8marks)
3(a)
Describe the differences between throughput and bandwidth.
(4marks)
3(b)
Write FOUR (4) usage of straight through cable and crossover.
(8marks)
3(c)
Carry out the benefits and limitation of coaxial cable in terms of Throughput,
Noise immunity, Saiz, Scalability and Cost.
(8marks)
104
THANK YOU…

NORLIZAH BINTI ISMAIL

JKE, PSP

105