International Review of Social Research 2019; 9(1): 38–48

Research Article

Sunil Kumar Patnaik*

Buddhist Monuments in South-Eastern India:

A Study of Forms and Patronage
https://doi.org/10.2478/irsr-2019-0005
Received: March 1, 2019; Accepted: March 20, 2019
Introduction
Abstract: The advent of Buddhism in India is usually dated The earliest stone monuments in India date from the
back to 6th century BCE. Siddhartha Goutama, a Sakya Mauryan period (320-185 BCE), particularly from the
Prince left for quest of truth and reality of life. He was epoch-making reign of emperor Asoka (272 -232 BCE).
showered with the divine light of enlightenment, then, Mauryan Emperor Asoka earned his name and fame as
instead of keeping it to himself, Gautama preferred to builder of Buddhist monuments throughout the empire
enlighten others. The teachings preached and propounded only after the Kalinga (Ancient Odisha) War in 261 BCE.
by Gautama Buddha were warmly accepted by a large Kalinga become one the epicenters of his activities and
number of people and emerged as a new school of thought the importance of Kalinga in shaping and spreading the
i.e. Buddhism which later turned into a major religion of Buddhist ideals was recognized. His domain engulfed
the world and the Buddhist remains discovered through whole of India, including Afghanistan and sent out
archaeological investigations help us to reconstruct our missionaries to the south as far as Sri Lanka and westward
past. (Chakrabarti, 2006: 315) It is a well known fact that even into Syria and Egypt. He constructed up to eighty
various the kings of different kingdoms like Magadha, thousand Buddhist monuments which include, pillars,
Vaisali, the Sakayas, the Bullis, the Koliyas, the Mallas, rock-cut sculptures, stupas, chaityas and monasteries.
the Moriyas and Kalinga (Ancient Odisha) sought for the This practice was followed by different dynasties like
relics of the Buddha after the parinirvana. (Kern, 1989: 46) Kushans, Satvahanas, Vakatakas, Palas, Bhuaumakars
The emperors, kings, traders and commoners extended etc. In India and outside where Buddhism did exist, or still
patronage and built monuments, kept relics, offered exists, there are innumerable monuments representing
gifts to pay ovation to the Master Teacher. This historical different phases of Buddhism and these help us visualize
phenomenon is known from various forms of Buddhist the forms and patronage through the ages see Figure 1.
monuments built across India. Odisha, a geographical It is apparent, however, from the sophistication,
orbit of South Eastern India, is fortunate to have received the degree of perfection and the variety of the work
a good deal of Buddhist monuments and relics. This paper that abruptly appears in the period of Asoka and then
is intended to present an account of different forms of rapidly increases, that already in the earlier centuries
Buddhist monuments that have been discovered so far, (though invisible to us, because committed to the
such as Stupas, Chaitys, Monasteries under the possible perishable materials of ivory and wood) the torrent of
patronage of Buddhism in this part of India from third Indian religious art must have been flowing strong. The
century BCE to sixth-seventh century CE. craftsmen who wrought the elaborately decorated gates
of the ‘Great Stupa’ at Sanchi and now shattered shrines
Keywords: Kalinga, Archaeology, Stupa, Chaitya, of Bharhut, Bodhgaya, Lalitgiri, Langudi, Aragarh and
Monastery, Trade, Religion, Art, Architecture Amaravati, skillfully adapted to the special requirements
and special legends of Buddhism with the ancient motifs
and traditional craft.
Buddhist architectural vestiges in the Western
Deccan goes back to the first century CE, and by the 6th
–7th century, Buddhist caves such as Ellorā, Aurangabad,
*Corresponding author: Sunil Kumar Patnaik, Secretary Odishan
Institute of Maritime & South-East Asian Studies (OIMSEAS),
and Kānherī flourished due to the booming trade routes
Government of Odisha, Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India. Pin.751014, connecting them to the seaports of Sopara, Kalyan, and
Phone 091-9437100159, e-mail: [email protected]. Baruch, as well as the mainland trade centre of Ujjain1.

© 2019 Sunil Kumar Patnaik published by Sciendo.

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs 4.0 License.
 Buddhist Monuments in South-Eastern India: A Study of Forms and Patronage 39

Fig. 1 Map of Early Buddhist Sites of India.

Such a phenomenon was also seen in Eastern Indian Recent researches on the basis of material culture
Coastal region stretching from Tamralipti in Lower Gangas have shown that several Buddhist establishments have
with ports of Palur, Pithunda, Manikapatna Samapa been developed in post-Asokan period in Odishan region,
Dantapura, Kalingapatnna, Salihundam, Ghantasila, particularly at Lalitgiri, Langudi, Radhanagar, Dhauli,
Nagarjunakonda, Guntupalli, Bhattiprallu of Odisha and Jaugarh and Aragarh because of cultural interaction of
Andhra region of South East India. Central Asia and Southeast Asia and Odisha (ancient
At the earliest phase, the strategic geographical Kalinga) remained as the nucleus zone. The agriculturally
location of Odisha helped it in rising to great heights in rich regions of Kalinga, Saurastra and Raichur with their
respect of trade and commerce from pre- Buddhist period. potential as states is viewed as core regions of Mauryan
Odisha (ancient Kalinga) served as a bridge between the Empire2. Further, Rock Edicts XV and XVI mention that
trans-oceanic and inland trade of India, causing migration Kumaras were stationed at Taksasila, Ujjain and Toshali in
of cultural traits along with trade and commerce. With the Kalinga which were the north-western, western and eastern
rise of trade and commerce in the historical periods, it is headquarters3. This has been proved from the recent survey
but obvious that the growth of urbanization leads building of the trade routes from Balkh and Bamiyan in Afaganisthan
of various monuments. where the Silk Route met and then continued through north
40 Sunil Kumar Patnaik

India in Ganga valley up to Tamralipti (Tamluk) and then inscriptions of Sanchi in central India, Bhattiprolu on
connecting the Buddhist establishments of Odishan the Andhra coast and Mathura in north India. The stele
region (Kalinga) like Langudi, Radhanagar, Lalitgiri, from Amaravati is significant as it graphically depicts the
Dhauli, Aragarh, Jaugarh4 and passed through the South creation and legitimating of scared spots in an area as far
Indian Buddhist establishments like Kalingapattinam, as far removed from the Buddha’s peregrinations as the
Salihundam, Sankaram, Tathalkonda, Bhavikonda5 south–east coast and the linking of these to sacred spots
Guntupalli, Nagarjunikonda and Amaravati. This is the in northern India. This stele dated to the Mauryan period
reason why a number of said Buddhist establishments thus provided justification for the association of the site
with monuments developed along the East Coast, Amaravati with sacred spots in the north such as Vaisali
Ancient Odisha or Kalinga was a good producer of and Sravasti and perhaps also explains the prominent
rice, bajra, cotton fabrics, samudra lona (salt), elephant, part played by monks and nuns in sponsoring religious
silk, dukula (a kind of cloth), gems, pearls, oyster, architecture at the site11.
perfumes, conch shells, ornaments, sugar, earthen Scholars like Thapar12 and Ray13 refer that, by the
pottery. Diamond was probably one of the valuable first century BCE, much of the support for Buddhist
commodities sold at Kalinganagar, the then capital city institutions (monasteries and pilgrimage centres)
of Kalinga in 1st - 2nd century CE. The mention of all these were derived from craft guilds rather than royalty. The
were found in the literary works viz, Jatakas, Arthasastra Buddhist institutions were the recipients of donations
of Kautaliya, Mahabhasya of Patanjali, Charaka Samhita, resulting from competitive generosity between guilds,
Samyaktta Nikaya and Indica of Meghasthanese6. lesser elite, and royalty which otherwise was an attempt
A common assumption is that by the end of the reign to associate themselves with the divine. Ray remarks that
of Asoka in the second century BCE, Buddhist monks the Buddhist institutions as more actively engaged in
and nuns were established in monasteries throughout economic activities, serving as nodes and long-distance
the Indian Sub-continent and that these monasteries, trade networks and managing agricultural production in
located near cities, mostly on the river banks or hill the peripheries of developing states14. Schopen has also
slopes relied on state and public support. The Buddhist refers that the monasteries even acted as moneylenders,
texts at the same time credit merchants and trading building their endowments by lending to Buddhist
groups with the setting up of religious shrines, as and non-Buddhists alike15.The fact is that the political
for example, in the case merchant Anathapindaka’s consolidation under Satavahanas and Ikshavakus and
purchase of Jetavana park, for the Buddha and his the prosperity resulting from trade was the growth of a
monks for monastic establishment. This is a theme large number of religious complexes which were mostly
that finds representation at several early Buddhist sites Buddhist in character. If we look into Odishan context,
such as Bharhut, Bodhgaya, Sannathi, Amaravati etc. it is certain that the settlement at Radhanagar of 3rd - 2nd
In the context of eastern India, the Vinaya (Mahavagga) century BCE and the religious settlements of Lalitgiri
records that two early disciples of the Buddha, the and Langudi and the urban centers of Sisupalgarh and
merchant brothers Tappusa and Bhallika travelled from Jaugarh, the port cities Tamralipti and Kalinganagar are
Ukkala (often identified with Odisha) offered rice cake all Buddhist in nature. Indeed, this region together with
and honey to the Buddha. They were also credited with Amaravati, Goli and Jaggayyapeta (AP) is conforming to
establishing chaityas and monasteries on their return to the contemporary art-idioms of the Gangetic valley and
home country7. central India. It means that between 200 BCE and 200 CE
It is a historical fact that the lay community received the sources of financial support for Buddhist institutions
their continuing support of monks and nuns and greatly expanded and the Buddhist sites particularly
sponsorship of ritual activities, pilgrimage as well as of Eastern Coast like Lalitgiri, Langudi, Radhanagar,
maintenance of monastic structures. This is true in case Udayagiri, Jaugarh (Samapa), Kayma, Aragarh in Odisha
of Coastal Odisha and Andhra Pradesh in which the and Salihundam, Tahtlakonda, Bhavikonda, Sankaram,
presence of Buddhism clearly coincide with the Mauryan up to Nagrjunikonda in Andhra Pradesh were developed
period8. A pillar fragment discovered at Amravati during by dint of this phenomenon. Scholars have studied
clearance of the site in 1958-59 with an Asokan inscription the period from 500 BCE to 300 CE and concluded that
on it9. Engraved on one of the faces is the legend “the Buddhist monastic sites grew up around permanent
gosthi called Vanda at Dhanyakataka“ together with settlements connected by long-distance trade routes
the representation of waters10. The term gosthi has been and served ‘as symbolic structures mediating social
translated as committee or association and occurs in the hierarchy within a new urban complex16’. According to
 Buddhist Monuments in South-Eastern India: A Study of Forms and Patronage 41

Heitzman ‘the three-fold union of Buddhism, trade and

empire continued into Common Era’17.
Some of the finest Buddhist settlements having
different forms of Buddhist monuments such as stupas,
chaityas and monasteries are unearthed at Lalitgiri,
Langudi, Aragarh and Udayagiri and many other places
in South Eastern India. This paper is limited to the
study of forms of early stupas, chaityas and monasteries
discovered in the said places which present a pan-Indian
character and help us in various ways to understand the
material culture, religion and art of this region.

Stupas
We are getting valuable information from Vinayasutra
that in order to involve the common people in the religious
activity, the Buddhists encouraged public participation
in constructing and worshiping the stupas. The work
Mahavastu, a Pali text of Theravadis with contain the
conception of Buddha prevalent among Mahasanghikas
and the Lokottaravadis does actually represent a
transition to Mahayana18. The Mahavastu recommends
that one earns unlimited merit when one simply saunters
around a stupa and worships it with gifts of flowers etc.
It further describes that even carrying of the bricks for
the construction of stupa / chaitya is meritorious and
he who set up a flag on the chaitya of the lord inspires
the rhythmic activity in the world of Buddha and he is
worshipped by all19. A group of verses is devoted to recite
the merit of one who sets up even a single lamp on the
stupa of the Buddha. Similarly, some verses are devoted
to recite the merit of a person who decorates and makes a
stupa of the Buddha beautiful look at (subhadarsana) by
the gift of an umbrella. The Mahavastu further states that
if one is unable to honour a stupa by indulging in the
expensive garlands, or other presents, one can acquire
merit even by removing the tarnished flowers from the Fig.2. Early Stupas
stupa.
Here in Odishan region the Buddhist settlements
discovered in the last half a century has brought to
Stupa at Lalitgiri
limelight good many early stupas along with monasteries
The main stupa at Lalitgiri is located on the highest
and chaitys. However, we have seen the site that the
point of the hillock Nandapahada, made of dressed
early stupas constructed singularly and then the
stones having 6.14 meter in diameter at the base and
monastic centers developed after two- three centuries
built of random rubble masonry and then veneered
later, perhaps after the site became a pilgrim centre. Let
with finely dressed khandolite stones following
us have a glimpse of forms of the early stupas discovered
the curvature of the dome (anda) as well as drum
at Lalitgiri, Langudi, Aragarah and Udayagiri of Odishan
portion (medhi). Two constructional stages have been
region which all are discovered few decades back and
identified here. At a height above the pavement, the
the author was involved in almost all the excavations see
stupa has a ledge. From here the anda portion starts
Figure 2.
and the diameter of the dome (anda) decreases. The
42 Sunil Kumar Patnaik

total available height of the stupa (drum and dome) is Stupa at Langudi
4.05 meter above the surface.
The dome is also covered by rectangular slab with a The Langudi site presents a unique religious landscape
square hole, possibly the base of the harmika which was having numbers of monumental remains. The main
used to support the canopy (chhatra). Fragment of a harmika Stupa independently developed as a singular unit having
was recovered during the excavation. The ledge is made a square base which dates back to the 2nd century BCE.
more or less in the pattern of Dhamekh stupa of Saranath. The present base size of the stupa is 75 ft. north-south
The base of the stupa was also excavated, the remains of x 60 ft. east-west with a height of 9 ft. and the diameter
a well paved circular stone flooring i.e., pradakshinapatha is 60 ft. In the southern side steps are provided which
running round the stupa being 3 meter in width. The edge leads to the elevated portion of the stupa. In the stupa
of the flooring of the base is marked by course of a raised architecture steps lead to the upper processional path in
stone of 0.10 meter above the natural rock of the hill. four directions are generally found. However, this stupa is
The monument stands on a hard rock-base and the an exception. The steps were originally flanked by eight
core is filled with mud-mortar. The khondalite stone railing pillars and suchis (cross bars) on each side as the
and iron clamps in some places were used. Fine dressed post holes are clearly visible. The total stupa area might
stone joints are made together to check the atmosphere have encircled by railing pillars and suchis as observed
erection. Numbers of railing pillars used for encircling with the discovery of 26 railing pillars. Fragmentary pieces
of the stupa were found from the site. The style of these of sandstone chhatravalis also noticed during the course
pillars seems very early and helps us to date the stupa, of the excavation in the stupa area. These architectural
which are very much similar to that of the railing pillars pieces are culturally dated to the pre-Common Era. The
found at Bodh-Gaya. This hemispherical stupa stands in remains of the pavement noticed in the upper portion
between the stupas of Sanchi and Saranath and date back of the staircase. The antiquities, its architecture and the
to 2nd - 1st century BCE19.. absence of Buddhist sculptures indicate that the stupa
The most important discovery from this stupa is belong to the Hinayana phase of Buddhism. The stupa has
the relic caskets in the year 1985. Although, there are two phases of which the earliest one is made of brick, and
references found in Buddhist literature that several relics in later phase enlarged by adding laterite blocks.
of Buddha like heir, tooth and bone were brought to The site was expanded during the 2nd century CE as
Kalinga before and after Nirvana of the Buddha20. From evident from the findings of Sunga- Satavahana art idioms
the core of the stupa’s anda three caskets were unearthed like lotus medallion. There are 54 Rock-cut Stupas found
from the north, east and south respectively. The caskets on the south-eastern side of the hillock. It has its own story
consisted of four containers one inside the other i.e.1. of development. This kind of Stupa architecture, mostly
of khondalite stone resembling miniature stupas, 2. a encountered in South India, particularly at Thatalkonda
steatite phial, 3. a silver casket, and 4. a golden casket. and Sankaram having stupas with quadrangular base.
This golden casket preserved the sacred relic, Of the three Although the Buddhist sect Sarvastivadins were the
sets of caskets (khondalite), only two of them contained builder of these stupas but no sect is traced yet at Langudi.
all the three inner caskets. In one of the caskets the sacred However, the tradition is there that the Mahisasakas taking
relic (bone / dhatu) was found wrapped in a gold foil and Buddhism to foreign lands and Kalinga and Andhradesa
the other casket contains only the relic (charred bone) played a role in the cultural developments in South East
which speaks about the importance attached to the person Asia21.
to whom the bone belonged. This type of arrangement is
unique for Eastern India. In the past, relics of the Buddha
have been reported from important Buddhist sites like
Stupa at Aragarh
Sarnath, Vaishali, Piprahwa, Kusinagar, Sravasti, Lauriya-
Aragarh, Buddhist site, a hillock in Puri district near
Nandangarh and others but this type of arrangement was
Bhubaneswar of Odisha is located in one of the several
unknown in this part of the country for the first time.
isolated hillocks of varied height and dimensions. The
Normally, the relic caskets were either made of steatite,
core area with archaeological remains is identified on
earthen ware, copper, soap stone or crystal containing
the hilltop spreading over an area of more than five
the relic of the Buddha. The Relic Stupa at this place gives
acres. The site was taken for excavations during 2014-17.
us the narration of Buddhism in 2nd century BCE and the
Here the Stupa remains are found with several terraces.
flow continued up to 5th-6th century CE, when Mahayana
A complete basement or platform is exposed with having
Buddhism evolved at this place.
 Buddhist Monuments in South-Eastern India: A Study of Forms and Patronage 43

stone encasing on either side which is the topmost reason and again reoccupied in 8th-9th century CE. It may be
surviving portion of the stupa with the drum base and the conceptualized that Odisha was one of the important land
circumambulatory path is intact. Pieces of anda or drum, for Mahasanghika sect of Early Buddhism and the trend
made of stone are traced. The circumambulatory path of stupa building earlier known from Lalitgiri and Dhauli
measures 1.78 m. in width and the circumference is 20.41 is also attested too in this site. However, Dhauli (where
m. This is the first circumambulatory path. the ancient stupa was no more in existence) and Aragarh
Again, one more wide circular area with stone paving, belong to same culture complex24. This type of platforms
the second circumambulatory path measuring 3.86 m. in are observed in the early stupas of Sanchi, Satadhara and
width and having the diameter of 44.65 meters is found some other Stupas of Thatalkonda and Bhavikonda, more
encircling the first one. In this area on the eastern side precisely akin to Stupa No. 2 and 3 of Satadhara25.
as well as western side two entrances to the stupa is
marked with stone slabs having post holes. The width of
the eastern side entrance on the top measures 3.2. m. This
Stupa and Chaityagriha, Udayagiri
seems to be the main entrance to the stupa and joined
The earliest phase of Udayagiri site (Jajpur district)
further outward with the staircase on the eastern side.
is marked from the excavated stupa at Udayagiri -2
Here, between first and second enlarged pradakhinapatha
with circumambulatory path having approach with
there was a time gap in which it was enlarged.
Chandrasila and Kushana Brahmai inscriptions and
These circumambulatory paths are located on a
shell script (Samkhalipi). The Kushana inscriptions read
raised terrace. The two circumambulatory paths are laid
as Kohakonasa ja of 1st century CE and Sankhalipi of 5th
successively which is the earliest period (2nd-1st century
century CE.26. The base and part of the stupa is still visible
BCE/CE.). Some architectural pieces having geometric
just below the Apsidal Chaitya on the Northern side. This
design and triratna symbol are also recovered from this
is the earliest phase of construction activity of the site
level. Railing pillars numbering 191 and 300 suchis have
in 1st century CE. The stupa, as it is ascertained from the
been found both in situ and scattered around is no doubt
available ruins, measures 3 meters in diameter and the
a spectacular finding of the site. The first terrace measures
circumambulatory path having a width of 1.22 meter. A
28 m. x 21 m. in which the circumambulatory path is
massive stone platform along with flight of steps from
marked. This terrace is exquisitely arranged with dressed
the north with a Chandrasila at the entrance was traced.
stone slabs having railing pillars on the top. Some of the
The impression of a circular stupa on plan in the centre of
railing pillars are seen in situ on corners. It seems that this
the platform attests the existence of a stupa. Its western
terrace (1.25 m. in height) was constructed, most possibly,
arm has preserved some kerb stones curved on the top.
on a raised morrum platform. The Stupa comprising of the
There are ten donatory inscriptions in the shell character
above three parts was generally surrounded by a railing,
on the platform as well as threshold have been engraved
this space was used by the devotees for performing
in the later period towards 4th-5th century CE. It served
pradikshina, a rite of worship. The pradikshinapatha
as a nucleus for future activities within the enclosure27.
(circumambulatory passage) of the Stupa was often paved
This stupa is one of the earliest Buddhist monuments of
with stone panels sometimes bear votive inscriptions. But
Odisha like those of Lalitgiri, Langudi and Aragarh. This
here so far no inscriptions have noticed. In the Mahavamsa
shows that the Stupa was under active worship up to 5th-6th
this railing is called pada-vedika: railing at the foot or
century CE with patronage of one sect of Buddhism. It may
ground railing around the stupa23.
be mentioned that like other exclusive stupa sites of North
One more stone terrace was exposed in three sides i.e.,
and South India having the same tradition with early form
west, east and south. The terrace is completely exposed
of Theravada Buddhism. This is the result of expansion of
and the available portion measures 50 m x 29 m. The
Buddhism as it happened in other parts of India.
staircase is completely exposed in this terrace on southern
and eastern margins. Some railing pillars and suchis are
found on the terrace perhaps meant for the enclosure. Apsidal Chaitya at Lalitgiri.
Besides, two more terraces are found measuring 29 m.
on the eastern side only in between the first and second Of all the buildings of the Mauryan epoch that which is
terraces. most distinctly Buddhist is the Chaitya-Griha or House of
From the available evidences of brick bats, morrum the Chaitya, which was the assembly hall or chaptu house
and some weathered potsherds, it is clear that the site was of the order. The commonly - called caitya-hall known
abandoned most probably in 4th-5th century CE for obvious often as Caitya-Ghara (Sanskrit-chaitya) and Thupa-ghara
44 Sunil Kumar Patnaik

and rarely as thuva (grihastupa) in inscriptions, was in inscription in Brahmi script of 2nd - 3rd century A.D. has
reality a sanctuary. In Buddhist literature caitya came been found. This pedestal is raised with two layer of brick
to be used as cult-object. In the Mahaparinibban sutta, courses and the top one stone course. The super structure
the Buddha speaks of the efficiency of erecting dhatu above it, is now missing. The inscription according to K.V.
caityas and himself visited caityas like Udama, Gotama, Ramesh of Epigraphy Branch of ASI (Mysore), seems to
Sattambaka etc., revealing them thereby as pre-Buddha record the completion (Samaavta) of the seat (AASSAANA)
institution. Besides, the Diga-Nikaya shows that Lord of Adatmana, probably, jointly by Vinaya, a resident
Buddha lived in Ananda caitya at Bhojanagana28. of Vadhamana, a certain Vinayadhara and his disciple
The Apsidal Temple at Lalitgiri is located in a Buddhitini a resident of Aggotisila..the inscriptions shows
strategic position on which from all sides except east, the patronage of the of the Buddhism and building of this
there are monasteries and stupas. Perhaps, the Buddhists monument and donations comes from different regions30.
first constructed this temple and then gradually other The inscription throws light on the popularity of this
monuments came into existence. As per the evidences Chaitya Temple. It perhaps attracts Buddhists from far and
available, there is a stupa, of which the base portion is wide. Number of miniature and votive stupas found laying
traced on the middle of the shrine chamber. According to near the Apsidal Chaityagriha. Some miniature stupas
G.C. Chauley-the Excavator, this is the earliest monument contain inscriptions of 7th - 8th century CE. The Apsidal
in the site29. Temple thus gives a running chronology from 1st-2nd
The Chaitya Griha or Apsidal Temple faces east century CE. to 8th-9th century CE. This Apsidal is unique
and is built of fine bricks. The length of the temple is 32 in different ways and more akin to Andhra counterparts as
metre and about 11.40 metre in width. Approximately seen Salihumdam, Sankaram, Ramatirtham. But I think
about a 3.30 meters thick wall provides an inner space of the wave of Buddhism must have rolled from this area to
4.75 metre width. In this space, a circular stupa with an further south at the beginning.
average diameter of 3.35 metre was constructed towards
the western side. The base mouldings and stone paved
appron, further extends the area around this Stupa. In
Monasteries
the remaining interior floor area a compact ramming with
Several monasteries datable to 4th-5th centuries to 10th 11th
lime kankars had been provided for easy throughfare of
centuries were unearthed at Lalitgiri, Langudi, Udayagiri,
the devotee and for circumambulation (pradakhina). A
and many other places in Odishan region and their
traditional stone railing was provided around the Stupa
continuation is seen in a number of sites of adjoining
as the evidence of three carved pillars with socket holes
Andhrapradesh. Almost all the monasteries are identical
have been found lying near stupa. The purpose of putting
with cells, courtyard, shrine chamber on the middle. As has
the railing pillars was to keep the devotees at a certain
been mentioned in Pali text, Chullavaga, the entire monastic
distance from the Stupa.
complex consisted of viharas (dwelling rooms) parivenas
The courtyard around the chaitya griha is found
(cells of private chambers), Kottnakas (gate chambers or
paved with stone slabs on the north, west, and southern
porches) upatthanasalas (service halls), eggi-salas (halls
sides. It is evident from the shape and size, the stone slabs
with fire places), kappiyakutis (store house outside the
were part of earlier structures and here it was re-used in
vihara), Vachchakutis (privies), charikarmas (promenade)
the pavement.
herikasalas (rooms with promenades) udapanas (wells),
Evidences are also found that another brick stupa
udapana salas (shade attached to wells) janatagharas
whose drum portion was encountered on the rammed
(bath rooms) pokkharani (tanks) and mandapas (halls)31.
lime floor inside the chaitya griha. All these constructions
The site of the monastery would be neither too far from a
were imposed within the Apsidal chaitya griha.It signifies
village or town nor too near, suitable for coming and going,
that there were several cultural phases and Stupa brought
accessible to people whenever they want, not crowded by
to be enshrined like that seen at Ajanta and Guntupalli.
day, having little noise at night, little sound, without folks
A stone paved path-way approximately 10 meters in
breath, secluded from people, fitting for meditation.
length and 3.50 metre wide was delinked with the porched
The Buddhist remains of almost all the important
brick stupa due to semicircular end, constructed at least
establishments were found slightly away from towns.
in three phases, contains the name of the donors in shell
It is thus, that outside the populous city of Vidisa
script or Sankhalipi dated to the Gupta period of 5th -
(modern Besanagara adjoin Vidisa) there sprung up the
6th Century CE. On the southern side of the pathway an
magnificent establishment of Sanchi, besides a host of
almost square pedestal (1.42 x1.42 meter) containing an
 Buddhist Monuments in South-Eastern India: A Study of Forms and Patronage 45

lesser ones at Sonari, Satdhara and Bhojpur. Similarly

the Dharmachakra-vihara of Saranatha was established
six kilometres north of Varanasi. The other viharas
being Ghositarama and Kukutarma at Kausambhi, the
Kalkarama donated by the branch Kalaka at Saketa and
the Viharas attached to Venuvana, Jinakamravana and
Maddaku-Chehi-Migadaya in the suburbs of Rajgriha32.
There are altogether four monasteries unearthed
at Lalitgiri, Two in Udayagiri, one at Langudi, three at
Ratnagiri. These sites are located in the hill slopes and the
landscape matches as referred in the Buddhist scriptures.
The interesting fact is that all these monasteries are
constructed centuries after the monuments be it stupa
or chaitya and have different nomenclature such as
Sri Chandraditya Mahavihra Arya Bikshu Samgha
(Lalitgiri),Sri Madhavpur Mahvihara Arya Bikhu Samgha
(Udayagiri-1), Simhaprastha Mahavihara (Udayagiri-2) and
Ratnagiri Mahavihara (Ratnagiri)33.
Almost all these monasteries followed as usual a
chauthasala type in quadrangle in plan 36 x 36 meter and
some in 29 x 29 meter consisting of a series of cells all
around with four running pillared verandahs and a central
courtyard. It has a porched entrance on its eastern side and
an exit on the southern side near to the western end. The
sanctum chamber is on the west. Some of the monasteries
are double storied. However, the monastery 2 at Udayagiri Fig. 3. Monasteries
has some unique features like pradakhina around the
shrine chamber, which has not been encountered in the
Two cells in the north-western side represent
other monasteries see Figure 3.
somewhat different formation having combined unit.
This monastery consists of monk cells arranged in the
Access is made for a room from the door of the other room
usual pattern like other monasteries i.e. monk cells, shrine
is inside facing east. These cells are also provided with
chamber, courtyard, drain and pylon etc. Here, the shrine
secret chamber 83.5 x 75 x 98.5 cm probably served for
chamber found on the middle end with circumambulatory
the purpose treasury. It is observed that this cell perhaps
path (pradakshina patha) around. The back or the
meant for the chief monk or the elderly one. The excavators
southern wall of the shrine chamber is divided by
has given a precise date that during 8th-12th century CE, the
projections like pancharatha pattern of Odishan temples.
monastery was in use.
An upper shrine chamber is provided just on the back
The monastery is double storied for which steps were
wall. The arrangement of the cells are made with two each
provided on the north-eastern corner. A water reservoir or
on both wings of the central shrine, three each in the east
a tank has been exposed on the south-western side of the
and the west while three in the south. The unique feature
monastery comparatively bigger in size then one found in
of the cells of this monastery is that secret chambers
monastery-1 of Lalitgiri. Its inner dimension is around 6.70
are provided inside the cells perhaps meant for esoteric
x 6.20 m while the depth is slightly more than 2 m. This
practices or keeping of valuables. Again, on the recess of
system of water reservoir is called “podhi” in Buddhist
the cells mostly a recess for keeping lamp and a nice the
literature often associated with Buddhist sites.
use of which perhaps meant for practicing meditation.
In the adjoining areas, in front of this monastery on
A significant architectural style introduced is the use of
its north-western side assemblage of votive stupas and a
long arches in the shape of vaulted passage particularly
massive Avalokitesvara image still found in-situ stands
noticed in formation of 2m high 1.44 m long and 1.70 m
over a ground primarily consisting of shrine zone. Little in
wide arches on the window part. One must appreciate the
a distance just on southern hill slope a kitchen complex is
excellence in mastery over architecture achieved by monk
also discovered34.
architects of this monastery.
46 Sunil Kumar Patnaik

Buddhist Art figurines found from Radhanagar presents a benchmark

in the study of Buddhist Art. The Buddha head, Lion
Indian art is an expression of Indian life and thought figure and other terracotta figurines of 1st-2nd century CE
attuned to its vast natural background and its socio- provides certain clue to study the early art tradition of
religious traditions. It is not exclusive or sectarian in the Odisha37. An important form is the lotus-flower (padma)
narrow sense of the term. Its style, technique or general which is employed decoratively and with great taste in
tenor has nothing to do with any particular religious the arrangement. The broad disc of the blown flower is
outlook. It is fed and fostered upon a vast store-house employed in all positions as a decoration. A medallion
of Indian traditions, symbols and designs. Buddhist art of such type was found from the Apsidal Temple site at
is meant popularly for those monuments and paintings Lalitgiri which is datable to Sunga-Kushana period. Also,
which have for the main purpose the edification such medallions are still found in the Stupa rock cut panel
or popularization of Buddhism. The earliest stone of Langudi. There are several railings with Lion copings
monuments in India, as discussed, dated to the Mauryan and beautiful ornamented lady figurines of stone with
period (320-180 BCE). Emperor Asoka was converted to the typical head gear (knot) is also reported from Langudi
Buddhist belief and was an immensely powerful patron. belonging to 1st century BCE /CE. The art of ancient Odisha
Early Indian Art is anionic and the Buddha does not appear of this period thus well represented like that of Sanchi
in anthropomorphic form till late first century BCE35. This or Bharhut and its continuation is also seen in the later
early phase of Indian Buddhist Art that manifests itself in monuments.
the Buddhist reliefs of Bharhut, Sanchi, Amaravati etc. Towards 2nd -3rd century CE, the terracotta objects
(from 2nd century BCE. to 1st century CE.), would reproduce recovered from Radhanagar Excavation (2010-13) represent
all these eight in periodical convention of the symbolic the continuity of Buddhist art which include Buddha
or Buddhist sculptures are the Persian pillar with bell head, Lion motif, trirtna symbols, Boddhi tree, terracotta
shaped capital which was adopted directly, can be seen serpents, elephants, Sri image, and other decorative
in the east Gateway at Sanchi. The bell capital frequently ornaments which all displayed in the recently organized
serves as a basis for one or more lions or elephants or for Tarapur site museum. This shows the continuity of
a religious symbol (wheel) when the pillar is considered Buddhist Art in this region although as discussed earlier,
as standing alone. If the pillar is used as a support in a there were constant interaction with Buddhist sites of
building, the bell capital serves as base for an abacus on other parts of India.
which turned towards the sides, winged figures of animals Afterwards, the monolithic Buddha images at Langudi
such as horses, gazelles, goats, lions or sitting elephants 2rd-3rd century CE appeared followed by Buddha and
are placed. This can remarkably be seen in the pillars of Boddhisattva images from 4th-5th century CE at Lalitgiri.
Sanchi, Ajanta, Bagh, Pitalkhora and Nasik etc. This tradition can very well be understood from Udayagiri
The region of Kalinga (Ancient Odisha) being one and Ratnagiri sites towards 7th -8th century onwards. This
of the cradle land of Buddhism also developed its own phenomenon was for the first time discussed here after
style of art starting from stone pillars, Yaksha and Yakshi close examination of the Buddhist images of India known
images from Bhubaneswar, Rock-cut Elephants at Dhauli so far.
and Kayama, railings, suchis, terracotta figurines, and The art works like representations of perforated
images recently discovered from Langudi, Radhanagar, panels, alternating with ghatas, dancing figures,
Lalitgiri and Aragarh all are dated from 3rd century bharavahakas, dotted arches and the decorative details
BCE to 5th century CE in its first phase36. The discovered like rosettes, lotus petals, purnaghatas, scrolls, dots,
monumental remains, images, terracotta figurines, gourde bands, and undulating figuration of half lotus - are
ornaments and sculptures are for the first time present a all found in the Buddhist monuments of Langudi, Lalitgiri,
chronology of early Buddhist art at par with the Mathura, Ratnagiri and Udayagiri. These were little later (around 7th
Gandhara and Saranath School of Art. century) developed profusely and more attractive details
So far, human representations in early Buddhist art depicted on the temple walls. Thus, the formative phase of
are represented with delicate and supple joined limbs, art traditions of early Odisha is reflected in the Buddhist
miserable calves and feeble muscles, light built slippery, Art as that of India.
eel-like, as that of today with an agreeable child like
naturalism. The other kind of representation is a long
head with full round face, large eyes and thick lips
which can be seen in the Buddhist panels. The terracotta
 Buddhist Monuments in South-Eastern India: A Study of Forms and Patronage 47

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