PREPARED BY: SIR BILAL ASLAM

“PHYSICAL QUANTITIES & MEASUREMENT # 1”

1. Define Physics and branches of physics.

Physics is a natural science that deals with the study of matter, energy, space, time, and their
interactions. It is concerned with the understanding of the fundamental principles of the universe and
the behavior of matter and energy in it.

There are some branches of physics are:

1. Classical Physics: This branch of physics deals with the study of macroscopic objects and their
interactions with each other. It includes classical mechanics, thermodynamics, and
electromagnetism.

2. Quantum Physics: This branch of physics deals with the study of subatomic particles and their
interactions. It includes quantum mechanics, quantum field theory, and quantum
electrodynamics.

3. Relativity: This branch of physics deals with the study of the properties of space and time. It
includes special relativity and general relativity.

4. Astrophysics: This branch of physics deals with the study of the properties and behavior of
objects in the universe. It includes the study of stars, galaxies, and other celestial objects.

5. Particle Physics: This branch of physics deals with the study of the fundamental particles that
make up the universe. It includes the study of subatomic particles such as electrons, protons,
and neutrons.

6. Condensed Matter Physics: This branch of physics deals with the study of the physical properties
of solids and liquids. It includes the study of materials such as metals, semiconductors, and
superconductors.

7. Biophysics: This branch of physics deals with the study of biological systems and processes using
physical methods. It includes the study of molecular structures, biological membranes, and
biological energy.

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 2. Write Importance of physics in daily life. OR Importance of Physics in Science Technology and
Society?

Physics is an essential science that has a significant impact on daily life, as well as science,
technology, and society. Here are some of the reasons why physics is important:
1. Advancements in Technology: Physics has led to many technological advancements that have
revolutionized the way we live our lives. For example, physics has contributed to the
development of computers, smartphones, medical equipment, renewable energy sources,
transportation systems, and much more.
2. Understanding Natural Phenomena: Physics helps us understand the natural phenomena that
occur around us, such as the movement of objects, the behavior of light, the properties of
materials, the structure of the universe, and much more.
3. Improving Healthcare: Physics has contributed to many advances in healthcare, such as X-rays,
MRIs, PET scans, radiation therapy, and much more.
4. Energy Production: Physics has played a crucial role in the development of renewable energy
sources such as solar, wind, and hydroelectric power.
5. Enhancing Communication: Physics has contributed to the development of communication
technologies such as radios, televisions, satellites, and the internet.

3. Write fundamental & derived units with their symbol and units

Fundamental Units:
 Length: meter (m)
 Mass: kilogram (kg)
 Time: second (s)
 Electric current: ampere (A)
 Temperature: kelvin (K)
 Amount of substance: mole (mol)
 Luminous intensity: candela (cd)
Derived Units:
 Area: square meter (m²)
 Volume: cubic meter (m³)
 Velocity: meter per second (m/s)
 Acceleration: meter per second squared (m/s²)
 Force: newton (N) = kilogram meter per second squared (kg·m/s²)
 Energy: joule (J) = newton meter (N·m) = kilogram meter squared per second squared
(kg·m²/s²)
 Power: watt (W) = joule per second (J/s) = kilogram meter squared per second cubed
(kg·m²/s³)
 Pressure: pascal (Pa) = newton per square meter (N/m²) = kilogram per meter per second
squared (kg/m·s²)
 Electric charge: coulomb (C) = ampere second (A·s)
 Electric potential: volt (V) = joule per coulomb (J/C) = kilogram meter squared per second
cubed per ampere (kg·m²/s³·A)

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 4. Define Significant Figures and write Rules for determining significant figures

Significant figures, also known as significant digits, are the digits in a number that carry meaning
regarding the accuracy and precision of the measurement.

Rules for determining significant figures are:

1. All non-zero digits are significant. For example, in the number 345, all three digits are significant.

2. Zeros between non-zero digits are significant. For example, in the number 204, both the 2 and
the 4 are significant.

3. Zeros to the left of the first non-zero digit are not significant. For example, in the number 0.005,
only the two 5s are significant.

4. Zeros to the right of the last non-zero digit are significant if there is a decimal point in the
number. For example, in the number 3.50, both the 3 and the 5 are significant.

5. Zeros to the right of the last non-zero digit may or may not be significant if there is no decimal
point in the number.

“KINEMATICS # 2”
1. Define rest and motion. Write type of motion with examples

Rest refers to the state of an object when it is not moving relative to its surroundings. The object is
stationary, and its position remains constant over time. For example, a parked car is at rest relative to
the road, or a book lying on a table is at rest relative to the surface of the table.

Motion, refers to the state of an object when it is changing its position relative to its surroundings. There
are different types of motion, which are:

1. Rotational motion: This is the type of motion in which an object rotates around a fixed axis, such
as a spinning top or a merry-go-round.

2. Oscillatory motion: This is the type of motion in which an object moves back and forth around a
fixed point, such as a pendulum swinging or a guitar string vibrating.

3. Circular motion: This is the type of motion in which an object moves in a circular path around a
fixed point, such as a planet orbiting around the sun or a ball spinning on a string.

4. Periodic motion: This is the type of motion in which an object repeats its motion after a fixed
time interval, such as the motion of a clock pendulum or the vibrations of a tuning fork.

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 Write difference between:

i. Distance and Displacement ii. Speed and Velocity iii. scalar & vector quantities

Distance Displacement
Distance does not decrease with time Distance can increase or decrease with time.
It is a scalar quantity. It is a vector quantity.
It never falls below the displacement value. It is either equal to or less than the value of
distance.
It is always positive. It can be positive, negative, or zero, depending on
the factors.

Speed Velocity
Speed is simply the rate of change of motion. Velocity is direction –aware and it is the rate of
change of position of an object.
Speed is a scalar quantity i.e, it has only Velocity is a vector quantity, i.e, it has both
magnitude. magnitude and direction.
Speed measures the distance traveled (d) over Velocity measures displacement (or change in
the change in time (∆t). position, ∆s) over the change in time (∆t).
Speed = Distance/time Velocity= Displacement /time

Scalar Vector
A scalar quantity has only magnitude, but no Vector quantity has both magnitude and
direction. direction.
Every scalar quantity is one-dimensional. Vector quantity can be one, two or three-
dimensional.
It changes with the change in their magnitude It changes with the change in their direction or
magnitude or both.
Scalar quantity cannot be resolved as it has Vector quantity can be resolved in any direction
exactly the same value regardless of direction using the sine or cosine of the adjacent angle.

Derive the equation S = Vit + 1⁄2 a t

To derive the equation S = Vit + 1/2at^2, we start with the definition of average velocity:

Average velocity = change in displacement / change in time

Therefore, change in displacement = average velocity x change in time

We can also write the equation for average velocity as:

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Average velocity = (initial velocity + final velocity) / 2

Solving for final velocity, we get:

Final velocity = 2 x average velocity - initial velocity

Now, using the equation of motion for constant acceleration:

S = Vit + 1/2at^2

We can substitute the equation for change in displacement and the equation for final velocity:

S = [(initial velocity + final velocity)/2] x t

S = [(initial velocity + (2 x average velocity - initial velocity))/2] x t

S = (initial velocity + average velocity) x t

Substituting the value of final velocity:

S = (initial velocity + (2 x average velocity - initial velocity)) / 2 x t

S = (2 x average velocity x t - initial velocity x t) / 2

S = Vit + 1/2at^2

ii. 2as = Vf2- Vi2

Vf = Vi + at

We can solve for time by rearranging this equation as:

t = (Vf - Vi) / a

Substituting this value of t in the equation for displacement:

s = Vit + 1/2at^2

We get:

s = Vi[(Vf - Vi) / a] + 1/2a[(Vf - Vi) / a]^2

Simplifying this equation, we get:

s = (Vf^2 - Vi^2) / 2a

Multiplying both sides by 2a, we get:

2as = Vf^2 - Vi^2

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 ” DYNAMICS # 3”

1. Define Force and Inertia, Dynamics, Friction, Coefficient of friction, uniform circular motion

Force: Force is an external influence that changes or tends to change the state of rest or motion of an
object. It can cause an object to accelerate, decelerate, or change its direction.

Inertia: Inertia is the tendency of an object to resist changes in its state of rest or motion. An object with
a greater mass has greater inertia.

Dynamics: Dynamics is the branch of mechanics that deals with the motion of objects and the forces
that cause the motion. It includes the study of motion, forces, energy, and momentum.

Friction: Friction is the force that opposes the relative motion of two surfaces that are in contact. It acts
in the opposite direction to the applied force and can cause the motion to slow down or stop.

Coefficient of friction: The coefficient of friction is a dimensionless quantity that represents the ratio of
the force of friction between two surfaces to the normal force pressing the surfaces together. It
depends on the materials and the conditions of the surfaces in contact.

Uniform circular motion: Uniform circular motion is a type of motion in which an object moves in a
circle at a constant speed. The object experiences a centripetal force that keeps it moving in a circular
path.

2. State Newton’s Laws of motion, derive F = ma, also give examples of first and third law.

Newton's Laws of Motion are:

1. First Law: An object at rest will remain at rest, and an object in motion will remain in motion at a
constant velocity, unless acted upon by an external force. This is also known as the law of
inertia.

2. Second Law: The acceleration of an object is directly proportional to the force applied on the
object and inversely proportional to its mass. The formula for this law is F = ma, where F is the
force applied, m is the mass of the object, and a is the acceleration produced.

3. Third Law: For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction. This means that when an
object exerts a force on another object, the second object exerts an equal and opposite force
back on the first object.

Derivation of F=ma:

We start with Newton's Second Law, which states that force is proportional to mass times acceleration,
or F = ma. If we multiply both sides of this equation by a small time interval, dt, we get:

F dt = m a dt

Dividing both sides by mass, we get:

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(F/m) dt = a dt

Taking the limit as dt approaches zero, we get:

lim dt->0 (F/m) dt = lim dt->0 a dt

which gives us:

F/m = a

or

F = ma

Examples of Newton's Laws:

First Law: A hockey puck on ice will continue to slide until it hits a wall or is stopped by friction. A book
on a table will not move unless someone pushes it.

Third Law: When a person jumps off a boat, the boat moves in the opposite direction with the same
force. A rocket ship exerts an equal and opposite force on the ground when it launches into space.

3 . Write the difference between mass and weight

Mass Weight
It is the measure of the amount of matter present It refers to the measure of the amount of force
a body. that acts on mass because of the pull of gravity.
Mass is the measure of inertia. Weigh is the measure of force.
It stays the same everywhere, irrespective of Weight will vary depending on the location.
location.
It can never be zero. It can be zero when no gravity is acting on it.

3. Define momentum. State and explain law of conservation of momentum.

Momentum is a physical quantity that measures the amount of motion an object has. It is defined as
the product of an object's mass and velocity:

Momentum = mass x velocity

The momentum of an object can be changed by applying an external force on it. According to
Newton's second law of motion, the force acting on an object is proportional to the rate of change
of its momentum, which can be mathematically expressed as:

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Force = rate of change of momentum

The law of conservation of momentum states that in a closed system, the total momentum of the
system remains constant if no external forces act on it. This means that if two or more objects
interact with each other in a closed system, the total momentum of the system before and after the
interaction remains the same.

For example, consider two billiard balls colliding with each other on a frictionless table. Before the
collision, each ball has a certain momentum based on its mass and velocity. During the collision, the
momentum of one ball is transferred to the other ball, causing both balls to change direction and
speed. However, the total momentum of the system (both balls together) remains the same before
and after the collision, as no external forces act on the system.

The law of conservation of momentum is a fundamental principle in physics that has numerous
applications in various fields, including mechanics, astronomy, and particle physics.

5. Derive the relation of Momentum in terms of force. (∆p = Ft)

Starting with Newton's second law of motion:

Force (F) = rate of change of momentum (dp/dt)

We can rearrange this equation to solve for the change in momentum (dp):

dp = F * dt

Integrating both sides with respect to time, we get:

∫dp = ∫F * dt

The left-hand side can be simplified as the change in momentum (∆p):

∆p = ∫F * dt

Using the definition of impulse (J) as the product of force and time:

J=F*t

We can substitute this into the equation above to get:

∆p = J

Therefore, the force applied over a certain amount of time is equal to the change in momentum:

∆p = Ft

6. Define Centripetal force & write factors on which centripetal Force depends, give examples. Define
Centrifugal force & give examples.

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Centripetal force is a force that acts on an object moving in a circular path, pulling it towards the center
of the circle. This force is always directed towards the center of the circle and is required to keep the
object moving in a circular path. The magnitude of the centripetal force depends on the mass of the
object, the speed at which it is moving, and the radius of the circular path.

The factors on which centripetal force depends are:

1. Mass of the object: The greater the mass of the object, the greater the centripetal force
required to keep it moving in a circular path.

2. Speed of the object: The greater the speed of the object, the greater the centripetal force
required to keep it moving in a circular path.

3. Radius of the circular path: The smaller the radius of the circular path, the greater the
centripetal force required to keep the object moving in a circular path.

Examples of centripetal force include:

1. A satellite orbiting the Earth: The centripetal force in this case is provided by the gravitational
force between the Earth and the satellite.

2. A car turning around a corner: The centripetal force in this case is provided by the frictional
force between the tires and the road.

Centrifugal force is often mistakenly believed to be a force that acts on an object moving in a circular
path, pushing it away from the center of the circle. However, centrifugal force is not a real force, but
rather an apparent force that arises from the inertia of an object moving in a circular path. It is simply
the tendency of an object in motion to continue moving in a straight line, rather than following a curved
path.

Examples of centrifugal force include:

1. A spinning top: As the top spins faster, it appears to be pushed outwards due to centrifugal
force.

2. A passenger in a car turning around a corner: The passenger may feel as though they are being
pushed to the side of the car, but this is actually due to the tendency of their body to continue
moving in a straight line.

7. Write Advantages of friction and Disadvantages of friction

Advantages of friction:

1. Traction: Friction provides the necessary grip or traction that enables us to walk, run, drive
vehicles, and use tools.

2. Heating: Friction can generate heat, which is useful in starting a fire, braking systems, and
machining processes.

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 3. Writing and drawing: Friction between a pen and paper surface allows us to write and draw.

4. Industrial applications: Friction is essential in various industrial processes, such as braking

systems, conveyor belts, and polishing surfaces.

Disadvantages of friction:

1. Wear and tear: Friction can cause wear and tear of machine parts, leading to decreased
efficiency and increased maintenance costs.

2. Wastage of energy: Friction results in the wastage of energy due to the production of heat,
which is not useful in most cases.

3. Loss of traction: Friction can cause loss of traction, leading to accidents and injuries, especially in
vehicles and sports.

4. Noise: Friction can produce unpleasant noise, which can be irritating and affect our quality of
life.

Write Ways to reduce Friction

1. Lubrication: Lubricating the surfaces that are in contact can reduce friction. Oils, greases, and
other lubricants are commonly used to reduce friction.

2. Polishing: Polishing the surfaces can also reduce friction. Smooth surfaces have less contact
between them, resulting in less friction.

3. Using ball or roller bearings: Ball or roller bearings are used to reduce friction in rotating
machinery. These bearings allow the surfaces to roll over each other with minimal friction.

4. Using low-friction materials: Using low-friction materials such as Teflon or graphite can reduce
friction. These materials have a low coefficient of friction, meaning that they have a low
resistance to motion.

5. Reducing surface area: Reducing the surface area in contact can reduce friction. For example, a
pencil point has less friction than a pencil eraser because it has a smaller surface area in contact
with the paper.

6. Smoothing surfaces: Smoothing surfaces can also reduce friction. Rough surfaces have more
contact between them, resulting in more friction. Smoothing the surfaces can reduce this
contact.

7. Adjusting pressure: Adjusting the pressure between the surfaces can reduce friction. For
example, reducing the weight on a sliding object can reduce friction.

8. Keeping surfaces clean: Keeping surfaces clean can reduce friction. Dirt and debris can increase
friction, so keeping surfaces clean can reduce friction.

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 TURNING EFFECT OF FORCES # 4”
1. Define Center of gravity, Equilibrium, Static Equilibrium, Dynamic Equilibrium

1. Center of gravity: The center of gravity (COG) is a point in an object where the total weight of
the object can be considered to be concentrated. It is the average position of the weight
distribution in an object. The location of the COG depends on the shape and distribution of mass
in an object.

2. Equilibrium: Equilibrium is a state in which an object is either at rest or moving with a constant
velocity. An object in equilibrium has a balance of forces acting on it. If the net force on an
object is zero, then it is in equilibrium.

3. Static Equilibrium: Static equilibrium is a state in which an object is at rest and the net force
acting on it is zero. In other words, the forces

4. Dynamic equilibrium: Dynamic equilibrium is a state where the net force acting on an object is
zero, resulting in no acceleration or change in motion.

2. Define Resolution of a vector. Find rectangular components of a vector with the help of trigonometric
ratios.

Resolution of a vector: The resolution of a vector involves breaking down a vector into its components
along two perpendicular axes. The two components obtained are called the rectangular components of
the vector.

Let's assume we have a vector A with magnitude 'a' and direction θ, measured from the positive x-axis in
a counterclockwise direction. To find the rectangular components of the vector A, we can use the
following trigonometric ratios:

cos θ = Adjacent/Hypotenuse = Ax/a sin θ = Opposite/Hypotenuse = Ay/a

where Ax and Ay are the rectangular components of the vector A along the x and y axes, respectively.

Therefore, the rectangular components of vector A are:

Ax = a cos θ Ay = a sin θ

3. How can magnitude of a vector be determined if its rectangular components are given also find its
direction?

The magnitude of a vector with rectangular components can be determined using the
Pythagorean theorem, which states that the square of the magnitude of a vector is equal
to the sum of the squares of its components. Mathematically, this can be expressed as:

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|v| = sqrt(vx^2 + vy^2)

where |v| is the magnitude of the vector and vx and vy are its rectangular components.

To find the direction of the vector, we can use trigonometry. We can use the arctangent
function to find the angle between the vector and the x-axis. Mathematically, this can be
expressed as:

theta = arctan(vy/vx)

where theta is the angle between the vector and the x-axis.

Note that we need to be careful about the quadrant of the vector, since the arctan
function only gives us an angle in the first or fourth quadrant. If the vector is in the
second or third quadrant, we need to add or subtract pi/2 radians (90 degrees) to get
the correct angle.

Once we have the angle between the vector and the x-axis, we can determine the
direction of the vector by either specifying the angle or by specifying the angle relative
to some reference direction, such as north or east

4. Define Torque, write factors on which torque depends also write its unit.

Torque is a measure of the ability of a force to cause rotational motion. It is defined as the cross product
of the force and the distance between the point of application of the force and the axis of rotation.
Mathematically, torque can be expressed as:

τ=r×F

The factors on which torque depends are:

1. Magnitude of the force: The magnitude of the torque is directly proportional to the magnitude
of the force applied.

2. Distance from the axis of rotation: The magnitude of the torque is directly proportional to the
distance from the axis of rotation to the point of application of the force. The greater the
distance, the greater the torque.

3. Angle between force and distance vectors: The magnitude of the torque is directly proportional
to the sine of the angle between the force vector and the distance vector.

The unit of torque is Newton-meter (N*m) in the SI system.

5. Define Couple, prove that moment of couple is the product of one of forces and arm of couple.

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A couple is a pair of forces of equal magnitude and opposite direction that act on a body but do not have
a net force or a net torque. Instead, they produce a pure rotational motion, causing the body to rotate
around a pivot point without translating.

To prove that the moment of a couple is the product of one of the forces and the arm of the couple, we
can use the definition of torque. Torque is the product of force and the perpendicular distance (or arm)
from the line of action of the force to the pivot point. Mathematically, this can be expressed as:

τ=Fxd

where τ is the torque, F is the force, and d is the distance or arm.

For a couple, there are two forces of equal magnitude and opposite direction, say F1 and F2. These
forces are parallel and have different lines of action, separated by a distance, say d. The torque due to
each force is:

τ1 = F1 x d τ2 = F2 x d

The total torque due to the couple is the sum of these two torques:

τ_total = τ1 + τ2 = F1 x d + F2 x d = (F1 + F2) x d

Since the forces are equal and opposite, we can write F1 = -F2. Substituting this into the above equation
gives:

τ_total = F1 x d + (-F1) x d = 0

Therefore, the net torque due to the couple is zero, and the couple only produces a pure rotational
motion. However, each force still has a torque, and we can see that the torque due to each force is
equal in magnitude and opposite in direction, resulting in a net torque of zero.

From the above equations, we can also see that the moment of the couple is:

M = F1 x d = F2 x d

This proves that the moment of the couple is the product of one of the forces and the arm of the couple,
as both forces have the same moment.

6. State and describe conditions of equilibrium?

The conditions of equilibrium are a set of principles in physics that describe the necessary conditions for
an object to be in a state of equilibrium, where the object is not accelerating and its net force and net
torque are both zero.

There are two types of equilibrium: static equilibrium, where the object is not moving, and dynamic
equilibrium, where the object is moving at a constant velocity.

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The conditions of static equilibrium are:

1. The net force acting on the object must be zero. This means that the vector sum of all the forces
acting on the object must be zero.

2. The net torque acting on the object must be zero. This means that the vector sum of all the
torques acting on the object must be zero.

The conditions of dynamic equilibrium are:

1. The net force acting on the object must be zero. This means that the vector sum of all the forces
acting on the object must be zero.

2. The net torque acting on the object must be zero. This means that the vector sum of all the
torques acting on the object must be zero.

3. The object must be moving at a constant velocity. This means that the object must not be
accelerating, which requires that the net force acting on the object be zero.

Explain three states of equilibrium with the help of examples also draw diagram.

Prepare from your copy.

“FORCE AND MATTER # 5”

1. Define Forces acting on solids, Extension of spring, Elasticity, Hooke's Law, Elastic Limit
Atmospheric Pressure, Hydraulic Machine?

Forces acting on solids: When a solid body is subjected to external loads or forces, the body
undergoes deformation, and internal forces develop in the body. These internal forces resist the
external forces and try to maintain the original shape of the body.

Extension of spring: When a force is applied to a spring, it undergoes deformation or elongation.

The amount of elongation or deformation of the spring is known as its extension.

Elasticity: Elasticity is the property of a material that enables it to regain its original shape and size
after the removal of the deforming force. The material is said to be elastic if it can undergo
deformation under stress and recover its original shape and size when the stress is removed.

Hooke's Law: Hooke's law states that the extension produced in a spring is proportional to the
applied force, provided the limit of proportionality is not exceeded.

This law can be expressed mathematically as F = kx

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 Elastic Limit: The elastic limit is the maximum stress or force that a material can withstand without
undergoing permanent deformation. If the stress or force applied to the material exceeds the elastic
limit, the material undergoes plastic deformation and does not regain its original shape and size
when the force is removed.

Atmospheric Pressure: Atmospheric pressure is the pressure exerted by the weight of the
atmosphere on the Earth's surface. It is measured in units of force per unit area, such as pounds per
square inch (psi) or pascals (Pa).

Hydraulic Machine: A hydraulic machine is a device that uses a fluid to transmit force and energy
from one point to another. It works on the principle of Pascal's law, which states that pressure
applied to a confined fluid is transmitted equally in all directions throughout the fluid. Hydraulic
machines are used in various applications, such as construction equipment, automotive braking
systems, and hydraulic presses.

Define Pressure, write its formula, unit, define its unit and explain it with the help of examples.

Pressure is defined as the force per unit area that is exerted on a surface. It is the measure of
the intensity of the force acting on a surface per unit area.
The formula for pressure is given as:
Pressure = Force / Area
The unit of pressure in the SI system is the Pascal (Pa), which is defined as 1 Newton per square
meter (N/m²).

The unit of pressure can be explained using the example of a person standing on the ground.
The weight of the person exerts a force on the ground, which is spread over the area of the
person's feet in contact with the ground. The pressure exerted by the person on the ground is
equal to the force of the person's weight divided by the area of their feet in contact with the
ground. If a person weighing 70 kilograms (kg) stands on the ground with both feet, each with
an area of 0.02 square meters (m²), the pressure exerted by the person on the ground is:
Pressure = Force / Area = 70 kg x 9.81 m/s² / (0.02 m² x 2) = 6867.6 Pa

Another example of pressure is the pressure exerted by a fluid, such as water or air, on a
surface. When water is stored in a container, the weight of the water exerts a force on the
bottom of the container, which is spread over the area of the bottom of the container. The
pressure exerted by the water on the bottom of the container is equal to the weight of the
water divided by the area of the bottom of the container. This pressure is what allows the water
to flow out of the container when a hole is opened at the bottom. Similarly, the pressure
exerted by the air in a tire on the inner surface of the tire wall allows the tire to maintain its
shape and support the weight of the vehicle.

3. Describe Pressure in fluids with the help of examples also write Factors affecting pressure.

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 Pressure in fluids, such as liquids and gases, can be described as the force per unit area
that is exerted by the fluid on the walls of its container or on any object immersed in it. The
pressure in a fluid is directly proportional to the density of the fluid and the depth or height of
the fluid column above the point of measurement.
For example, the pressure in a container filled with water increases as the depth of the
water column increases. At a given depth, the pressure in the water is equal in all directions
and is exerted on the walls of the container as well as on any objects submerged in the
water.
Factors affecting pressure in fluids include:
1. Density: The pressure in a fluid is directly proportional to its density. A more dense fluid
exerts a higher pressure than a less dense fluid at the same depth.
2. Depth: The pressure in a fluid increases with depth or height of the fluid column.
3. Gravity: The pressure in a fluid is also affected by the gravitational force. For example,
the pressure in a fluid column on the Moon is less than on the Earth due to the
difference in gravitational force.
4. Temperature: The pressure in a gas is directly proportional to its temperature. An
increase in temperature of a gas results in an increase in pressure, assuming the
volume and amount of gas remain constant.
5. Surface area: The pressure in a fluid is inversely proportional to the surface area over
which it is distributed. For example, the pressure exerted by a person standing on their
feet is higher than that exerted by the same person lying on their back.

4. State Pascal’s Principle and with the help of diagram write construction and working of Hydraulic
press.

Pascal's Principle states that when pressure is applied to a confined fluid, the pressure is transmitted
equally in all directions without loss. In other words, an increase in pressure applied to a confined fluid
at any point is transmitted undiminished to every part of the fluid and the walls of the container
containing the fluid.

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Construction:

A hydraulic press consists of a hydraulic cylinder, a hydraulic pump, a hydraulic fluid reservoir, and
control valves. The hydraulic cylinder is a piston and cylinder assembly that converts the hydraulic
pressure into a linear force. The hydraulic pump is used to pressurize the hydraulic fluid in the reservoir.
The control valves are used to regulate the flow of the hydraulic fluid.

Working:

The working of a hydraulic press can be explained as follows:

1. The hydraulic fluid is stored in a reservoir and is pressurized by a hydraulic pump.

2. The pressurized fluid is then directed to a hydraulic cylinder that contains a piston.

3. The hydraulic pressure acts on the piston, which generates a large force on the object to be
compressed or crushed.

4. The force is transferred from the piston to the object through a ram, which is connected to the
piston.

5. The force is applied over a large surface area, which results in high pressure on the object being
compressed.

6. The control valves are used to regulate the flow of hydraulic fluid and, therefore, the speed of
the piston.

“GRAVITATION # 6”

State Newton’s Law of Gravitation and derive F = G m1 m2/r2

Newton's Law of Gravitation states that every particle in the universe attracts every other particle
with a force that is directly proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to
the square of the distance between their centers.

Mathematically, this can be expressed as:

F = G (m1 * m2) / r^2

To derive the formula F = G m1 m2/r^2, we start with the law of gravitation and consider two
particles of masses m1 and m2 separated by a distance r. The force of attraction between them is
given by:

F = G (m1 * m2) / r^2

We can rearrange this equation to solve for G:

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 G = F * r^2 / (m1 * m2)

Substituting this expression for G back into the equation for the force of attraction, we get:

F = (F * r^2 / (m1 * m2)) * (m1 * m2) / r^2

Simplifying, we get:

F=F

F = G (m1 * m2) / r^2

2. Define: Gravitation, Gravitational Field, Field Force, Artificial Satellites, Geostationary orbit. Orbit,

Orbital Velocity.

1. Gravitation: Gravitation is the force of attraction that exists between any two objects in the
universe that have mass. The strength of this force is proportional to the masses of the objects
and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.

2. Gravitational Field: A gravitational field is a region of space around a massive object where a
force of attraction is exerted on any other object with mass. The strength of the gravitational
field is proportional to the mass of the object creating it and inversely proportional to the
square of the distance from the object.

3. Field Force: A field force is a force that exists in a region of space rather than at a specific point
or between two objects. Examples of field forces include the gravitational force, the electric
force, and the magnetic force.

4. Artificial Satellites: An artificial satellite is a man-made object that is placed in orbit around the
Earth or another celestial body. Artificial satellites are used for a variety of purposes, such as
communication, navigation, scientific research, and military surveillance.

5. Geostationary Orbit: A geostationary orbit is a circular orbit around the Earth that is at an
altitude of approximately 36,000 kilometers and has an orbital period of 24 hours. A satellite in a
geostationary orbit appears to remain stationary relative to an observer on the Earth's surface,
which makes it ideal for communication and broadcasting purposes.

6. Orbit: An orbit is the path that an object takes around another object under the influence of
gravity. Orbits can be elliptical or circular and can be described by their altitude, inclination, and
orbital period.

7. Orbital Velocity: Orbital velocity is the minimum velocity required for an object to maintain a
stable orbit around another object under the influence of gravity. The orbital velocity depends
on the mass of the object being orbited, the distance from the object, and the altitude of the
orbit.

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Write the difference between ‘g’ and ‘G’.

“G” “g”
It is a universal gravitational constant. It is acceleration due to gravity which determines
the gravitational force acting per unit mass.
It has same value everywhere in the universe. It has different values at different places.
It has value 6.673x10-11Nm2kg-2 It near earth’s surface has value 10ms-2 or Nkg-1.

4. Write characteristics Gravitational force.

1. Attractive force: Gravitational force is an attractive force, which means it pulls objects towards
each other. The force increases as the mass of the objects increases and decreases as the
distance between them increases.

2. Universal force: Gravitational force acts on all objects with mass, regardless of their size or
location in the universe. It is a universal force that affects everything from tiny particles to
galaxies.

3. Inverse square law: Gravitational force follows the inverse square law, which means that the
force decreases with the square of the distance between two objects. This means that if you
double the distance between two objects, the gravitational force between them becomes four
times weaker.

4. Always present: Gravitational force is always present and cannot be turned off or eliminated.
Even though its effect may be very small between objects with low mass or large distances, it is
still present and can be calculated.

Derive the formula for mass of earth. Determine mass of Earth by using Law of Gravitation.

F = G (m1 m2) / r^2

where F is the force of gravity, G is the gravitational constant, m1 and m2 are the masses of the two
objects, and r is the distance between them.

Let F be the force of gravity between the Earth and a satellite of mass m, and let r be the radius of
the Earth. Then we have:

F = G (mM) / r^2

where M is the mass of the Earth.

The acceleration due to gravity at the surface of the Earth, denoted by g, is related to the force of
gravity by:

F = mg

mg = G (mM) / r^2

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 M = (g r^2) / G

The value of the gravitational constant G is approximately 6.6743 x 10^-11 Nm^2/kg^2. The radius
of the Earth is approximately 6,371 km. The acceleration due to gravity at the surface of the Earth is
approximately 9.81 m/s^2.

M = (9.81 m/s^2) x (6,371 km)^2 / (6.6743 x 10^-11 Nm^2/kg^2)

M = 5.97 x 10^24 kg

Write uses of artificial satellites.

1. Communications: Many artificial satellites are used for communication purposes, including
television, telephone, and internet communications. Satellites in geostationary orbit can provide
constant coverage of a particular region of the Earth, making them ideal for communication
purposes.

2. Navigation: Navigation satellites, such as the Global Positioning System (GPS), are used for
location and tracking purposes. GPS satellites provide accurate positioning and timing
information to users on Earth.

3. Earth observation: Satellites equipped with sensors and cameras are used for observing and
monitoring the Earth's surface, atmosphere, and oceans. This data is used for environmental
monitoring, weather forecasting, and natural disaster management.

4. Scientific research: Artificial satellites are used for scientific research purposes, such as studying
the Earth's magnetic field, monitoring climate change, and exploring other planets and celestial
bodies.

Newton’s Law of Gravitation in the motion of satellite OR Derive expression for velocity of a satellite.

5. Newton's Law of Gravitation can be used to describe the motion of a satellite

around a central body, such as the Earth. The force of gravity acting on the
satellite is given by:
6. F = G * (m1 * m2) / r^2
7. where F is the force of gravity, G is the gravitational constant, m1 is the mass of
the central body (such as the Earth), m2 is the mass of the satellite, and r is the
distance between the two objects.
8. The motion of the satellite is governed by the balance between the force of
gravity and the centripetal force required to keep the satellite in its circular orbit.
The centripetal force is given by:
9. F = m * v^2 / r
10. where m is the mass of the satellite, v is the velocity of the satellite, and r is the
radius of the circular orbit.

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 11. Setting the force of gravity equal to the centripetal force, we get:
12. G * (m1 * m2) / r^2 = m * v^2 / r
13. Simplifying and solving for the velocity v, we get:
14. v = sqrt(G * m1 / r)
15. This expression shows that the velocity of the satellite in its circular orbit depends
on the mass of the central body and the radius of the orbit. The velocity required
for a satellite to remain in orbit is known as the orbital velocity.
16. The above expression can be used to calculate the orbital velocity of a satellite
around the Earth. For example, the orbital radius of a satellite in a low Earth orbit
(LEO) at an altitude of 400 km is approximately 6,800 km. Substituting the values
of the gravitational constant (G = 6.67430 × 10^-11 N·(m/kg)^2) and the mass of
the Earth (m1 = 5.972 × 10^24 kg), we get:
17. v = sqrt(6.67430 × 10^-11 N·(m/kg)^2 * 5.972 × 10^24 kg / 6,800,000 m)
18. v = 7.905 km/s
19. Therefore, the velocity of a satellite in a LEO around the Earth is approximately
7.905 km/

Derive expression for time period of a satellite

The time period of a satellite is the time it takes for the satellite to complete one orbit
around its central body. The time period is related to the radius of the orbit and the
mass of the central body. We can derive an expression for the time period of a satellite
using the following steps:

1. From Newton's Law of Gravitation, the force of gravity acting on the satellite is given by:

F = G * (m1 * m2) / r^2

where F is the force of gravity, G is the gravitational constant, m1 is the mass of the
central body, m2 is the mass of the satellite, and r is the radius of the orbit.

2. The centripetal force required to keep the satellite in its circular orbit is given by:

F = m * v^2 / r

where m is the mass of the satellite, v is the velocity of the satellite, and r is the radius of
the orbit.

3. Setting the force of gravity equal to the centripetal force, we get:

G * (m1 * m2) / r^2 = m * v^2 / r

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4. Rearranging the equation, we get:

v = sqrt(G * m1 / r)

5. The time period of the satellite is given by the time it takes for the satellite to complete
one orbit, which is equal to the circumference of the orbit divided by the velocity of the
satellite:

T = (2 * pi * r) / v

Substituting the expression for velocity derived in step 4, we get:

T = (2 * pi * r) / sqrt(G * m1 / r)

Simplifying the expression, we get:

T = 2 * pi * sqrt(r^3 / (G * m1))

This is the expression for the time period of a satellite in orbit around a central body. It
shows that the time period depends on the radius of the orbit and the mass of the
central body.

For example, the time period of a satellite in a low Earth orbit (LEO) at an altitude of 400
km is approximately 90 minutes. Substituting the values of the gravitational constant (G
= 6.67430 × 10^-11 N·(m/kg)^2) and the mass of the Earth (m1 = 5.972 × 10^24 kg),
we get:

T = 2 * pi * sqrt((6,800,000 m)^3 / (6.67430 × 10^-11 N·(m/kg)^2 * 5.972 × 10^24 kg))

T = 5,445 seconds = 90.75 minutes

Therefore, the time period of a satellite in a LEO around the Earth at an altitude of 400
km is approximately 90 minutes.

Derive expression for Critical Velocity a Satellite and calculate its value

The critical velocity of a satellite is the minimum velocity required for a satellite to
escape the gravitational pull of the central body and enter into an unbound trajectory.
We can derive an expression for the critical velocity using the following steps:

1. From Newton's Law of Gravitation, the force of gravity acting on the satellite is given by:

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 F = G * (m1 * m2) / r^2

where F is the force of gravity, G is the gravitational constant, m1 is the mass of the
central body, m2 is the mass of the satellite, and r is the distance between the two
objects.

2. The centripetal force required to keep the satellite in its circular orbit is given by:

F = m * v^2 / r

where m is the mass of the satellite, v is the velocity of the satellite, and r is the radius of
the orbit.

3. Setting the force of gravity equal to the centripetal force, we get:

G * (m1 * m2) / r^2 = m * v^2 / r

4. Rearranging the equation, we get:

v = sqrt(G * m1 / r)

This expression gives the velocity required for a satellite to remain in a circular orbit at a
radius r.

5. To calculate the critical velocity, we set the kinetic energy of the satellite equal to the
potential energy of the satellite in its circular orbit. The kinetic energy of the satellite is
given by:

KE = (1/2) * m * v^2

The potential energy of the satellite in its circular orbit is given by:

PE = - G * (m1 * m2) / r

Setting the kinetic energy equal to the potential energy, we get:

(1/2) * m * v^2 = - G * (m1 * m2) / r

Solving for v, we get:

v = sqrt((2 * G * m1) / r)

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This is the expression for the critical velocity of a satellite. It shows that the critical
velocity depends on the mass of the central body and the radius of the orbit.

For example, the critical velocity required for a satellite to escape the gravitational pull
of the Earth at an altitude of 400 km is approximately 11.2 km/s. Substituting the values
of the gravitational constant (G = 6.67430 × 10^-11 N·(m/kg)^2) and the mass of the
Earth (m1 = 5.972 × 10^24 kg), we get:

v = sqrt((2 * 6.67430 × 10^-11 N·(m/kg)^2 * 5.972 × 10^24 kg) / (6,800,000 m +

6,378,137 m))

v = 11.186 km/s

Therefore, the critical velocity required for a satellite to escape the gravitational pull of
the Earth at an altitude of 400 km is approximately 11.2 km/s.

“PROPERTIES OF MATTER # 7”
1. Define, Matter, Brownian motion, and Kinetic Molecular Model of Matter.

Matter: Matter refers to anything that occupies space and has mass. It is the physical substance that
makes up everything around us, including solids, liquids, and gases. Matter is made up of tiny particles
called atoms and molecules, which are in constant motion.

Brownian Motion: Brownian motion is the random movement of microscopic particles in a fluid, such as
water or air. This movement is caused by the collision of the particles with the surrounding molecules of
the fluid.

Kinetic Molecular Model of Matter: The kinetic molecular model of matter is a scientific theory that
explains the behavior of matter in terms of the motion of its constituent particles. According to this
model, matter is composed of small particles (atoms, molecules, or ions) that are in constant motion.

Write Physical properties of solids, Liquids & Gases.

Solids:
1. Definite shape

2. High density

3. Low compressibility

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 4. Rigid

5. High melting and boiling points

Liquids:
1. Indefinite shape

2. Lower density than solids

3. Moderate compressibility

4. Fluidity

5. Moderate melting and boiling points

Gases:
1. Indefinite shape and volume

2. Low density

3. High compressibility

4. Fluidity

5. Low melting and boiling points

Pressure - volume relationship in gases (The results of a Boyles experiment).

The pressure-volume relationship in gases is known as Boyle's law, named after the
British scientist Robert Boyle who first described it in the mid-17th century. Boyle's law
states that at a constant temperature, the pressure of a gas is inversely proportional to
its volume. This can be expressed mathematically as:

P ∝ 1/V

where P is the pressure of the gas and V is its volume.

Boyle's law can be demonstrated through a simple experiment. A gas is placed in a

closed container, and the pressure and volume of the gas are measured. The container is
then compressed or expanded, and the pressure and volume are measured again. If the
temperature of the gas is kept constant, the product of pressure and volume remains
constant.

For example, if the pressure of a gas is doubled at a constant temperature, its volume
will be halved. Similarly, if the pressure of a gas is halved, its volume will double. This is

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because as the pressure increases, the gas particles are forced closer together, and the
volume they occupy decreases.

Boyle's law has many practical applications, including in the design of engines,
refrigeration systems, and other mechanical devices. It is also used in medical devices
such as ventilators, where it is used to regulate the pressure and volume of the air being
delivered to the patient.

4. State Boyle's Law and write applications “Boyle's law.

Boyle's Law states that at a constant temperature, the volume of a fixed mass of gas is inversely
proportional to its pressure. Mathematically, it can be expressed as:
PV = k
Applications of Boyle's Law:
1. Scuba diving: Boyle's Law is used in scuba diving to calculate the volume of air that a
diver needs to breathe at a given depth. As the pressure increases with depth, the
volume of air in the scuba tank decreases. Boyle's Law can be used to calculate the
amount of air that needs to be compressed into the tank at the surface, in order to
provide the required amount of air at depth.
2. Gas storage: Boyle's Law is used in the storage of gases in containers such as propane
tanks or compressed air tanks. The pressure of the gas inside the container is directly
related to the amount of gas that can be stored at a given volume. By compressing the
gas, more of it can be stored in a smaller space.
3. Refrigeration systems: Boyle's Law is also used in refrigeration systems to compress
and expand gases. As a gas is compressed, its temperature increases. By allowing the
compressed gas to expand rapidly, its temperature can be decreased, which is used to
cool the surrounding environment.
4. Internal combustion engines: Boyle's Law plays a role in the functioning of internal
combustion engines. When fuel is injected into the engine cylinder, it is compressed by
the piston, which increases the pressure and temperature of the gas. This causes the
gas to expand rapidly, which drives the piston and generates the power that moves the
vehicle.

“ENERGY SOURCES & TRANSFER OF ENERGY # 8”

Define, Energy, Elastic potential energy, Chemical potential energy, Law of Conservation of Energy,

Power, and Efficiency.

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 Energy: Energy is the ability to do work. It can be defined as the capacity of a physical system to
perform work.

Elastic potential energy: Elastic potential energy is the energy stored in a stretched or compressed
elastic material, such as a spring or a rubber band. When the material is released, this stored energy
is converted into kinetic energy.

Chemical potential energy: Chemical potential energy is the energy stored in the chemical bonds
between atoms and molecules. It is the energy that is released or absorbed during a chemical
reaction.

Law of Conservation of Energy: The law of conservation of energy states that energy cannot be
created or destroyed, it can only be transformed from one form to another. The total amount of
energy in a closed system remains constant.

Power: Power is the rate at which work is done or energy is transferred. It is defined as the amount
of work done or energy transferred per unit time. The SI unit of power is watt (W).

Efficiency: Efficiency is the ratio of output work or energy to input work or energy. It is a measure of
how effectively a system converts input energy into output energy. The efficiency of a system can be
expressed as a percentage, with 100% efficiency meaning that all of the input energy is converted
into output energy without any loss.

Define work, derive formula for work and write its unit.

Work is the transfer of energy that results from the application of a force over a distance.
Mathematically, work can be defined as:

Work = Force x Distance x Cos𝜃

The formula for work can be simplified when the force is constant and applied in the same direction as
the motion, which is the case for many common situations. In this case, the formula for work becomes:

Work = Force x Distance

The unit of work is the joule (J).

Define K. E. Derive the equation of K.E = mv2

Kinetic energy (K.E.) is the energy possessed by an object due to its motion. The kinetic energy of an
object is dependent on its mass and its velocity.

Work (W) = F x d

If the force is applied in the same direction as the displacement, then the work done can also be
expressed as the change in kinetic energy of the object:

Work (W) = Change in Kinetic Energy (ΔK.E.)

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 F x d = ΔK.E.

Now, let's consider an object of mass m moving with a velocity v. The kinetic energy of the object
can be calculated as follows:

K.E. = 1/2 x m x v^2

where 1/2 is a constant factor that arises from the integration of force over displacement.

F x d = ΔK.E.

F x d = 1/2 x m x v^2

v^2 = 2F/m x d

K.E. = 1/2 x m x v^2 = 1/2 x m x (2F/m x d) = F x d = W

K.E. = 1/2 x m x v^2

This equation shows that the kinetic energy of an object is directly proportional to the square of its
velocity and its mass.

Define Gravitational P. E. Derive P.E = mgh

Gravitational potential energy (P.E.) is the energy possessed by an object due to its position in a
gravitational field. It is defined as the amount of work required to move an object from one position
to another position in a gravitational field.

To derive the equation for gravitational potential energy, let's consider an object of mass m placed
at a height h above the ground. The object has a certain amount of potential energy due to its
position in the Earth's gravitational field.

P.E. = Work done to lift the object from the ground to height h

F=mxg

where m is the mass of the object and g is the acceleration due to gravity.

Work = Force x Distance

Work = m x g x h

P.E. = Work done = m x g x h

Weight (W) = m x g

P.E. = m x g x h = W x h

P.E. = mgh

where m is the mass of the object, g is the acceleration due to gravity, and h is the height at which
the object is placed.

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Describe Wind Energy & write its Applications.

Wind energy is a renewable form of energy that is harnessed by using the power of wind to
generate electricity. Wind turbines are used to capture the energy of the wind and convert it into
electrical energy.

Applications of wind energy:

1. Electricity generation: Wind turbines are used to generate electricity, which can be used to
power homes, businesses, and other infrastructure. Wind energy is particularly useful in remote
areas where there is no access to the power grid.

2. Water pumping: Windmills can be used to pump water from wells and other sources. This is
particularly useful in areas where there is no access to electricity.

3. Agriculture: Wind energy can be used to power agricultural machinery and equipment, such as
irrigation pumps, grain dryers, and feed grinders.

4. Transportation: Wind energy can be used to power sailboats and other forms of transportation
that rely on wind power.

5. Disaster relief: In the aftermath of natural disasters such as hurricanes and earthquakes, wind
turbines can be used to provide emergency power to affected areas.

6. Research and development: Wind energy research and development is a growing field, with
scientists and engineers working to improve the efficiency and effectiveness of wind turbines, as
well as exploring new ways to harness wind energy.

Write the difference between ‘K.E’ and ‘P.E’.

Kinetic Energy Potential Energy

It is the energy possessed by a virtue of its It is the energy possessed by a virtue of its
motion. position.
Kinetic energy can be transferred from one Potential energy cannot be transferred.
moving object to another.
Kinetic Energy = ½ mv2 where m = mass and Potential Energy = mgh, where m = mass,
v = velocity. g = acceleration and h = height
Environment impacts Kinetic Energy and is Potential Energy is not influenced by the
relative to the environment. environment.

Write the difference between Renewable Energy Source & Non-Renewable Sources.

Renewable Energy Source Non-Renewable Sources

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 There is no depletion in them with continuous These get depleted with continuous
consumption. consumption.
In order to harvest renewable energy, the cost In order to harvest non-renewable resources,
of infrastructure is very high. the cost of infrastructure is low and cost-
effective.
It requires a huge area for wind farms, etc. It requires a smaller area, comparatively.
These emit low carbon and thus have a low These emit comparatively higher carbon and
carbon footprint. thus have a higher carbon footprint.

“THERMAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER # 9”

1. Define: Heat capacity, Heat of vaporization, Thermal Expansion, Co-efficient of linear expansion,

Co- efficient of volume expansion, Real Expansion, Apparent Expansion.

1. Heat capacity: Heat capacity is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of a
substance by one degree Celsius. It is expressed in units of joules per degree Celsius (J/°C) or
calories per degree Celsius (cal/°C).

2. Heat of vaporization: Heat of vaporization is the amount of heat required to convert a

substance from a liquid to a gas at a constant temperature and pressure. It is expressed in units
of joules per mole (J/mol) or calories per gram (cal/g).

3. Thermal expansion: Thermal expansion is the increase in size of a substance due to an increase
in temperature. This occurs because the heat causes the particles in the substance to vibrate
more, which causes them to take up more space.

4. Coefficient of linear expansion: The coefficient of linear expansion is a measure of how much a
material expands when heated. It is defined as the fractional increase in length per degree
Celsius of temperature increase.

5. Coefficient of volume expansion: The coefficient of volume expansion is a measure of how

much a material expands when heated. It is defined as the fractional increase in volume per
degree Celsius of temperature increase.

6. Real expansion: Real expansion refers to the actual increase in length, area, or volume of a
substance due to thermal expansion.

7. Apparent expansion: Apparent expansion refers to the increase in length, area, or volume of a
substance as measured by an instrument such as a thermometer or a ruler. This measurement
may not accurately reflect the actual expansion of the substance, as it may be affected by the
instrument's own expansion properties.

2. Write the difference between:

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i. Heat and Temperature

ii. Heat of fusion and heat of vaporization

iii. Evaporation and Boiling

Heat Temperature
It refers to the amount of energy present in a It is the measure of the heat’s intensity
body
It is the total kinetic and potential energy It is the average kinetic energy of the molecules
which the molecules in an object contain present in an object
The heat has the ability to do work We can use it to measure the degree of heat
It flows from a hotter object to a cooler object It rises when we heat it and falls when we cool
it

Heat of fusion Heat of vaporization

Heat of fusion is the amount of heat required while heat of vaporization is the amount of
to change a substance from a solid to a liquid at heat required to change a substance from a
its melting point liquid to a gas at its boiling point.
heat of fusion involves changing the state of a heat of vaporization involves changing the state
substance from solid to liquid, of a substance from liquid to gas.
measured in joules per gram (J/g) or calories measured in joules per gram (J/g) or calories
per gram (cal/g). per gram (cal/g).
It is specific heat values of a substance. It is specific heat values of a substance.

Evaporation Boiling
It is the process of changing liquid into vapor. It is a process in which the vapor pressure of
the liquid becomes equal to its surrounding
pressure and the liquid changes into a vapor.
It takes place below the boiling point It takes place above the temperature at which
temperature. evaporation takes place.
It is a surface phenomenon. It means it takes It takes place from the whole liquid mass.
place on the surface of the liquid.
In evaporation, the liquid does not form In this process liquid forms bubbles which rise
bubbles. upwards.

Define thermometer. How many scales to measure temperature.

A thermometer is a device used to measure temperature. It works by detecting changes in a material's

thermal properties, such as its expansion or contraction, as its temperature changes. The most common

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type of thermometer is a liquid-in-glass thermometer, which uses a liquid, such as mercury or alcohol, to
measure temperature.

There are three commonly used scales to measure temperature:

1. Celsius (°C)

2. Fahrenheit (°F)

3. Kelvin (K)

Define Specific heat capacity write its formula, unit, give examples.

Write factors on which heat capacity depends & write effects due to large specific heat of water.

Specific heat capacity, also known as specific heat, is the amount of heat energy required to raise the
temperature of one unit of mass of a substance by one degree Celsius (or one Kelvin). It is represented
by the symbol "c" and is measured in units of joules per kilogram per degree Celsius (J/kg°C) or calories
per gram per degree Celsius (cal/g°C).

The formula for specific heat is: Q = mcΔT

Examples of specific heat capacity are:

 The specific heat capacity of water is 4.18 J/g°C, which means it takes 4.18 joules of heat energy
to raise the temperature of 1 gram of water by 1°C.

 The specific heat capacity of iron is 0.45 J/g°C, which means it takes 0.45 joules of heat energy
to raise the temperature of 1 gram of iron by 1°C.

Factors on which heat capacity depends include:

1. Mass: The heat capacity of a substance is directly proportional to its mass.

2. Nature of the substance: The heat capacity of a substance depends on its chemical composition
and structure.

3. Temperature: The heat capacity of a substance changes with temperature, but it is generally
assumed to be constant over a small temperature range.

Effects due to large specific heat of water:

1. Water helps to regulate temperature: Water's high specific heat capacity helps to regulate
temperature in the environment, which is important for the survival of many organisms.

2. Water moderates climate: The oceans act as a heat sink, absorbing excess heat energy from the
atmosphere during the day and releasing it at night, which helps to moderate the Earth's
climate.

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 3. Water has a high heat of vaporization: Water has a high heat of vaporization, which means it
takes a large amount of energy to evaporate water. This property helps to cool the body
through sweating.

5. Define Heat of fusion. Describe experiment of conversion Ice (Solid) into Water liquid.

Heat of fusion is the amount of heat energy required to change a substance from a solid to a liquid at its
melting point without changing its temperature. It is also called the latent heat of fusion.

To convert ice (solid) into water (liquid), we need to provide heat energy to overcome the
intermolecular forces of attraction between the water molecules in the solid state. This can be done by
conducting the following experiment:

1. Take some ice cubes in a container and measure their mass using a balance.

2. Pour the ice cubes into a beaker and place the beaker on a hot plate.

3. Heat the beaker slowly, stirring the ice constantly to ensure that it melts evenly.

4. Continue heating until all the ice has melted and the temperature of the water has reached 0°C.

5. Measure the mass of the water using a balance and record the amount of heat energy supplied
to the ice to melt it.

6. Calculate the heat of fusion of ice by dividing the amount of heat energy supplied by the mass of
ice melted.

Define evaporation, write factors which influencing surface evaporation.

Evaporation is the process by which a liquid changes into a gas or vapor at a temperature below its
boiling point.

The factors that influence surface evaporation are:

1. Temperature: As the temperature of the liquid increases, the kinetic energy of the liquid
molecules also increases, leading to more frequent collisions and more molecules escaping from
the surface to enter the air.

2. Surface area: The larger the surface area of the liquid, the more molecules will be exposed to
the air, leading to a higher rate of evaporation.

3. Humidity: The amount of moisture already present in the air affects the rate of evaporation. If
the air is already saturated with moisture, then the rate of evaporation will be slower.

4. Wind speed: The movement of air over the surface of the liquid carries away the vapor that is
being produced, creating a lower pressure above the liquid surface, which in turn increases the
rate of evaporation.

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 5. Atmospheric pressure: A decrease in atmospheric pressure lowers the boiling point of a liquid,
making it easier for the liquid to evaporate.

6. Nature of the liquid: The intermolecular forces of attraction between the molecules of a liquid
affect its rate of evaporation. Liquids with weaker intermolecular forces, such as ethanol,
evaporate more quickly than liquids with stronger intermolecular forces, such as water.

Define thermal expansion and derive the relation, ΔL = α L Δ T

Thermal expansion refers to the increase in size or volume of a material due to an increase in its
temperature. When a material is heated, the kinetic energy of its molecules increases, causing them to
move more rapidly and take up more space.

Consider a rod of length L at a temperature T. Let the temperature increase by ΔT, causing the rod to
expand by ΔL.

The increase in length ΔL is proportional to the original length L, the change in temperature ΔT, and a
constant of proportionality α:

ΔL ∝ LΔT

where α is the coefficient of linear expansion.

ΔL = α L ΔT

Define volumetric expansion and derive the relation Δ V = β V Δ T

Volumetric expansion refers to the increase in volume of a material due to an increase in its
temperature. The coefficient of volume expansion, denoted by β, is a measure of how much a material
expands or contracts per unit volume when its temperature changes by one degree Celsius.

Consider a solid block of volume V at a temperature T. Let the temperature increase by ΔT, causing the
volume to increase by ΔV.

The increase in volume ΔV is proportional to the original volume V, the change in temperature ΔT, and a
constant of proportionality β:

ΔV ∝ VΔT

where β is the coefficient of volume expansion.

Introducing a constant of proportionality, we get:

ΔV = β V ΔT

9. Write applications and consequences of thermal expansion.

Applications of thermal expansion:

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 1. Bimetallic strips: Bimetallic strips are used in thermostats and thermometers to detect changes
in temperature. A bimetallic strip is made of two metals with different coefficients of thermal
expansion, which bend when heated or cooled.

2. Expansion joints: Expansion joints are used to absorb the thermal expansion of pipes, bridges,
and buildings, preventing damage or collapse due to thermal stress.

3. Railroad tracks: Railroad tracks are constructed with gaps between the rails to allow for thermal
expansion and contraction as temperatures change. This prevents the tracks from buckling or
warping in extreme temperatures.

4. Thermometers: A liquid-in-glass thermometer works based on the principle of thermal

expansion of liquids. As the temperature increases, the volume of the liquid inside the
thermometer expands, and the height of the liquid in the calibrated tube changes.

Consequences of thermal expansion:

1. Warping and buckling of materials: If materials are not designed with thermal expansion in
mind, they can warp, buckle, or crack when heated or cooled.

2. Leaks in pipes: If pipes are not allowed to expand and contract with temperature changes, they
may develop leaks or cracks.

3. Stresses in structures: Thermal expansion and contraction can cause stresses in structures,
leading to damage over time.

4. Inaccurate measurements: If thermal expansion is not accounted for in measurements, it can

lead to inaccuracies in measurements and calculations.

5. Maintenance issues: Maintenance of structures and machinery must account for thermal
expansion and contraction, which can increase the complexity and cost of maintenance.

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