Bahir Dar University

Humanities Faculty

Department of English Language and Literature

Postgraduate Program

Course: Issues in Language Teaching, Testing, Curriculum Development and

Material Preparation (TEFL 703)

A Term Paper on “Learning Styles & Strategies and Autonomous

Learning”

By Megbaru Motbaynor

ID No. BDU1402306

Submitted to: Abiy Yigzaw (Professor)

Kassie Shifere (PhD, Assoc. Prof.)

February 2022

Bahir Dar, Ethiopia

Table of Contents

Part One: Learning Styles and Strategies

1.1. History of Learning Style and Strategy -----------------------------------------------------------1

1.2. Definitions of Learning Styles and Strategies ---------------------------------------------------2
1.3. Theories/Models of Learning Styles in Language Teaching ----------------------------------3
1.4. Classifications of Learning Styles and Strategies------------------------------------------------4
1.4.1 Classifications of Learning Styles --------------------------------------------------------4
1.4.2 Classification of Learning Strategies-----------------------------------------------------6
1.5. Application of Learning Styles in Language Classroom----------------------------------------8
1.6. Implications of Learning Styles for Teaching and Learning-----------------------------------9
Conclusion--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------9
References -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------10

Part Two: Autonomous Learning -------------------------------------------------------------11

2.1. History of Autonomous Learning--------------------------------------------------------------------11

2.2. Definitions of Autonomous Learning----------------------------------------------------------------11
2.3. Development of Autonomous Learning to Language Teaching---------------------------------12
2.4. Kinds of Autonomous Learning----------------------------------------------------------------------14
2.5. Principles of Autonomous Learning-----------------------------------------------------------------15
2. 6. Application of Autonomous Learning in Language Classroom---------------------------------16
2.6.1. Learners‟ Role----------------------------------------------------------------------------------16
2.6.2. Teacher‟s Role----------------------------------------------------------------------------------16
2.7. Challenges of Implementing Autonomous Learning----------------------------------------------18
Conclusion-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------19
References ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------20
 1

Part One: Learning Styles and Strategies

1. History of Learning Style and Strategy

The idea of the term “learning style” was first recognized as early as 334 BC by Aristotle, who
believed that each child possessed specific talents and skills (Haswell, 2017). Also Mbaegbu
(2012) cited Sinatara (1982) to trace the origin of learning style as far as 450 B.C. in the middle
of 5th century, when the physician Hippocrates just added to the ancient Greek insight as
personality type. Through time, researchers like Vygotsky (1978) and Piaget began forming
their own learning theories. Vygotsky believes that social learning precedes a child‟s
development because a child‟s development stems from social interactions. For Vygotsky,
therefore, a child‟s specific environment will influence how the child thinks and what the child
thinks about, although Piaget (a psychologist) believed that a child‟s development is influenced
by his or her own independent experiences, which allow the child to construct his or her own
knowledge.

This concept (learning style) was introduced in the field of psychology as cognitive style (Feng,
et al, 2019). Once different ideas were developed on how children learn, various theories were
then developed on the different types of learning styles that a child possesses. Among the mostly
cited and acknowledged theories are those developed by Kolb (1984), Honey and Mumford
(1986), and Fleming (1987).

Kolb (1984) explained “different people naturally prefer a certain single different learning style.”
He believed that our individual learning styles emerge due to our genetics, life experiences, and
the demands of our current environment. Fleming (1987), a teacher and theorist in learning
styles, developed an acronym, VARK (Visual, Aural, Reading/Writing, and Kinesthetic)
referring to the instructional preference in which students, or people in society prefer to
take in and give out information.

Another thing to consider is learning strategy. Although the single term „strategy‟ is said to be
originated from the ancient Greek word „strategia‟ (which means steps or actions taken for the
purpose of winning a war) and had a warlike meaning, now strategia has fortunately fallen away.
But the control and goal directedness remain in the modern version of the word (Oxford, 1990).
 2

The concept of the combined term „learning strategy‟ was used by Bruner (1956) as cognitive
strategies (Feng, Iriarte and Valencia, 2019). And later, it came to the field of second language
literature as “language learning strategies” by Rubin (1975).

2. Definitions of Learning Styles and Strategies

Learning style has been defined by various researchers and writers in the field of education and
psychology. For example, Thome (2000) defined learning style as a consistent pattern of
behaviour with a certain amount of variability. It is the way individuals concentrate on, absorb
and retrain new and difficult information or skills. He further explained that when people
learn, they use learning styles that are uniquely their own but make adjustments,
depending on the nature of the task and the teaching styles being used. Furthermore, no
one type of learning style is better or worse than any other type. Each type occurs at a
different frequency in the general population but some types are therefore more common.

Also Reinders (2010) put “Learning styles, based on work done in cognitive psychology and
general education, refer to ways in which learners differ in their learning preferences. This
information may be used by teachers to match teaching styles with individuals‟ learning styles,
and to ensure that a range of learning styles is provided for.” Here, every learner is assumed to
have varied learning preferences, and teachers need to adjust their teaching to be in harmony
with the learner‟s learning style.

Learning styles are individual‟s preferred ways of responding (cognitively and behaviourally) to
learning tasks which change depending on the environment or context. They can affect a
person„s motivation and attitude to learning, and shape their performance (Armstrong et al.,
2012, p.451-454). The above mentioned definition of learning styles relates the construct to
behaviorism because the notion of external influence is fundamental process of classical and
operant conditioning. However, learning style and cognitive style are quite different: the first
difference is that the cognitive styles are associated with the cognitive processing of information
while learning styles are the response to the learning tasks. It depicts mind-behavior distinction.

Learning style theorists, cited in Farid and Abbasi (2014), agreed upon that learning styles are
the preferred way(s) of learning but the problem lies in the „preferred ways.‟
 3

What we should note, as in Ramadan (2020), is that learning style and strategy are distinct.
Learning styles refer to the general approaches that students use in acquiring a new language or
in learning any other subject. Mbaegbu (2012) points out that learning style approach to learning
emphasizes the fact that individuals perceive and process information in their very different
ways.

Learning strategies, however, are specific ways in which students learn, remember information,
and study for tests. They (the strategies) refer to the actions and behaviors that depend greatly on
their own learning styles. This idea supports the definition given by Oxford (1990) as learning
strategies are actions, behaviors, or specific techniques that students use, often intentionally, to
improve learning, acquisition, and use of a second language. Salam et al (2020) also defined
learning strategies as steps taken by learners to improve their learning process.

3. Theories/Models of Learning Styles in Language Teaching

Since learning style came popular in 1970s and 1980s, a handful of models and theories of
learning styles were developed. For example, David Kolb‟s model of experiential learning
(1984) described four learning styles: Accommodating ("hands-on" types, learning from real
experience), Converging (dealing better with abstract ideas, but ending up with concrete results),

Diverging (using personal experiences and practical ideas to formulate theories), and

Assimilating (working with abstract concepts and developing new theories).

Honey and Mumford's Learning Styles (1986), Anthony Gregorc's Mind Styles (Visual, Auditory
and Kinesthetic or VAK style), American Educationalists‟ learning style in 1980s (as cognitive,
affective and psychological), Dunn and Dunn (1993) Learning Style Dimensions
(Environmental, Emotional, Sociological, Physiological, and Psychological) can also be
mentioned as some of the other models, with each having their own assumptions. When more
learning style models are modified and considered in detail, the teaching methods and teaching
materials should also be in line with the learner‟s style of learning.

Although many different Learning Style models were developed, even the most popular ones
have now been called into question. The main criticisms are that they are unscientific, inflexible,
and ineffective in practice.
 4

After 1970s and 1980s, learners have become the main figures in language classrooms where
learning tasks have been conceptualized and approached from the learners‟ viewpoint. Due to a
shift from focusing on teachers and teaching to learners and learning, learning strategies became
center of attraction to be studied by many researchers such as Rubin (1975, Oxford (1990),
O‟Malley and Chamot (1990), Cohen (1998), Nunan (2001), Salam et al (2020), etc.

4. Classifications of Learning Styles and Strategies

4.1. Classification of Learning Styles

Although various researchers and theorists classified learning styles into quite different
categories, now a more recent and mostly cited classification of learning style and explanation
has been suggested as follows by Mohammed Ramadan (2020) https://elttguide.com/learning-
strategies-learning-styles/ and Megan (2021) https://blog.bjupress.com/blog/
 5

1. Visual Learners

Visual learners need to see things to fully understand them. They learn best from visual objects
such as diagrams, charts, even videos, etc. They prefer to write things down.

2. Auditory or Musical Learners

They learn mainly through listening so they learn best through discussions and talking, from a
lecture. They benefit most from reading texts aloud and using a tape recorder.

3. Physical or Kinesthetic or Tactile Learners

Learners here learn through using their bodies, hands, and sense of touch. They need to touch
and move. They can use their muscles well so they can be used in playing, tidying, cleaning the
board, collecting activity books, etc. They learn best through using their hands making things,
fitting things together, or taking them apart so hands-on activities are ideal to help those students
learn best. Here, writing activity can also be considered.

4. Social or Interpersonal Learners

They prefer to learn in groups or with other people, for example quizzing each other. They have
the ability to understand others‟ feelings and intentions. They are „around-people‟ learners who
learn socially.

5. Solitary or Intrapersonal Learners

Here, students prefer to work alone and use self-study. They have the ability to understand well
their own feelings, strengths, and weaknesses. They make notes and recite them back. Solitary
learners may apply independent reading. They tend to write a personal diary, achieve
independent projects, discuss feelings about certain topics, express likes, and dislikes, etc.

6. Verbal or Linguistic Learners

They prefer using words, both in speech and writing. They learn best by writing and speaking.
 6

7. Logical or Mathematical

They prefer using logic, reasoning, and systems. Those learners are good with numbers and
statistics. They also ask questions during lesson to understand the material. Logical learners are
especially good at analysing cause and effect relationships.

However, the categorization of learning styles, even their numbers, still remains debated;
theorists could not reach on an agreement. That is why each of them are coming up with different
categorization every time.

4.2. Classification of Learning Strategies

There are inconsistencies among researchers while classifying learning strategies, too. Some of
them are the following: Jennifer Gonzalez (2016) as spaced practice, retrieval practice,
elaboration, interleaving, concrete example and dual coding, Oxford (1990) as cognitive,
metacognitive, memory-related, compensatory, affective and social, Simsek (2010) as rehearsal,
elaboration, organization, metacognition, and motivational, and O'Malley and Chamot (1990) as
metacognitive, cognitive and social/affective strategies.

But for the purpose this paper, the learning strategies of Oxford (1990), as cited most in
researches, have been used.
 7

cognitive
strategy

social metacognitive
strategy strategy

learning
strategies

memory-
affective
related
strategy
strategy

compensatory
strategy

1. Cognitive strategies enable the learner to manipulate the language material in direct ways,
e.g., through reasoning, analysis, note-taking, summarizing, synthesizing, outlining,
reorganizing information to develop stronger schemas (knowledge structures), practicing in
naturalistic settings, and practicing structures and sounds formally.
2. Metacognitive strategies (e. g., identifying one‟s own learning style preferences and needs,
planning for an L2 task, gathering and organizing materials, arranging a study space and a
schedule, monitoring mistakes, and evaluating task success, and evaluating the success of
any type of learning strategy) are employed for managing the learning process overall.
3. Memory-related strategies help learners to link one L2 item or concept with another but do
not necessarily involve deep understanding. These strategies enable learners to learn and
retrieve information in an orderly string (e.g., acronyms), to learn and retrieve via sounds
(e.g., rhyming), images (e.g., a mental picture of the word itself or the meaning of the word),
a combination of sounds and images (e.g., the keyword method), body movement (e.g., total
physical response), or location (e.g., on a page or blackboard.
 8

4. Compensatory strategies: (e.g., guessing from the context in listening and reading; using
synonyms and “talking around” the missing word to aid speaking and writing; and strictly for
speaking, using gestures or pause words) help the learner make up for missing knowledge.
5. Affective strategies: deal with identifying one‟s mood and anxiety level, talking about
feelings, rewarding oneself for good performance, and using deep breathing or positive self-
talk.
6. Social strategies: help the students to learn by asking questions to get verification, asking for
clarification of a confusing point, asking for help in doing a language task, talking with a
native-speaking conversation partner, and exploring cultural and social norms.
5. Application of Learning Styles in Language Classroom

Best practice most likely involves a teaching paradigm which addresses and accommodates
multiple dimensions of learning styles that build self-efficacy. Instructing in a way that
encompasses multiple learning styles gives the teacher an opportunity to reach a greater extent of
a given class, while also challenging students to expand their range of learning styles and
aptitudes at a slower pace. Learning might be better facilitated if instructors were cognizant of
both their teaching styles and the learning styles of their students (Romanelli, 2009).

To succeed in combining teaching and learning styles, teachers may use the following.

Learning styles Activities and/or materials for teaching

1. Visual learners Using notes on the board, slide shows, handouts, and explaining new
language using visual analogies
2. Aural/auditory Delivering verbal lectures, discussions, audio devices for listening
3. Kinesthetic/physical Using „hands-on‟ activities e.g. writing task, letting them move around for
group discussions
4. Verbal learners Helping students to learn through words, both writing and speech
5. Social learners Including group activities to help learners collaborate
6. Solitary learners Giving students solo projects or individual problem-solving exercises
7. Logical learners Allowing them to sort out jumbled sentences; teaching them how to
format and present an argument and hold a debate class
 9

6. Implications of Learning Styles for Teaching and Learning

One single teaching method or approach cannot work for all the students in a class as there are
plenty of learning styles. A unilaterally designed classroom may reinforce a „„do nothing‟‟
approach. According to Mbaegbu (2012), knowledge of learning style preferences will help
educators to plan instructional procedures and arrange learning situations to accommodate the
students learning preferences. It will help to improve the effectiveness of instruction through the
identification and matching of individual learning style with appropriate learning opportunities.

Similarly, Brown (2003) stressed that the matching between learning style and teaching style
needs to be considered as it determines the effectiveness of learning and learners‟ motivation. As
expressed by Romanelli (2009), a teaching style-learning style mismatch might challenge
students to adjust, grow intellectually, and learn in more integrated ways.

Mbaegbu (2012) asserted that by the identification of learning style preferences, educators may
help students to determine which educational methods and learning activities are best suited to
their styles of learning. The identification of learner's learning styles helps educational planners
and teachers provide learners necessary educational support and supplies. (W. Xu, 2011) also
pointed out that different teaching approaches may be integrated and different tasks or activities
may be done in classroom to please all the students and produce better teaching results.

Conclusion

The fact that learning styles are defined and classified, by different scholars, in various ways tells
us that students perceive information or gain knowledge in a multitude but varied ways of
preferences. So these different learning preferences should be recognized by teachers and
theorists need to work more on teaching methods to suit those individual preferences. Teachers
should be made aware of the existence of multiple learning styles as they also possess different
teaching styles. A one-size-fits-all teaching method will not be applicable as it can‟t reach the
needs of learners with diversified learning styles. The more the teaching methods consider the
learning styles, the better learners effectiveness will be.
 10

References

Armstrong et al (2012) Understanding and Defining Cognitive Style and Learning Style
Brown, B.L. (2003) Teaching Style vs. Learning Style
Dunn, R. & Dunn, K (1993) Teaching Secondary School Students through Their Individual
Learning Style
Ellis, R. (2005) The Study of Second Language Acquisition. Shanghai.
Farid and Abbasi (2014) Learning Styles: History, Conceptualization and Continuum
Feng et al (2019). Relationship between Learning Styles, Learning Strategies and Academic
Performance of Chinese Students Who Learn Spanish as a Foreign Language
Fleming, N. (2001). Teaching and learning styles: VARK strategies.
Gonzalez, J. (2016) Six Strategies for Effective Learning: A Summary for Teachers
Haswell, J. (2017). "A Close Look at Learning Styles". Honors Senior Capstone Projects.
Honey, P., & Mumford, A. (1986) Using our learning styles. Berkshire
Kolb, D. (2017). Learning styles: Retrieved April 27, 2017, from
http://www.businessballs.com/kolblearningstyles.htm
Mbaegbu, N. (2012) Learning Styles: Origin, Theories, Implications for Teaching and Learning
in Secondary Schools
Nunan, D. (2001) Second Language Teaching and Learning: Foreign Language Teaching and
Research Press
O‟Malley J., M. & Chamot A. (1990) Strategies Used by Second Language Learners.
Oxford, R. L. (1990). Language Learning Strategies: What Every Teacher Should Know?
Oxford, R. L. (2003) Language Learning Styles and Strategies: An overview
Ramadan, M. (2020) Learning Styles & Strategies Retrieved from
https://elttguide.com/learning-strategies-learning-styles/
Reinders, H. (2010): Towards Classroom Pedagogy for Learner Autonomy
Romanelli, F. (2009) Learning Styles: A Review of Theory, Application, and Best Practices
Rubin, J. (1975). What the “Good Language Learner” Can Teach Us. TESOL Quarterly
Salam et al (2020). An Analysis of Learning Styles and Learning Strategies Used by a Successful
Language Learner
Thome, C. C. (2000) Understanding Learning Style and Its Effects on Teaching and Learning
Xu, W. (2011) Learning Styles and Their Implications in Learning and Teaching
 11

Part Two: Autonomous Learning

1. History of Autonomous Learning

Hasanah (2013) cited Moore (1999) that the word „autonomy‟ was a legal-political term derived
from the Greek autonomia, itself derived from autonomos, where auto means `self' and nomos
means 'law'. The Australian Oxford Dictionary defines it as "the right of self-government;
personal freedom; freedom of the will; a self-governing community". Thus, the word autonomy
carries a meaning of freedom and independence to govern one's own affairs. In a general sense, it
is defined as an ability to manage one's own affairs as opposed to a situation of dependence in
which one is subjected to decisions and control from others.

In the context of language pedagogy, plenty of researchers and educators in the field (e.g. D.
Little, 1996; R. Smith, 2008; D. Cakici, 2015; J. Paudel, 2019 and so on) witnessed that learner
autonomy approach to language teaching was first introduced by Henri Holec (called the father
of learner autonomy) through his seminar report „Autonomy and Foreign Language Learning‟,
published by the Council of Europe in 1979 (cited here as Holec, 1981).

2. Definitions of Autonomous Learning

Many scholars have also elaborated on the concept of autonomous learning, but so far there is no
clear cut or common definition. As shown in the Wikipedia, many definitions have since been
given to the term depending on the writer, the context, and the level of debate educators have
come to: it has been considered as a personal human trait, as a political measure, or as an
educational move. However, Holec (1981) wrote a foundational definition of learner autonomy
as „the ability to take charge of one‟s own learning.‟ Thus, various researchers and theorists in
the field of language teaching and learning (such as Little, 1996; Little, 2007; Reinders, 2010;
Hasanah, 2013; Chun, 2019 etc.) shared the definition given by Henri Holec (1981).

He (Holec) believes that autonomous learning means that learners have the ability to be
responsible for their own learning, including determining learning objectives and learning
content, choosing learning methods, self-monitoring and self-evaluating learning outcomes
(Little, 1991). This definition indicates that autonomous learners are the ones who take charge of
their own learning. Holec wrote this definition on the principle that adult education should
 12

develop the individual‟s freedom by developing his/her abilities which will enable him/her to act
more responsibly in running the affairs of the society in which she/he lives.

Little (1991) also defined autonomous learning as a psychological reaction to learners‟ reflection
on learning content and processes. He elaborated that autonomy is a capacity- for detachment,
critical reflection, decision-making, and independent action. It presupposes, but also entails, that
the learner will develop a particular kind of psychological relation to the process and content of
his learning. The capacity for autonomy will be displayed both in the way the learner learns and
in the way he or she transfers what has been learned to wider contexts. Littlewood (1996) argues
that autonomous learner is one who has not only the ability but also the willingness to make and
carry out the learning choices independently.

Another scholar, Hedge (2000, p. 410), outlined “learner autonomy is the ability of the learner to
take responsibility for his or her own learning and to plan, organize, and monitor the learning
process independently of the teacher.” Similarly, J. Richards, in an interview in 2016, explained
that learner autonomy refers to the principle that learners should take an increasing amount of
responsibility for what they learn and how they learn it.

Chiu, H.L.W. (2012) revealed that there has been a recent tendency to use the terms
“independent learning” and “autonomous learning” in language education although the former
denotes freedom from reliance on others, while the latter indicates the ability to make one‟s own
decisions about what to do without being influenced or instructed to do so. The latter word also
implies freedom from external control, which is often hard to achieve, particularly in current
educational contexts where institutional authority often precedes individual learning preferences.

In spite of the fact that the term is defined in many different ways (in educational domain), the
goal of autonomous learning is to enable learners play the dominant role for their learning.

3. Development of Autonomous Learning to Language Teaching

Little (2007) pointed out, in the early 1980s, the concept of learner autonomy was mostly
associated with adult education and self-access learning systems and seemed to be a matter of
learners doing things on their own. Smith (2008) also has his say as “Imported originally from
the fields of politics and moral philosophy, „autonomy‟ is a multifaceted concept whose meaning
 13

has been discussed in the specialist language learning literature from many perspectives and in
an increasingly academic fashion.”

As Reinders (2010) too wrote, most researchers agree that a major shift is taking place in
education away from the teacher-centred classroom toward a learner-centred system where the
learner is in control of the lesson content and the learning process, which in other words leads to
the realization of autonomous learning.

Autonomy represents the core of learning and shifts the emphasis from teacher to learner,
enabling the latter to play a considerable role in setting the learning goals, organizing the
learning process, and fulfilling those goals (Lazar, 2013). He went on explaining this idea:

With the learner-centred approach, teachers agree to share responsibility

with their students, helping them to discover their own meaning instead of
lecturing and controlling all classroom activities. Lessons are thus
organized in collaboration with the learners in regards to both material and
methods. They can choose topics, working approaches, form their own
groups, decide upon homework and opt for peer or self-assessment. In an
autonomous foreign language classroom, the teacher‟s role is that of a
facilitator and counselor. Teachers are no longer seen as sources of
information or facts but “serve as facilitators and guides rather than
directors […] of learning.”

The above explanation goes in harmony with that of Richards (2016) in that the notion of learner
autonomy means shifting the focus from the teacher to the learners. This means involving
learners in decisions concerning setting objectives for learning, determining ways and means of
learning, and reflecting on and evaluating what they have learned. Paudel (2019) put a similar
idea “There has been a noticeable paradigm shift in language pedagogy; the shift from teacher
centered pedagogy to learner centered approach.” For Paudel, teachers appreciate self-reliant
learners and promote learner autonomy as a main goal, where learners are self-directed taking
responsibilities for their own learning. The recent trend values learners‟ experiences, interests,
feelings and learning style, and is directed to make students independent in their learning.
 14

Learner autonomy can be viewed from different perspectives: constructivist and cognitivist. For
example, Wang (2014) noted Piaget‟s constructivism learning theory‟s emphasis as student-
centered, holding that students are the subjects of cognition, active constructor of knowledge and
meaning. Learners construct knowledge by bringing what they already know into interaction
with the new information, ideas and experiences they encounter. This can be viewed in the
context of language teaching: learners may learn target language content by combining their
experience and knowledge of language. Thus, according to constructivist epistemologies,
knowledge is not a set of universal „truths‟ but a set of „working hypotheses‟ that are always
subject to refinement, change, rejection and replacement.

It stresses that "learning" is the center and learner autonomy should be given full play. It lays its
emphasis on the learners‟ active learning such as initiative, sociality and context. Teachers play
the role of organizer, director, assistor and promoter. For Wang (2014), the enlightenment of
social constructivism on learning, especially language learning, is deep and profound.

Another worth mentioning point is the cognitivists‟ view of learner autonomy. As cited Ponton
and Rhea (2006, Bandura described autonomous learning as purposeful, intentional learning.
Throughout the course of a single day, humans become aware of new information that is either
purposefully sought or fortuitously realized; however, autonomous learning refers to the former.
For example, while driving to a destination, one may notice and remember a new store. Because
the purpose of the drive does not concern learning locations to new stores, this learning would
not represent autonomous learning.

4. Kinds of Autonomous Learning

Dickinson (1995) in Nunan (1996:155) stated that there are two kind of autonomous learning:

a. Full autonomous

Dickinson defines full autonomy as the individual instruction based on a syllabus or course
designed by the learner. This means that the learner is not part of any institution nor is there an
instructor who guides the learner. The fully autonomous learner prepares materials specific to his
needs. The learner is completely responsible for organizing a syllabus and selecting the content
to be studied. At this level of autonomy, learners really only need access to materials.
 15

b. Semi-autonomous

This opportunely labels the stage at which learners are preparing for autonomous. In
this case the students lead to learn actively, in which case the students should be
encouraged to do some learning by doing on their own under the teacher‟s
guidance. At the same time, the teachers should adopt a new teaching method to
complete the transition from the teacher-centered teaching model to the student-
centered one. This learning process can be called semi-autonomous learning. In this
process, the teacher‟s role has changed, but just partially not totally, the same to the
students‟ role.

5. Principles of Autonomous Learning

Learners are assisted to take control of their learning by the development of their meta-cognitive
learning strategies like critical self-reflection, taking part in the topic selection, evaluation
of their learning possibilities etc. These strategies have a very important role in students‟
learning. There are five principles for achieving autonomous learning as suggested by Phil
Benson (2007):

1. Active involvement in student learning.

2. Providing options and resources.
3. Offering choices and decision-making opportunities.
4. Supporting learners.
5. Encouraging reflection.

In classes that encourage autonomous learning:

 The teacher becomes less of an instructor and more of a facilitator.

 Students are discouraged from relying on the teacher as the main source of knowledge.
 Students‟ capacity to learn for themselves is encouraged.
 Students‟ awareness of their own learning styles is encouraged.
 Students are encouraged to develop their own learning strategies. (Richards, 2016)
 16

6. Application of Autonomous Learning in Language Classroom

The collaboration between students and teachers is vital in order to for learner autonomy to take
place. It is important that teachers and learners become a learning community working in an
atmosphere of trust and respect in order to be able to foster autonomous learning. One of the best
ways to implement learner autonomy in a foreign language classroom is strong emphasis on pair
and group work. To make autonomous learning a reality in the classroom, teachers and learners
need to play their respective roles.

6.1. Learners’ Role

The application of autonomous learning involves students‟ activation. Reinders (2007)

recommends two basic requirements for learners: being proactive in their learning and self-
motivated. Learners are unlikely to take control over, for example, decisions about what to learn
or how, unless they have some degree of motivation to do so, and unless they are proactive in
their learning. The students can learn how to learn autonomously under the guidance of the
teacher. To develop their autonomy, learners need to:

 Identify their learning needs.

 Set learning goals to address those needs.
 Identify resources (human, as well as material) to help them achieve your learning goals.
 Apply appropriate learning strategies.
 Evaluate the outcomes of their learning. (Fleming, 2020)

In an interview held in 2016, Richards emphasized “Autonomous learning is said to make

learning more personal and focused and, consequently, is said to achieve better learning
outcomes, since learning is based on learners‟ needs and preferences. It contrasts with the
traditional teacher-led approach in which most decisions are made by the teacher.”

6.2. Teacher’s Role

Hasanah (2013) stated “Language teachers without any autonomy-oriented training may
experience difficulties in creating such a classroom culture. Hence, the earlier language teachers
who are in support of the principles of autonomous learning are made aware of the importance
and necessity of learner autonomy in their initial teacher training, the more easily they will be
 17

able to implement this approach in their own future classrooms.” Clearly, there is an important
task for the classroom teacher in raising students‟ awareness of their learning outside the
classroom, and for ensuring students have the necessary skills (Reinders, 2007).

Furthermore, Cakici (2015) mentioned a role of teachers as follows: for the development of
learner autonomy, teachers are responsible for developing a learning environment conducive.
Paudel (2019), for example, quoted Einstein‟s saying “I never teach my students. I simply
provide the situations in which they can learn”. In line with this saying, learner autonomy (LA)
approach provides learners with situations where they can learn independently in their own pace.
Another African saying “A good father does not give his son meat; instead, he gives him a bow
and arrow, and teaches him to hunt.” is an expressive example of teachers‟ role in autonomous
learning. In the same way, the Learner Autonomy approach to ELT does not make the students
dependent on the teacher; rather it encourages them to be self-reliant learners. In Learner
Autonomy, students are involved in decision-making as well as they are encouraged to take
charge of their own learning by assigning tasks as per their interests and preferences.

Besides, teachers help learners set objectives, plan works, select materials, evaluate themselves,
and acquire the skills and knowledge needed. Another activity of teachers is expressed by
Fleming (2020): “during an autonomous learning, students have some actual choice and control.
These learner-centered practices include teachers showing students how to make learning
choices and monitor the positive and negative consequences of their choices.” The teachers
should play democratic role: a facilitator of learning, an organizer of learning opportunities, a
resource person providing learners with feedback and encouragement, and creator of learning
atmosphere and learning space.

To add more, Little et al (2003) highlighted that teachers who aim to promote a learner-directed
learning environment encourage learners to reflect on their learning, understand the process of
learning and the function of language, and adopt patterns of learning in which they themselves
take initiatives and feel in control of their progress. Cited in Hasanah (2013), Franklin (2009)
said in support of Little et al (2003) that, to make learner autonomy a reality, teachers should
seek to develop students "higher mental processes". One of the most important roles of a
teacher in an autonomous learning is a facilitator. Teacher is also in charge of motivating
students to remain on the autonomous learning road.
 18

To develop a degree of learner autonomy, Nunan (2000) distinguished several steps.

Level Learner action Content Process

Level 1 Awareness Learners are made aware of the Learners identify strategy
pedagogical goals and content of materials implications of
they are using pedagogical tasks and
identify their own
preferred styles/strategies.
Level 2 Involvement Learners are involved in selecting their Learners make choices
own goals from a range of alternatives on among a range of options.
offer.
Level 3 Intervention Learners are involved in modifying and Learners modify and
adapting the goals and content of the adapt tasks.
learning program.
Level 4 Creation Learners create their own goals and Learners create their own
objectives. learning tasks.

Level 5 Transcendence Learners go beyond the classroom and Learners become teachers
make links between the content of and researchers.
classroom learning and the world beyond
the classroom and are functioning as a
fully autonomous learner.

7. Challenges of Implementing Autonomous Learning

Its origin being in Europe, learner autonomy has been questioned whether it works across
different educational contexts. Autonomy, according to Smith et al (2018), is often associated
with technology-rich self-access centres or resource centres and with technology in general.
Fidyati (2017) too argues autonomous learning is applicable in well-resourced contexts, in areas
where there is access to technology & media and ample utilization of English resources for
students. Europe (where Holec first coined the term learner autonomy) and other developed
 19

countries can only be advantageous in this regard, while developing countries (under-resourced)
might not afford.

Another argument of the concept learner autonomy, raised by Richards in an interview session, is
that not all learners may wish to learn in this way or be capable of doing so, and that it reflects a
western conception of learning that may be inappropriate in non-western cultures. Thus, it is
context based practice.

Moreover, Little (2007) claimed that there is plenty of evidence from classrooms and self-access
centres to show that learners are often reluctant to take charge of their own learning. They are
accustomed to the passive role that school traditionally assigns to learners and distrustful of the
idea that they should set learning targets, select learning materials and activities, and evaluate
learning outcomes (e.g. Salmon, 1998). The students at present have been used to the teacher-
centered teaching model, and may not make them accept the student-centered teaching model
totally without any trouble as stated by Wangxin (2009).

It is not only from learners but also from teachers that the difficulty arises. Lazar (2013) shared
his observation that teachers found it hard to move from a totally teacher-directed teaching
environment to a possible learner- directed learning environment. In the process of learning, it
appeared difficult for teachers to pass over a part of the responsibility to the learners, whereas it
seems easier for the learners to become more autonomous.

Conclusion

It would be appropriate to say that autonomous learning is willingness, motivation and ability
based knowledge gaining activity students use to achieve one‟s needs and goals of learning. We
should notice that learner autonomy might not necessarily mean that 100% of the classroom
burden goes to learners as most literature shows. Teachers are there to adjust the learning
environment. However, autonomous learning is not free of critics; it is questioned in terms of its
applicability across the world (e.g. due to lack of necessary resource centres and technology use,
difference in educational context and culture, etc.).
 20

References
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Dickenson, L. (1995). Autonomy and Motivation: A Literature Review. System, 23, 165-174.
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