UNIT 5: SOLIDS LDUIDS AND GASES.

Density

 Density is defined as:

The mass per unit volume of a material
 Objects made from low density materials typically have

a low mass
 Similarly sized objects made from high density materials

have a high mass

o For example, a bag full of feathers is far lighter

compared to a similar bag full of metal

o Or another example, a balloon is less dense than a small

bar of lead despite occupying a larger volume

 Density is related to mass and volume by the following

equation:

 Gases, for examples, are less dense than solids because the
molecules are more spread out (same mass, over a larger
volume)

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 Gases are less dense than
solids

 his equation can be rearranged with the help of the formula

triangle:

Density, mass, volume formula

triangle

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  The units of density depend on what units are used for mass
and volume:
3
o If the mass is measured in g and volume in cm , then

the density will be in g/cm3

3
o If the mass is measured in kg and volume in m , then

the density will be in kg/m3

 This table gives some examples of densities on common
materials
3
o If a material is more dense than water (1000 kg/m ),

then it will sink

Approximate Densities of Materials Table

 The volume of an object may not always be given directly,

but can be calculated with the appropriate equation
depending on the object’s shape

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Volumes of common 3D shapes

Worked Example

A paving slab has a mass of 73 kg and dimensions 0.04 m × 0.5 m

× 0.85 m.

Calculate the density, in kg/m3, of the material from which the

paving slab is made.

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Step 1: List the known quantities


oMass of slab, m = 73 kg
o Volume of slab, V = 0.04 m × 0.5 m × 0.85 m = 0.017

m3
Step 2: Write out the equation for density

Step 3: Substitute in values

ρ = 73 ÷ 0.017 = 4294 kg/m3
Step 4: Round the answer to two significant figures
ρ = 4300 kg/m3
5.1.2 Core Practical: Determining Density
Equipment List

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  Resolution of measuring equipment:
o 30 cm ruler = 1 mm

o Vernier calipers = 0.01 mm

o Micrometer = 0.001 mm

o Digital balance = 0.01 g

Experiment 1: Measuring the Density of Regularly Shaped Objects

 The aim of this experiment is to determine the densities of
regular objects by using measurements of their dimensions
Variables:

 Independent variable = Type of shape / volume

 Dependent variable = Mass of the object

Method

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 1. Place the object on a digital balance and note down its mass
2. Use either the ruler, Vernier calipers or micrometer to
measure the object’s dimensions (width, height, length,
radius) – the apparatus will depend on the size of the object
3. Repeat these measurements and take an average of these
readings before calculating the density
 An example of a results table might look like this:

Analysis of Results
 Calculate the volume of the object depending on whether it
is a cube, sphere, cylinder (or other regular shape)

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 Calculating the volume of an object depends on its shape
 Remember to convert from centimetres (cm) to metres

(m) by dividing by 100

1 cm = 0.01 m
50 cm = 0.5 m
 Using the mass and volume, the density of each can be

calculated using the equation:

 Where:
3
o ρ = density in kilogram per metres cubed (kg/m )

o m = mass in kilograms (kg)

3
o V = volume in metres cubed (m )

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 Experiment 2: Measuring the Density of Irregularly Shaped Objects
 The aim of this experiment is to determine the densities of
irregular objects using a displacement technique
Variables:

 Independent variable = Different irregular shapes / mass

 Dependent variable = Volume of displaced water

Method

Apparatus for measuring the density of irregular objects

1. Place the object on a digital balance and note down its mass
2. Fill the eureka can with water up to a point just below the spout
3. Place an empty measuring cylinder below its spout
4. Carefully lower the object into the eureka can
5. Measure the volume of the displaced water in the measuring
cylinder
6. Repeat these measurements and take an average before calculating
the density
 An example of a results table might look like this:

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Analysis of Results
 The volume of the water displaced is equal to the volume of
the object
 Once the mass and volume of the shape are known, the
density can be calculated using:

Experiment 3: Measuring Density of Liquids

The aim of this experiment is to determine the density of a
liquid by finding a difference in its mass
Variables:

 Independent variable = Volume of water added

 Dependent variable = Mass of cylinder

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Method

Apparatus for determining the density of a liquid

1. Place an empty measuring cylinder on a digital balance and
note down the mass
2. Fill the cylinder with the liquid and note down the volume
3. Note down the new reading on the digital balance
4. Repeat these measurements and take an average before
calculating the density
 An example of a results table might look like this:

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Analysis of Results
 Find the mass of the liquid by subtracting the final reading
from the original reading
Mass of liquid = Mass of cylinder with water – mass of
cylinder
 Remember to convert between grams (g) and kilograms
(kg) by dividing by 1000
1 g = 0.001 kg
78 g = 0.078 kg
 Once the mass and volume of the liquid are known, the
density can be calculated using the equation:

Evaluating the Experiments

Systematic Errors:
 Ensure the digital balance is set to zero before taking

measurements of mass

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 This includes when measuring the density of the liquid –
o

remove the measuring cylinder and zero the balance

before adding the liquid
Random Errors:
 A main cause of error in this experiment is in the

measurements of length
o Ensure to take repeat readings and calculate an average

to keep this error to a minimum

 Place the irregular object in the displacement can carefully,

as dropping it from a height might cause water to splash

which will lead to an incorrect volume reading
Safety Considerations
 There is a lot of glassware in this experiment, ensure this is
handled carefully
 Water should not be poured into the measuring cylinder when
it is on the electric balance
o This could lead to electric shock

 Make sure to stand up during the whole experiment, to react

quickly to any spills

Exam Tip
There is a lot of information to take in here! When writing about
experiments, a good sequence is as follows:
 If you need to use an equation to calculate something, start

off by giving it as this will give you some hints about what
you need to mention later
 List the apparatus that you need

 State what measurements you need to make (your equation

will give you some hints) and how you will measure them

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 Finally, state that you will repeat each measurement several
times and take averages
5.1.3 Pressure
 Pressure is defined as

The concentration of a force or the force per unit area

 For example, when a drawing pin is pushed downwards:

o It is pushed into the surface, rather than up towards the

finger
o This is because the sharp point is more concentrated (a

small area) creating a larger pressure

When you push a drawing pin, it goes into the surface (rather
than your finger)

 Example 1: Tractors
o Tractors have large tyres
o This spreads the weight (force) of the tractor over a large area
o This reduces the pressure which prevents the heavy tractor
from sinking into the mud

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  Example 2: Nails
o Nails have sharp pointed ends with a very small area
o This concentrates the force, creating a large pressure over a
small area
o This allows the nail to be hammered into a wall

 The pressure at the surface of a fluid can be calculated using

the equation:

 Pressure is measured in the units Pascals (Pa)

 The area should always be the cross-sectional area of the
object
o This means the area where the force is at right angles to

it
 This equation can be rearranged with the help of a formula
triangle:

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 Pressure, force, area formula
triangle

 This equation tells us that:

o If a force is spread over a large area it will result in

a small pressure
o If it is spread over a small area it will result in

a large pressure

High heels produce a higher pressure on the ground because

of their smaller area, compared to flat shoes
Worked Example
The diagram below shows the parts of the lifting machine used to
move the platform up and down.

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The pump creates pressure in the liquid of 5.28 × 10 5 Pa to move
the platform upwards. Calculate the force that the liquid applies
to the piston.

Step 1: List the known quantities



Cross-sectional area = 2.73 × 10-2 m2

o
5
o Pressure = 5.28 × 10 Pa

Step 2: Write down the relevant equation

Step 3: Rearrange for the force, F

F=p×A

Step 4: Substitute the values into the equation

F = (5.28 × 105) × (2.73 × 10-2) = 14 414.4
Step 5: Round to the appropriate number of significant
figures and quote the correct unit
F = 14 400 N = 14.4 kN (3 s.f)

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Exam Tip
Look out for the units for the force! Large
pressures produce large forces - this is sometimes in kN! (1 kN =
1000 N)
5.1.4 Pressure in Liquids
 A fluid is either a liquid or a gas

 When an object is immersed in a fluid, the fluid will exert

pressure, squeezing the object

o This pressure is exerted evenly across the whole surface

of the fluid and in all directions

o The pressure exerted on objects in fluids

creates forces against surfaces

o These forces act at 90 degrees (at right angles) to the

surface

The pressure of a fluid on an object creates a force normal (at

right angles) to the surface
Calculating Pressure in a Liquid
 The pressure due to a column of liquid can be calculated
using the equation
p=h×ρ×g
 Where:
o p = pressure in pascals (Pa)

o h = height of the column in metres (m)

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 ρ = density of the liquid in kilograms per metre cubed
o

(kg/m3)
o g = gravitational field strength on Earth in newtons per

kilogram (N/kg)
 The force from the pressure is exerted evenly across the
whole surface of an object in a liquid, and in all directions

The force from the pressure of objects in a liquid is exerted

evenly across its whole surface
 The pressure is more accurately the difference in pressure at

different depths h in a liquid, since the pressure changes with

the depth
Worked Example
Calculate the depth of water in a swimming pool where a pressure
of 20 kPa is exerted. The density of water is 1000 kg/m 3 and the
gravitational field strength on Earth is 9.8 N/kg.

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5.2.1 Solids, Liquids & Gases
 Matter can exist in one of three different states: solid, liquid,

or gas
Solids
 In a solid:
o The particles are closely packed

o The particles vibrate about fixed positions

 Solids have:
o A definite shape (they are rigid)

o A definite volume

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Liquids
In a liquid:
o The particles are closely packed

o The particles can flow over one another

 Liquids have:

o No definite shape – they are able to flow and will take

the shape of a container

o A definite volume

Gases
 In a gas:
o The particles are far apart

o The particles move randomly

 Gases have:
o No definite shape – they will take the shape of their

container
o No fixed volume – if placed in an evacuated container

they will expand to fill the container

 Gases are highly compressible, this is because:
o There are large gaps between the particles

o It is easier to push the particles closer together than in

solids or liquids

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Diagram showing the three states of matter in terms of shape
and volume

Solid, Liquid, Gas Summary Table

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5.2.2 Changes of State
 When a substance changes state, the number of molecules in

that substance doesn’t change and so neither does its mass

o The only thing that changes is its energy

 Unlike chemical changes, changes of state (a type of physical

change) are reversible

 In a solid:

o The molecules are very close together and arranged in

a regular pattern
o The molecules vibrate about fixed positions

 In a liquid:

o The molecules are still close together (no gaps) but are

no longer arranged in a regular pattern

o The molecules are able to slide past each other

 In a gas:

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 The molecules are widely separated - about 10 times
o

further apart in each direction

o The molecules move about randomly at high speeds

 There are six changes of state that can occur between solids,
liquids and gases:
o Melting - When a solid turns into a liquid (e.g. ice to

water)
o Boiling - When a liquid turns into a gas (evaporating)

o Condensing - When a gas turns into a liquid

o Freezing - When a liquid turns into a solid

o Subliming -When a solid turns into a gas

Diagram showing the arrangement and motion of different

states of matter
Heat & Temperature
 Heating a system will change the energy stored in a system
by increasing the kinetic energy of its particles
o The temperature of the material, therefore, is related

to the average kinetic energy of the molecules

 This increase in kinetic energy (and therefore energy stored
in the system) can:
o Cause the temperature of the system to increase

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 Or, produce a change of state (solid to liquid or liquid
o

to gas)
 The higher the temperature, the higher the average kinetic
energy of the molecules and vice versa
o This means they move around faster

As the container is heated up, the gas molecules move

faster with higher kinetic energy. The energy stored
within the system - the internal energy - therefore
increases
Worked Example
A student measures the mass of a beaker of water twice,
leaving 24 hours between the readings. The temperature in
the room remained constant between readings, however,
they notice a decrease in the mass of the beaker of water.

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Which of the following is not a correct conclusion that can be
drawn from the experiment?
A. The difference in mass is equal to the mass of the water that
evaporated
B The total energy within the beaker decreased
C The density of water in the air increased
D The total number of water molecules in the air and water
decreased
ANSWER: D
o A is true because the mass lost from the beaker is due

to those water molecules evaporating

o B is true because evaporation causes the most

energetic particles to leave the beaker

 The total number of particles in the beaker

decreased

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 o C is true because additional water molecules were
added to the air, without a significant change in the
volume of the air
o D is not true because no mass is lost during
evaporation - it is only changed from a liquid to gas
state.

Exam Tip
Heating a system will always increase the energy stored within
the system.You should remember that this increase in 'internal
energy' can have two effects: either the temperature of the
system will increase, or the system will change state (e.g. from a
solid to a liquid, or a liquid to a gas)
5.2.3 Core Practical: Investigating Changes of State
Aim of the Experiment
 The aim of this experiment is to investigate how the
temperature of ice varies when it changes state from a solid
to a liquid

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Equipment List

Resolution of measuring equipment:



o Thermometer = 0.1 °C

o Stopwatch = 0.1 s

Method

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 Apparatus used to heat ice and measure its temperature as it
melts
1. Place the ice cubes in the beaker (it should be about half full)
2. Place the thermometer in the beaker
3. Place the beaker on the tripod and gauze and slowly start to
heat it using the bunsen burner
4. As the beaker is heated, take regular temperature
measurements (e.g. at one minute intervals)
5. Continue this whilst the substance changes state (from solid
to liquid)
 An example results table is shown below:

Analysis of Results
 Plot a graph of the temperature (y-axis) against time (x-axis)
 The graph will show regions where:
o The temperature of the ice cubes increases

o There is no temperature change (even though the ice

cubes continue to be heated)

o This should occur at 0 °C, where the ice is melting from

solid to liquid

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A graph of temperature against time will show a flat region
where the ice is melting
Evaluating the Experiment
Systematic Errors:
 Measurements of temperature from the thermometer

keeping it at eye level, to avoid parallax errors

o Ensure the thermometer is held vertically in the beaker

Random Errors:
 Ensure there are enough ice cubes to surround the

thermometer in the beaker, and only begin the experiment

when the temperature is below 0 °C
o This is to ensure readings of temperature are as

accurate as possible
Safety Considerations
 Wear goggles while heating water
 Place the bunsen burner, with the beaker and tripod, on a
heatproof mat to avoid surface damage

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  Make sure to stand up during the whole experiment, to react
quickly to any spills

5.2.4 Specific Heat Capacity

 How much the temperature of a system increases depends

on:
o The mass of the substance heated

o The type of material

o The amount of energy put in to the system

 The energy put in is in the form of thermal energy

 The specific heat capacity, c of a substance is defined as:

The amount of energy required to raise the temperature of 1

kg of the substance by 1 °C
 Different substances have different specific heat capacities

o If a substance has a low specific heat capacity, it heats

up and cools down quickly (ie. it takes less energy to

change its temperature)
o If a substance has a high specific heat capacity, it heats

up and cools down slowly (ie. it takes more energy to

change its temperature)

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Low vs high specific heat capacity
Calculating Specific Heat Capacity
The amount of energy needed to raise the temperature of a


given mass by a given amount can be calculated using the

equation:
Change in thermal energy = Mass × Specific heat capacity ×
Change in temperature
ΔQ = mcΔT
 Where:

o ΔQ = change in thermal energy, in joules (J)

o m = mass, in kilograms (kg)

o c = specific heat capacity, in joules per kilogram per

degree Celsius (J/kg °C)

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 ΔT = change in temperature, in degrees Celsius (°C)
o

Worked Example
Water of mass 0.48 kg is increased in temperature by 0.7 °C. The
specific heat capacity of water is 4200 J / kg °C. Calculate the
amount of thermal energy transferred to the water.
Step 1: Write down the known quantities


Mass, m = 0.48 kg
o

o Change in temperature, ΔT = 0.7 °C

o Specific heat capacity, c = 4200 J/kg °C

Step 2: Write down the relevant equation

ΔQ = mcΔT
Step 3: Calculate the thermal energy transferred by
substituting in the values
ΔQ = (0.48) × (4200) × (0.7) = 1411.2
Step 4: Round the answer to 2 significant figures
ΔQ = 1400 J

Exam Tip
This equation will be given on your equation sheet, so don't worry
if you cannot remember it, but it is important that you understand
how to use it. You will always be given the specific heat capacity
of a substance, so you do not need to memorise any values.
5.2.5 Core Practical: Investigating Specific Heat Capacity
Core Practical 11: Investigating Specific Heat Capacity
Aim of the Experiment
 The aim of this experiment is to determine the specific heat
capacity of a solid and of water by measuring the energy

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 required to increase the temperature of a known amount by
one degree
Equipment List

 Resolution of measuring equipment:

o Thermometer = 0.1 °C

o Voltmeter = 0.1 V

o Ammeter = 0.1 A

o Stopwatch = 0.01 s

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 o Digital balance = 0.1 g
Method

Apparatus for heating water and measuring energy supplied

1. Place the beaker on the digital balance and press 'tare'
2. Add approximately 250 ml of water and record the mass of
the water using the digital balance
3. Place the immersion heater and thermometer in the water
4. Connect up the circuit as shown in the diagram, with the
ammeter in series with the power supply and immersion
heater, and the voltmeter in parallel with the immersion
heater
5. Record the initial temperature of the water at time 0 s

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 6. Turn on the power supply, set it at approximately 10 V, and
start the stopwatch
7. Record the voltage from the voltmeter and the current from
the ammeter
8. Continue to record the temperature, voltage and current
every 60 seconds for 10 minutes
9. Repeat steps 2-8, replacing the beaker of water for the solid
block of aluminium and starting with recording its mass
using the digital balance
 An example of a results table might look like this:

Analysis of Results
 Calculate the energy supplied every 60 seconds using the
formula:
Electrical energy = voltage × current × time
 Where:
o Electrical energy is measured in Joules (J)

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 Voltage is measured in volts (V)
o

o Current is measured in amps (A)

o Time is measured in seconds (s)

 Calculate the temperature change by subtracting the

temperature at time 0 s from the temperature recorded each
minute
 The equation for specific heat capacity is:
ΔQ = m × c × ΔT
 Where:
o ΔQ = change in thermal energy, in joules (J)

o m = mass of substance, in kilograms (kg)

o c = specific heat capacity, in joules per kilogram per

degree Celsius (J/kg °C)

o ΔT = change in temperature, in degrees Celsius (°C)

 Plot a graph of the energy supplied (y-axis) against the

temperature change multiplied by the average mass (x-axis)
 Calculate the gradient of this graph in the straight line region
in order to obtain the specific heat capacity of the water or
solid block

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The gradient of the graph is equal to the specific heat
capacity of the substance, assuming a perfectly efficient
immersion heater

Evaluating the Experiment

Systematic Errors:
 Ensure the digital balance is set to zero before taking

measurements of mass
 Some water may be lost to the surroundings by evaporation.

Calculate an average mass of water (using the mass before

the experiment and the mass after) to account for this
 Remember to only take gradients on the straight-line region

o Before this point the energy supplied is being used to

heat the immersion heater itself

Random Errors:

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 Stir the water constantly whilst heating it to ensure the
temperature measured is the temperature throughout the
fluid
 When the current or voltage values appear to be changing

between two values next to one another then be consistent

in choosing the higher value
Safety Considerations
The immersion heater will get very hot
o Make sure not to touch it, and have a heatproof mat

ready to place it on
 Make sure that the immersion heater is connected to

a Direct Current supply

 The beaker may become unstable with an immersion heater

and thermometer resting in it

o If you feel this is the case then use a clamp stand to

hold both
 Wear goggles while heating water

 Make sure to stand up during the whole experiment, to react

quickly to any spills

5.3.1 Kinetic Theory
 Molecules in a gas are in constant random motion at high

speeds
 Random motion means that the molecules are travelling in

no specific path and undergo sudden changes in their

motion if they collide:
o With the walls of its container

o With other molecules

 The random motion of tiny particles in a fluid is known

as Brownian motion

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 Random motion of gas molecules in a container
 Brownian motion provides evidence that air is made of small

particles
 This is because when larger particles, such as smoke particles

or pollen, are observed floating in the air:

o The larger particles move with random motion

o This is a result of the larger particles colliding

with smaller particles that are invisible to the naked

eye
Pressure
 A feature of gases is that they fill their container
 The pressure is defined as the force per unit area

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  As the gas particles move about randomly they collide with
the walls of their containers
 These collisions produce a net force at right angles to the
wall of the gas container (or any surface)
 Therefore, a gas at high pressure has more frequent
collisions with the container walls and a greater force
o Hence the higher the pressure, the higher

the force exerted per unit area

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Gas molecules bouncing off the walls of a container

 It is possible for someone to experience this force by closing

their mouth and forcing air into their cheeks
 The strain on the cheeks is due to the force of the gas
particles pushing at right angles to the cheeks
 5.3.2 Absolute Zero
 the amount of pressure that a gas exerts on its container is
dependent on the temperature of the gas
o This is because particles move with more energy as

their temperature increases

 As the temperature of the gas decreases, the pressure on the
container also decreases

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  In 1848, Mathematician and Physicist, Lord Kelvin,
recognized that there must be a temperature at which the
particles in a gas exert no pressure
o At this temperature they must no longer be moving,

and hence not colliding with their container

 This temperature is called absolute zero and is equal to -273
°C

At absolute zero, or -273 °C, particles will have no net

movement. It is therefore not possible to have a lower
temperature

Absolute zero is defined as:

The temperature at which the molecules in a substance have
zero kinetic energy
 This means for a system at absolute zero, it is not possible to

remove any more energy from it

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 Even in space, the temperature is roughly 2.7 K above


absolute zero
The Kelvin scale

 The Kelvin temperature scale begins at absolute zero

o 0 K is equal to -273 °C

o An increase of 1 K is the same change as an increase of

1 °C
 It is not possible to have a temperature lower than 0 K
 This means a temperature in Kelvin will never be a negative
value
 To convert between temperatures θ in the Celsius scale, and
T in the Kelvin scale, use the following conversion:
θ / °C = T / K − 273
T / K = θ / °C + 273

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Conversion chart relating the temperature on the Kelvin and
Celsius scales

Worked Example

The temperature in a room is 300 K.

What is this temperature in Celsius?
Step 1: Kelvin to Celsius equation
θ / °C = T / K − 273
Step 2: Substitute in value of 300 K
300 K − 273 = 27 °C

5.3.3 Temperature

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Temperature & Speed
 Imagine molecules of gas that are free to move around in a box
 The molecules in the gas move around randomly at high speeds,
colliding with surfaces and exerting pressure upon them
 The temperature of a gas is related to the average speed of the
molecules:
o The hotter the gas, the faster the molecules move and vice
versa
o Hence, the molecules collide with the surface of the walls
more frequently

Gas molecules move about randomly at high speeds

This is because their kinetic energy increases
Temperature & Kinetic Energy
 Heating a system will change the energy stored in a system by
increasing the kinetic energy of its particles
o The Kelvin temperature of the gas is related to the average
kinetic energy of the molecules
 This increase in kinetic energy (and therefore energy stored in the
system) can:

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 oCause the temperature of the system to increase
o Or, produce a change of state (solid to liquid or liquid to gas)

 The internal energy of a gas is the sum of the kinetic energy of all
the molecules
 The higher the temperature, the higher the average kinetic energy of
the molecules and vice versa
o This means they move around faster

As the container is heated up, the gas molecules move faster with
higher kinetic energy. The energy stored within the system - the
internal energy - therefore increases
 If the temperature of a gas is increased, the particles move faster and
gain kinetic energy
o Therefore, they will collide more with each other and the
container leading to an increase in pressure

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 The temperature (in Kelvin) is proportional to the average kinetic
energy of the molecules
T ∝ KE
Worked Example
When a liquid evaporates, molecules escape from the surface of the
liquid. What happens to the temperature of the liquid and the average
kinetic energy of the molecules within it?

ANSWER: B

When evaporation takes place, the more energetic molecules
o
are leaving the surface of the liquid
o Since the more energetic molecules have left, the average
kinetic energy per molecule must decrease
 Therefore, A, C & D are not correct
o Temperature is proportional to the average kinetic energy per
molecule, therefore the temperature also decreases
5.3.4 The Gas Laws

The Gas Laws

 Gas laws provide explanations for the relationships between:
o Pressure and volume at a constant temperature
o Pressure and (Kelvin) temperature at a constant volume

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Pressure & Volume
 If the temperature of a gas remains constant, the pressure of the
gas changes when it is:
o Compressed – decreases the volume which increases the
pressure
o Expanded – increases the volume which decreases the
pressure

Pressure increases when a gas is compressed

Pressure increases when a gas is compressed
 Similarly, a change in pressure can cause a change in volume
 A vacuum pump can be used to remove the air from a sealed
container
 The diagram below shows the change in volume to a tied up balloon
when the pressure of the air around it decreases:

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  Therefore, if the gas is compressed, the molecules will hit the walls
of the container more frequently
o This creates a larger overall net force on the walls which
increases the pressure
Pressure & Temperature
 The motion of molecules in a gas changes according to the
temperature
 As the temperature of a gas increases, the average speed of the
molecules also increases
 Since the average kinetic energy depends on their speed, the
kinetic energy of the molecules also increases if its volume
remains constant
o The hotter the gas, the higher the average kinetic energy
o The cooler the gas, the lower the average kinetic energy

 If the gas is heated up, the molecules will travel at a higher speed
o This means they will collide with the walls more often
o This creates an increase in pressure

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  Therefore, at a constant volume, an increase in temperature
increases the pressure of a gas and vice versa
 Diagram A shows molecules in the same volume collide with the
walls of the container more with an increase in temperature
 Diagram B shows that since the temperature is proportional to the
pressure, the graph against each is a straight line

At constant volume, an increase in the temperature of the gas

increases the pressure due to more collisions on the container walls

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Exam Tip
You are required to be able to describe the links between pressure &
volume and pressure & temperature qualitatively. This means that the
correct use of terms such as 'collision', 'kinetic energy' and 'frequency',
will be really important.

5.3.5 The Pressure Law

 If the volume V of an ideal gas is constant, the pressure law is
given by:
P∝T
 This means the pressure is proportional to the temperature

 The relationship between the pressure and (Kelvin) temperature for

a fixed mass of gas at constant volume can also be written as:

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  Where:
o P1 = initial pressure (Pa)
o P2 = final pressure (Pa)
o T1 = initial temperature (K)
o T2 = final temperature (K)

Pressure law graph representing temperature (in °C) directly

proportional to the volume
Worked Example
The pressure inside a bicycle tyre is 5.10 × 105 Pa when the temperature
is 279 K. After the bicycle has been ridden, the temperature of the air in
the tyre is 299 K.Calculate the new pressure in the tyre, assuming the
volume is unchanged.

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Exam Tip
Remember when using gas law the temperature T must always be
in kelvin (K)!
5.3.6 Boyle's Law
 For a fixed mass of a gas held at a constant temperature:
pV = constant
 Where:
o p = pressure in pascals (Pa)
3
o V = volume in metres cubed (m )

 This means that the pressure and volume are inversely proportional
to each other
o When the volume decreases (compression), the pressure
increases
o When the volume increases (expansion), the pressure
decreases

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  This is because when the volume decreases, the same number of
particles collide with the walls of a container but more frequently
as there is less space
o However, the particles still collide with the same amount of
force meaning greater force per unit area (pressure)
 The key assumption is that the temperature and the mass (and
number) of the particles remains the same

Increasing the volume of a gas decreases its pressure

 This equation can also be rewritten for comparing the pressure and
volume before and after a change in a gas:
P1V1 = P2V2
 Where:
o P1 = initial pressure in pascals (Pa)
3
o V1 = initial volume in metres cubed (m )
o P2 = final pressure in pascals (Pa)
3
o V2 = final volume in metres cubed (m )

 This equation is sometimes referred to as Boyle's Law

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Initial pressure and volume, P1 and V1, and final pressure and volume,
P2 and V2
Worked Example
A gas occupies a volume of 0.70 m3 at a pressure of 200 Pa. Calculate
the pressure exerted by the gas if it is compressed to a volume of 0.15
m3.Assume that the temperature and mass of the gas stay the same.

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Exam Tip
Always check whether your final answer makes sense. If the gas has
been compressed, the final pressure is expected to be more than the
initial pressure (like in the worked example).If this is not the case,
double-check the rearranging of any formulae and the values put into
your calculator.

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