Laboratory Manual

Subject: Physics-1 Lab. (BS-PH 191)

Semester: 1st
Discipline: CSE, CSBS, ME

ACADEMY OF TECHNOLOGY
 List of Experiments:

1. Determination of dispersive power of the material of a prism

2. Determination of wavelength of a monochromatic light by Newton‟s ring
3. Determination of Hall coefficient of a semiconductor by four probe method.
4. Determination of wavelength of light using plane diffraction grating
5. Determination of Stefan-Boltzmann constant.
6. Determination of Planck constant.
7. Determination of Rydberg constant by studying Hydrogen spectrum.
8. Determination of Young‟s modulus of elasticity of the material of a bar by the method of flexure.(non-uniform
bending)
9. Determination of modulus of rigidity of the material of a rod by static method
Experiment 1
Determination of Dispersive Power of the Material of Prism

Definition:
When a white light is incident on a refracting plane of a prism, it splits into constituent colours
(wavelengths) and form a spectrum. This phenomenon is called dispersion of light..
Dispersive power is the ability to disperse various colors of the incident polychromatic light. It has no
unit.
Theory and working formula :

The refractive index of the prism with respect to Red

𝐴 +𝛿 𝑚𝑅
sin
2
𝜇𝑅 = 𝐴
sin
2
The refractive index of the prism with respect to Green
𝐴+𝛿 𝑚𝐺
sin
2
𝜇𝐺 = 𝐴
sin 2
Average refractive index of the prism,
𝜇𝑅 + 𝜇𝐺
𝜇𝑎𝑣𝑒 =
2
Dispersive power of the prism,
𝜇𝐺 ∿𝜇𝑅
𝜔=
𝜇𝑎𝑣𝑒 − 1

Apparatus:

(i) Optical Spectrometer,

(ii) White light source
(iii) Equilateral Glass Prism

1st part of the Experiment: To find the angle of the prism (A).

Procedure:
(i) Move the slider at 12 mark START button gets active and the image is focused perfectly in the
telescope of the spectromter. Then click the button. The other variables will shown in the simulator
panel.
(ii) Switch ON the light
(iii) Move the slider of SLIT FOCUS to a position (say 5.8) when the sharp bright image of the slit is shown
in the view.
(iv) Move the slider of SLIT WIDTH to a position (say, 0.2).
(v) Click the PLACE PRISM button. The prism is shown as placed on the prism table.
(vi) Move the slider of TELESCOPE to a position (say, 60.3) when slit image appear in the view.
(vii) Move the slider of TELESCOPE under Fine Angle to a position (say, -1.2) when the vertical crosswire
merge with the slit image. This is called as Left Image of the slit.
(viii) Now take the readings from any one of the angular scale (main scale + vernier scale) of the
spectrometer. Place the hand-symbol pointer on the spectrometer scale. You will find the magnified
scale at the right-bottom side panel.
 (ix) Find the position of the „0‟ of the vernier in the main scale which is the main scale reading. The
particular division of the vernier which exactly coincide with any one of the main scale, is the vernier
reading.
(x) Move the slider of the TELESCOPE in the reverse direction (say, -59.2) when the slit image again
shown in the view. Adjust the Fine Angle slider to merge the image to crosswire. This is called Right
Image of the slit.
(xi) Calculate the difference of the readings of Left Image and Right Image. Then divide the result by 2
gives the angle of the prism.

Observation Table:
Vernier Constant of the Spectrometer = 60”

Reading for left image Reading for Right image

𝜃
Main Vernier *Total Main Vernier *Total 𝜃 = 𝑎~𝑏 𝐴=
scale scale (a) scale scale (b) 2

*Total reading = main scale reading + (Ver. Const. x vernier reading)

Position of the prism on the prism table for measuring A

2nd Part of the expt: To find the minimum angle of deviation for Red 𝜹𝒎𝑹 and
Green 𝜹𝒎𝑮 .

Position of the prism on the prism table for measuring 

Procedure:
(i) Move the slider of VERNIER TABLE to a position (say, 105.2) and move the slider of the
TELESCOPE to a position (say, 40.9). That one refracting plane of the prism will face the
collimator and another face to the telescope.
(ii) A spectrum of several colour is shown in the view. Now rotate the VERNIER TABLE by the
slider under Fine Angle. Note that at some position of the slider the spectrum gets stationary
and then started to return back.
(iii) Now place the crosswire on the on the Red line by the slider of the TELESCOPE under Fine
Angle. This is the position of minimum deviation for Red.
(iv) Take the reading of main scale and vernier scale from any one of the spectrometer scale.
(v) Now place the crosswire on the on the Green line by the slider of the TELESCOPE under Fine
Angle. This is the position of minimum deviation for Red. Take reading of that.
(vi) Click the REMOVE PRISM button. Rotate the TELESCOPE by setting the slider at zero
position. Adjust the Fine angle to place the crosswire on white slit image.
(vii) Take this direct reading from the same scale.

Observation Table:

At minimum deviation positionof

Color of

Direct reading
the line

the line 𝛿𝑚 = 𝑎~𝑏

Main Vernier Total Main Vernier Total
scale scale (a) scale scale (b)
Red (R) 𝛿𝑚𝑅 =

Green (G) 𝛿𝑚𝐺 =

Calculation:
A=…… mR=. mG =

𝐴 +𝛿 𝑚𝑅
sin
2
𝜇𝑅 = 𝐴 =
sin
2
𝐴 +𝛿 𝑚𝐺
sin
2
𝜇𝐺 = 𝐴 =
sin
2

𝜇𝑅 + 𝜇𝐺
𝜇𝑎𝑣𝑒 = =
2
𝜇𝑅 ~𝜇𝐺
𝜔= =
𝜇𝑎𝑣𝑒 − 1

_______________________________________________________________________________

Link for thesimulator :

https://vlab.amrita.edu/?sub=1&brch=281&sim=851&cnt=1

http://ov-au.vlabs.ac.in/optics/Spectrometer_Dispersive_Power/experiment.html
Experiment No.2
Determination of Wavelength of a Monochromatic Light
by Newton’s Ring Experiment
Theory:
This is an experiment of interference of light by division of amplitude.
A parallel beam of monochromatic light is produced by a lens L and then it is reflected vertically downward by a
glass plate G as shown in figure below. This is made to incident normally on a combination of a plano-convex lens
P and a glass plate E, as shown. The thin air film confined between the plan-convex lens P and the glass plate E,
generates the coherent light beams by multiple refraction and reflection. These coherent light beams will interfere
and produce a system of alternate dark and bright rings with the point of contact between the lens and the plate as
the centre. These rings are known as Newton‟s ring.

Working Formula :
If 𝐷𝑚 be the diameter of the 𝑚-th dark ring and 𝐷𝑚 +𝑛 be the diameter of the 𝑚 + 𝑛 -th dark ring counted from
the centre,𝑅 be the radius of curvature of the lens and 𝜆 be the wavelength of the light then
2 2
(𝐷𝑚 +𝑛 − 𝐷𝑚 ) 𝜇
𝜆= …… 1
4 𝑛𝑅
Where, μ is the refractive index of the medium. Equation-1 is the working formula

Instrument Specification:
Vernier constant of the microscope = 0.001 cm
Radius of curvature of the plano-convex lens = 50 cm.

Procedure for conducting the simulator:

 Select Air as the medium between the plano-convex lens and the glass plate.
 Select Sodium Light as a monochromatic light source.
 Click the LIGHT ONbutton. The Newton‟s Rings (yellow in colour) will appear in the field of view of the
microscope. You will also find the cross-wires (like „+‟ sign) at the centre.
 Focus the microscope to get the sharp image of the Rings.
 The vertical cross line is placed tangentially on the inner bright ring (m = 1) by clicking the horizontal screw
of the microscope. Note the main scale (in cm) and vernier scale reading.
 In the same way, take readings for 2nd ,3rd ,4th, 5th and 6th bright Rings in the direction right to left (R L).
 Move to 7th ring and then in the direction (LR) take readings for 6th , 5th, 4th, 3rd, 2nd , 1st Rings.
 To get the diameter of the Rings the above steps are repeated in the right side of the Ring System. At first,
move (LR) for 1st ring to 6th ring, then turn back (R L) for 6th ring to 1st ring.

Observation Table:
Table 1. Measurement of diameter of the Newton‟s Rings
Microscope readings (cm) on the Diameter
Mean 2
Ring Left (𝑅1 ) Right (𝑅2 ) 𝐷𝑚 𝐷𝑚 in
𝐷𝑚 in
No. = 𝑅1 ~𝑅2 cm2
MSR VSR Total MSR VSR Total cm
in cm
𝑅→𝐿
𝑚=1
𝐿→𝑅

𝑅→𝐿
𝑚+1
=2
𝐿→𝑅

𝑅→𝐿
𝑚+2
=3
𝐿→𝑅

𝑅→𝐿
𝑚+3
=4
𝐿→𝑅

𝑅→𝐿
𝑚+4
=5
𝐿→𝑅

𝑅→𝐿
𝑚+5
=6
𝐿→𝑅

Calculation [for air medium; μ =1]

2
𝐷𝑚 2
+1 −𝐷𝑚
For 𝑛 = 1, 𝜆 = =…………………cm
4×1×𝑅
2
𝐷𝑚 2
+2 −𝐷𝑚
For 𝑛 = 2, 𝜆 = =…………………cm
4×2×𝑅
2
𝐷𝑚 2
+3 −𝐷𝑚
For 𝑛 = 3, 𝜆 = =…………………cm
4×3×𝑅
2
𝐷𝑚 2
+4 −𝐷𝑚
For 𝑛 = 4, 𝜆 = =…………………cm
4×4×𝑅
2 2
𝐷𝑚 +5 −𝐷𝑚
For 𝑛 = 5, 𝜆 = =…………………cm.
4×5×𝑅

Result:
The mean wavelength of sodium light 𝜆 =…………………cm.

Click the link for the simulator:

http://lo-au.vlabs.ac.in/laser-optics/Newtons_Rings_Wavelength_of_light/experiment.html
https://vlab.amrita.edu/?sub=1&brch=189&sim=335&cnt=4
Experiment No.3
Determination of Hall-coefficient of Semiconductor
Hall Effect:
If a current 𝐼𝑥 flows along the length 𝑙 (X-axis) of a piece of semiconductor and a magnetic field 𝐵𝑧 is set up along
its thickness 𝑡 (Z-axis), the moving charges (electrons or holes) of the semiconductor will concentrate along one
side of the breadth 𝑏 (Y-axis) due to the Lorentz force 𝐹 = 𝑞 𝑣 × 𝐵 . The charge concentration increases towards
one side and deficiency towards the other side of the breadth will set up an electric field 𝐸𝐻 or potential 𝑉𝐻 along
Y-direction. At equilibrium, the produced electric field just cancels the Lorentz force due to the magnetic field.
This effect is called Hall Effect.
The produced electric field is called Hall field and the corresponding voltage is called Hall voltage.
Hall voltage produced per unit current per unit magnetic field for unit thickness of the material is calledHall
coefficient.Its SI unit is 𝑚3 /𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏.

𝑉𝐻 𝑡
Working formula:𝑅𝐻 =
𝐼𝑥 𝐵𝑧
VH = Hall voltage (volts)
t =thickeness of the semiconductor (metre)
Ix= Current through semiconductor (ampere)
BZ=Magnetic field (tesla)
RH = Hall coefficient (m3 /C)
Instruments:
(i) Two solenoids (ii) Constant current supply (iii) Digital gauss meter (iii) Hall effect apparatus (which consist of
Constant Current Generator (CCG), digital milli voltmeter and Hall probe).

Procedure:
(i) Select Magnetic field Vs Currentoptionfromthe procedure combo-box.
(ii) Click Insert Probe button to place the Gauss Probe in between the solenoid. Click on the wooden stand on the
simulator to insert the probe properly.
(iii) Using Current slider, vary the current (from 1A to 5A in step of 0.5A) through the solenoid and corresponding
magnetic field (shown in tesla) is to be noted from Gauss meter in the simulator. Write these 9 readings in the
observation table.
(iv) SelectHall Effect Setup option from theprocedure combo box.

(v) Click Insert Hall Probebutton. Place the probe in between the solenoid by clicking the wooden stand in the
simulator.
(vi) Select the material (say, Germanium) from the drop-down list.
(vii) Select the thickness of the material (say, 0.0005m) using the slider ‘Thickness’.

(viii) Select the Hall current (say, 3mA ) using the slider „Hall Current’. Keep this current fixed in a given
experiment.
(ix) Click the Show voltage button to find the Hall voltage (VH) in the simulator.
(x) For each value of the solenoid current (i.e,1A, 1.5A, 2A …etc.) you find the Hall voltage (V H) and write in the
table. The thickness (t) and Hall current (IX) is fixed in the experiment.
(xi) Calculate the Hall-coefficient (RH) for each observation. Then take the average.

Observation Table:
Material Name:…………………………..
Thickness (t) =…………………………(m)
Hall-current (IX) =…………………..(mA)

Hall Hall coeff. Average

Current through Magnetic field
No. of obs. voltage (RH) (RH)
solenoid (amp) generated(tesla)
(mV) (m3 /C) (m3 /C)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9

Result:
The Hall-coefficient of the material is:………………………………………m3 / C

*****

Follow the link to reach the Hall-effect simulator

http://vlab.amrita.edu/?sub=1&brch=282&sim=879&cnt=1
Experiment No.4

Determination of Wavelength of Light using Plane Diffraction Grating

Theory
Definition :The word LASER is an acronym for ‘Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of
Radiation’. The laser is characterized by its high degree of coherence. Also it is perfectly monochromatic
and has strong directional property.
Spreading of light waves behind a narrow opening or a sharp edge obstacle is Diffraction of light. For
diffraction we use multiple slit arrangements known as Grating.
Working Formula:Let a laser beam of wavelength 𝜆 coming from a Laser diode fall normally on a plane
transmission grating. The emitted laser beam will be diffracted by the grating. The diffraction pattern
can be found with a number of primary maxima on either side of the central maximum. If 𝜃𝑛 be the
angle of diffraction of the 𝑛-th primary maxima, and 𝑁 be the number of lines per cm. ruled on the
grating, then the wavelength of light is given by
sin 𝜃𝑛
𝜆= …… 1
𝑛𝑁
Equation-1 is the working formula.

Here instead of laser we will use Mercury Vapour lamp.

Apparatus:
i) Mercury Vapour lamp ii) Spectrometer iii) Grating

Procedure for simulation

(i) Move the slider at 12 mark START button gets active and the image is focused perfectly in the
telescope of the spectromter. Then click the „start‟ button. The other variables will appear in the
simulator panel.
(ii) Switch ON the light
(iii) Move the slider of SLIT FOCUS to a position (say 5.8) when the sharp bright image of the slit is shown
in the view.
(iv) Move the slider of SLIT WIDTH to a position (say, 0.2).
(v) Click the PLACE GRATING button. The prism is shown as placed on the prism table.
(vi) Move the slider of TELESCOPE to a central position (say, 88) when slit image appear in the view.
(vii) Move the slider of TELESCOPE under Fine Angle to a position (say, -1.2) when the vertical crosswire
merge with the slit image. This is called as Direct Image of the slit.
 (viii) Now take the readings from any one of the angular scale (main scale + vernier scale) of the
spectrometer. Place the hand-symbol pointer on the spectrometer scale. You will find the magnified
scale at the right-bottom side panel.
(ix) Find the position of the „0‟ of the vernier in the main scale which is the main scale reading. The
particular division of the vernier which exactly coincide with any one of the main scale, is the vernier
reading.
(x) Move the slider of the TELESCOPE left or right direction (say, 72.2) and place the crosswire on the on
the Yellow line by the slider of the TELESCOPE and with under Fine Angle. This is first order
diffraction. Take main scale and vernier scale reading.
(xi) Now move the TELESCOPE further left to focus on 2nd order Yellow line. Take main scale and vernier
scale reading.
(xii) Now repeat the same steps in right side. Take reading for both order.

Instrument Specification
Number of rulings per cm of the grating = 5500
Vernier constant of the spectrometer =……1 min…………

Record of Experimental Data

Table (1a)
Determination of the angles of diffraction for different orders

Order Readings for the diffracted images at the left of the central maxima Angle of
No.(𝑛) Main scale Vernier scale Total diffraction(𝜃𝐿 )
0
1
2

Table (1b)

Order Readings for the diffracted images at the right of the central maxima Angle of
No.(𝑛) Main scale Vernier scale Total diffraction(𝜃𝑅 )
0
1
2
Table 2
To find the wavelength
Order Mean angle of diffraction No. of lines per sin 𝜃𝑛 Mean 𝜆
𝜆= in cm
𝑛𝑁
No.(𝑛) 𝜃𝑛 = 𝜃𝐿 + 𝜃𝑅 2 cmof the grating (cm)
(𝑁)
1

The wavelength of Yellow light is ---------

Link for the simulator:

http://vlab.amrita.edu/index.php?sub=1&brch=281&sim=334&cnt=4
http://ov-au.vlabs.ac.in/optics/Diffraction_Grating/experiment.html
Experiment No.5
Determination of Stefan-Boltzman Constant

Objective: To determine the Stefan‟s Constant () applying the concepts of Blackbody Radiation.
Theory: The total energy radiated per unit area per second by a blackbody at a given temperature is proportional to
the fourth power of its absolute temperature. This is Stefan‟s law of blackbody radiation.
𝐸 = 𝜎𝑇 4
where  = 5.6710-8 J.m-2.s-1.K4 is known as Stefan‟s Constant.
If the body is placed in a surrounding of temperature T0 , then net amount of energy radiates by it per unit area per
unit time, 𝐸 = 𝜎(𝑇 4 − 𝑇04 ).
A hollow metal hemisphere is fitted into a wooden box in
which three thermometers (shows T1, T2 and T3) are inserted.
The box with the hemisphere is placed on a table in such a way
that the hole in the table be the centre of the hemisphere. A
small copper disk is placed in the hole. The hemisphere is
heated up by passing hot water over its surface.
If Th be the steady absolute temperature of the hemisphere and
Td be the temperature of the disc, then by Stefan‟s law the gain
in energy by the disc per second is
𝜎𝐴(𝑇𝑕 4 − 𝑇𝑑4 )
Where  is the Stefan‟s constant and A is the area of the disc. This gain in energy will raise the temperature of the
𝑑𝑇
disc.If is the rate of temperature rise of the disc, then the gain of energy of the disc per second is also given by
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑇
𝑚𝐶𝑝
𝑑𝑡

Where m is the mass of the disc and Cp is the specific heat of copper.
𝑑𝑇
Therefore, 𝜎𝐴 𝑇𝑕 4 − 𝑇𝑑4 = 𝑚𝐶𝑝 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑇
𝑚𝐶𝑝 𝑑𝑡
𝑜𝑟, 𝜎=
𝐴 − 𝑇𝑑4 𝑇𝑕4
This is the Working formula of finding Stefan‟s radiation constant.

Procedure for conducting the simulator:

 Set the temperature of the water (say 800C)
 Set the surrounding temperature (say 250C)
 Set the mass (say 5gm) and radius (say 2cm) of the disc using the slider.
 Press the “Power ON” button. and wait till steady state is reached and note the value of T1, T2 and T3
 Put the experimental copper disc at the centre of the hemisphere by “Fit the Disc” button.
 The temperature (T4) of the disc rises as shown in the digital thermometer with respect to time shown in the
digital stopwatch. Note the temperature in 30 sec. interval and record 15 observations. The data points must
be confined nearer to initial temperature of the disc so that whole energy transfer to the disc is occured due
to radiation only.
Observation Table:

Table1. Steady state temperature (Th) of the inner surface of the hemisphere

No. of obs. T1 (oC) T2 (oC) T3 (oC) Average Th (oC)

Table 2. Records of temperature of the disc with time

Time (s)
Temperature
(0C)
Temp. in K

Calculation:
Draw a graph of temperature (K) (along Y-axis) vs. time (s) (along X-axis). The mean graph will be linear in the
𝑑𝑇
lower temperature region. Find the slope of the graph 𝑑𝑡 . Put the value of all the parameters in the working
formula,
𝑑𝑇
𝑚𝐶𝑝 𝑑𝑡 325

𝜎=
𝐴 𝑇𝑕4 − 𝑇𝑑4 320

Tempearture (K)
315

Put m =mass of the disc =...................kg. 310

dT

Cp = Specific heat of copper at 250C = 385 J/kg

305 dt
A = Area of the disc =  r2= ........................m2
𝑑𝑇 300

is the slope of the graph of temperature vs time(s) =

𝑑𝑡 295

.......................K s-1
0 200 400 600 800 1000

Time (s)
Th = Average temperature of the surface of the hemisphere = ......................K
Td = Ambient temperature of the disc before inserting into the hemisphere = .....................K

Result: Stefan‟s Constant,  = ...............................J s-1m-2 K-4

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Link for the simulator:
http://vlab.amrita.edu/?sub=1&brch=194&sim=548&cnt=4
Experiment No.6.
Determination of Planck’s Constant (h)
Theory:
Knee voltage or Threshold voltage:The forward bias voltage at which the current through the PN junction starts
increasing rapidly is known as knee voltage.
LED is a p-n junction diode. When it is connected to forward-bias voltage, the potential barrier across the junction
reduces. At a certain voltage electrons started crossing the junction and become excited and when they return to the
normal stage, energy is emitted. Once the knee voltage is reached, the current may increase but the voltage does
not change.
𝑕𝑐
The light energy emitted by LED in forward bias is𝐸 =
𝜆
and if V be the knee voltage then E = eV
Combining these two equations, we get
𝑕𝑐
= 𝑒𝑉
𝜆
Working Formula:
𝝀𝒆𝑽
𝒉=
𝒄
Here  is the wavelength of radiation emitted by particular LED, e is the
electronic charge, c is the speed of light.
Apparatus:
(i) Battery (ii) one-way plug key (iii) Rheostat (iv) digital milliammeter (v) digital voltmeter (vi) LEDs (vii)
resistors (viii) connecting wires

Procedure for simulation:

1. Place the mouse pointer over the components (Battery, key etc.) and click to drag wire.
2. After the connections are completed, click on „Insert Key‟ button.
3. Click on the„Select LED‟ button and chose a LED
4. Move the slider under the Rheostat and at a particular value of the resistance the LED will glow. Record the
voltage shown on the voltmeter. This voltage is called knee voltage or threshold voltage
5. In the same way, find the threshold voltage for all the LED available (including Infrared) in the simulator.
6. In case of infrared LED, find the threshold voltage when the current in the milliammeter is shown. Because
Infrared radiation is not in the visible range.
7. Note the wavelength of radiation emitted from each LED.
8. Now calculate the Planck‟s constant (h) in each observation. Then find the average.
Observation Table:
Colour of Wavelength Threshold eλV Average (h)
LED (λ) voltage(V) h=
(nm) volt
c (J.s)
(J.s)
Red LED

Green LED

Yellow LED

Blue LED

Infrared LED 1100 nm

Calculation:
Show any one calculation of h in detail and step by step. Compare the result with standard value
(h= 6.626 10-34 J.s) and comment on the result.

Link for the simulator:

https://vlab.amrita.edu/?sub=1&brch=195&sim=547&cnt=4
Experiment No. 7.

Determination of Rydberg Constant by studying Hydrogen Spectrum

Theory
When an atomic gas or vapor at somewhat less than atmospheric pressure is suitably excited, usually by passing an
electric current (spark) through it, then it emits radiation. The emitted radiation has a spectrum which contains
1 1 1
certain specific wavelengths only and is given by =𝑅 − 𝑛2 .
𝜆 𝑛 𝑓2 𝑖
The quantity 𝑅 is known as the Rydberg constant. 𝑅 = 1 ∙ 097 × 105 𝑐𝑚−1 .
In 1885 J. J. Balmer found the visible part of the hydrogen atom emission line spectra. The spectral lines in which
the electron ends up in the quantum state with 𝑛𝑓 = 2 from quantum state with 𝑛𝑖 = 3, 4, 5, …. is called the Balmer
series. The spectral line with the longest wavelength, 653 ∙ 3 𝑛𝑚, is named 𝐻𝛼 corresponds to 𝑛 = 3. The next
spectral line, whose wavelength is 486 ∙ 3 𝑛𝑚, is named 𝐻𝛽 corresponds to 𝑛 = 4. The next spectral line, whose
wavelength is 434 ∙ 0 𝑛𝑚, is named 𝐻𝛾 corresponds to 𝑛 = 5. The formula for the wavelengths of Balmer series is
1 1 1
=𝑅 − 𝑛2 …… (i)
𝜆 22 𝑖

The spectral lines are observed after being diffracted by a plane transmission grating in the first order on both sides
of the central maxima. By measuring the angle of diffraction 𝜃 for 𝐻𝛼 , 𝐻𝛽 and 𝐻𝛾 lines, the corresponding
sin 𝜃
wavelengths are measured by the relation 𝜆 = 𝑁 …… (ii)
where 𝑁 is the number of lines per cm on the grating and the order is 1.

𝟐𝟐 𝒏𝟐𝒊
Working Fomula: 𝑅=
𝝀(𝒏𝟐𝒊 −𝟐𝟐 )
 is calculated using equation (ii).

Procedure for conducting simulation:

 Move the slider under the option „Calibrate Telescope‟ to a position at which the image shown in the field
of view become distinct and the „Start‟ button will be highlighted.
 Click on the „Start‟ button. A panel of variables appears on the right side of the simulation window.
 Select the „hydrogen lamp‟ lamp. Click the „Switch On Light‟ button. A narrow bright line (light passing
through the narrow vertical slit) is seen on the field of view of the spectrometer. Move the telescope to
observe the cross-wires.
 Click on the „Place Grating‟ button. The grating is mounted vertically on the prism table of the
spectrometer. Move the telescope to observe the spectrum.
 The hydrogen spectrum (Balmer series) is seen in the field of view.
 Set the crosswire on the Red (H) line and note the spectrometer reading. Similarly for Green (H) line,
Blue (H) line.
 Take readings also for white central line. Calculate the angle of diffraction for each spectral line and find
the wavelengths using formula.
 Finally put values in the working formula of Rydberg‟s constant (R).
Observation Tables:
To find the wavelength of Hydrogen spectral lines.
Table: 1

Reading for Hydrogen spectral lines Direct reading Angle of

in the 1st order (n = 1) left side diffraction
Main Scale Vernier Total (1) Main Vernier Total (2) (deg.-  = (1~2) (deg.-
(deg.-min.) scale (deg.-min.) Scale(deg.- Scale min.) min.)
min.)
H
(Red)
H
(Green)
H
(Blue)

Table: 2

Reading for Hydrogen spectral lines Direct reading Angle of

in the 1st order (n = 1) right side diffraction
Main Scale Vernier Total (1) Main Vernier Total (2) (deg.-  = (1~2) (deg.-
(deg.-min.) scale (deg.-min.) Scale(deg.- Scale min.) min.)
min.)

H
(Red)
H
(Green)
H
(Blue)

Table: 3
The average value of N =………….. lines/cm

Angle of
Angle of diffraction Mean angle of
diffraction for
diffraction. 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
for right side 𝜆=
left side
 = (1~2) 𝑛𝑁
 = (1~2)
 = (1~2) (cm)
(deg.-min.) (deg.-min.)
(deg.-min.)
H (Red)

H (Green)

H (Blue)
 Calculation:
The working formula of Rydberg‟s constant (R)
𝟐𝟐 𝒏𝟐𝒊
𝑅=
𝝀(𝒏𝟐𝒊 − 𝟐𝟐 )
For H line, nf = 2, ni = 3,  = ………….cm
R = ………………cm-1

For H line, nf = 2, ni = 4,  = ………….cm

R = ………………cm-1

For H line, nf = 2, ni = 5,  = ………….cm

R = ………………cm-1
Result:
The average value of R = ………………………… cm-1

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Link for the simulator
http://mpv-au.vlabs.ac.in/modern-physics/Emission_Spectra/experiment.html
Experiment No. 8

To find the Young’s Modulus of the Material of a Bar by Non-Uniform Bending.

Definition:
Young’s modulus: It is defined as the ratio of longitudinal stress to longitudinal strain within elastic limit. The
unit of Young‟s modulus : N.m-2
In case of Non-uniform bending
(i) the flexure (bending) of beam undergoes in the presence of a shear force, which implies that the bending
moment varies as we move along the axis
(ii) the radius of curvature is not the same for all the elements in the beam.
(iii) the beam is depressed due to load applied at the middle.

Working formula:
𝑔𝐿3 𝑚
𝑌= .
4𝑏𝑑3 𝑙
g =acceleration due to gravity = 9.8 m/s2
b = breadth of the bar
d = thickness of the bar
L = distance between two knife edges (end supports)
m = load applied at the middle
l = amount of depression due to load m

Apparatus:
(i) a rectangular bar (ii) a pointer (iii) two end supporting stands (iv) standard weights (v) travelling microscope
(vi) magnifying glass (vii) meter scale

Procedure for simulation:

1. Choose the place where the experiment is to be performed (say, on Earth).
2. Choose the material of the bar (say, Aluminium).
3. Move the slider to set the breadth of the bar at some value (say, 2 cm)
4. Move the slider to set the thickness of the bar at some value. (say, 0.5 cm)
5. Adjust the distance between the knife edges. (say, 50 cm)
6. Keep the slider for mass of the weight hanger at 0kg. At this condition, make it sure in the view finder that
the pointer just touches the horizontal crosswire. Click on the vertical scale of the microscope. The
magnified vernier scale will be shown on the screen. Take main scale reading and vernier reading.
7. Now move the slider of the weight to 100 gm. You will find in the view that the pointer is lifted up by an
amount. Rotate (by clicking) the top screw of the microscope, so that the pointer again just touches the
horizontal crosswire. Then take the readings of main & vernier scale.
8. Increase the weight to 200 gm. and in the same way takes readings.
9. Calculate the depression by subtracting the zero-load reading from each.
10. Find the result of Y using any experimental value of m and l.
 Observation Table:
Value of 1 main scale division = 0.05 cm
Number of vernier division =50
So, vernier constant = 0.05/ 50 = 0.001 cm
Total reading = main scale + (vernier scale  vernier constant)

Effective load Applied load For increasing load Depression,

m (gm) (gm) Main scale Vernier scale Total (cm) l (cm)
(cm)
0 50 A0 0

50 100 A1 A1~A0

150 200 A2 A2~A0

250 300 A3 A3~A0

350 400 A4 A4~A0

450 500 A5 A5~A0

Calculations:
Plot a graph of depression of the beam, l (along Y-axis) vs. effective load, m (along X-axis). The nature of the
graph will be linear which implies that Hook‟s law of elasticity is satisfied. Choose a point (other than
experimental points) on the graph and find the „m‟ and „l „corresponding to that point. Finally put the values of
all parameter in the working formula of Young‟s modulus

𝑔𝐿3 𝑚
𝑌= .
4𝑏𝑑 3 𝑙
Put g =9.8 m / s2,
L =.........................m
b = .........................m
d =...........................m
m = ……………….kg (From graph)
l = ............................m. (From graph)

Result:
The Young‟s modulus of the material of the experimental beam, Y = ………………….N.m-2

Link for the simulator:

https://vlab.amrita.edu/?sub=1&brch=280&sim=1509&cnt=4
Experiment No. 9

Determination of Modulus Of Rigidity of the Material of a Rod by Static Method

Theory
Hooke‟s law states that within elastic limit, the stress generated within a body is proportional to the strain, i.e.,
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
= 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡. This constant is called the modulus of elasticity.
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
The rigidity modulus of a material is defined as the ratio of shearing stress and shearing strain within the elastic
limit. The CGS unit of modulus of rigidity is 𝑑𝑦𝑛𝑒𝑐𝑚−2 and SI unit is 𝑁𝑚−2 . Its dimensional formula is
𝑀𝐿−1 𝑇 −2 .
If one end of a rigid cylindrical rod be kept firmly fixed and a torque is applied at the other end, the rod will
undergo a deformation by twisting a small angle  about its axis. In this apparatus the torque is supplied by
hanging a weight of mass M from a string wound round a pulley of radius R. A small mirror is attached on the rod
at a distance l from the fixed end. A telescope and scale arrangement is setup at a distance D (=1 m) from the
mirror. The telescope is focused at the reflected image of the scale in the mirror.
The modulus of rigidity of the material of the rod is given by
2𝑀𝑔𝑅𝑙
𝑛=
𝜋𝑟 4 
where r is the radius of the rod and l be the distance of the mirror from the fixed end. If the mirror rotates by an
angle , the reflected image will be rotated by 2. So the linear shift of the image S = 2 D (see fig.). S is measured
from the vertical linear scale (cm) attached with the telescope.
θ

Working Formula:
4𝑀𝑔𝑅 𝑙𝐷
Rigidity modulus, 𝑛 =
𝜋𝑟 4 𝑆
Procedure of conducting simulator:
 Select the material of the experimental rod. [Copper / Aluminium / Brass / Iron]
 Select the environment as earth [g = 9.8 m.s-2]
 Left end of the rod is fixed tightly and in the right end a pulley is attached. A string is wound over
the pulley and load is applied in step of 100 gm along the string. As a result torsion is generated in
the rod.
 Initial value of the load is set as 500 gm.
 The mirror on the rod is set at 25cm. from the fixed end of the rod.
 The position of the telescope is also set at 25 cm. so that the image of the scale lies in the field of
view of the telescope.
 The distance between the scale and the mirror is fixed on some value, say 100cm.
 Focus the image of the scale on the telescope.
 Set the radius of the rod (say at 3 mm) and the radius of the pulley (say, 5cm)
 Note the readings of the linear shift (S) on the scale for each applied load (in step of 100gm).
Number of observations will be 7 or 8.
Observation Table:

No. Weight Applied Increase in Scale reading (cm) Value of

of (gm) wt.M Increasing decreasing Mean shift S
obs. (gm) (cm)
1 500 0 X0 0
2 600 100 X1 X1- X0
3 700 200 X2 X2- X0
4 800 300 X3 --
5 900 400 X4 --
6 1000 500 X5 --
7 1100 600 X6 --
8 1200 700 X7

Calculation:
Draw a graph of linear shift (S) (along Y-axis) vs increase in weight (M) (along X-axis). The nature of the graph
should be linear passing through (0,0). Choose any point (other than experimental point) on the graph and find
corresponding M and S. Put the value of all parameters in the working formula of rigidity modulus
4𝑀𝑔𝑅 𝑙𝐷
𝑛=
𝜋𝑟4 𝑆
16

R = radius of the pulley = ………………m 14

r = radius of the rod = …………………..m 12

Linear shift (S) in cm.

10
l = distance of the mirror from the fixed end = ……………..m 8

D = distance of the scale from the mirror = ………………..m 6

g = 9.8 m.s-2
4

M = load (From graph) = …………….kg. 0

0 200 400 600 800 1000

S = corresponding linear shift (from graph) = ……………..m Applied Load (m) in gm

Result:
The rigidity modulus of the material of the rod =……………………..N.m-2

Link for the simulator:

http://vlab.amrita.edu/?sub=1&brch=280&sim=602&cnt=4