energies

Review
Electric Vehicles—An Overview of Current Issues—
Part 1—Environmental Impact, Source of Energy, Recycling,
and Second Life of Battery
Marek Guzek 1 , Jerzy Jackowski 2 , Rafał S. Jurecki 3, * , Emilia M. Szumska 3 , Piotr Zdanowicz 1
and Marcin Żmuda 2

1 Faculty of Transport, Warsaw University of Technology, Koszykowa 75, 00-662 Warsaw, Poland;
[email protected] (M.G.); [email protected] (P.Z.)
2 Department of Mechanical Engineering, Institute of Vehicles and Transportation, Military University of
Technology (WAT), Street gen. Sylwestra Kaliskiego 2, 00-908 Warsaw, Poland;
[email protected] (J.J.)
3 Department of Automotive Engineering and Transport, Faculty of Mechatronics and Mechanical Engineering,
Kielce University of Technology, Ave. Tysiaclecia
˛ Państwa Polskiego 7, 25-314 Kielce, Poland;
[email protected]
* Correspondence: [email protected]

Abstract: The rapid transition to electric-drive vehicles is taking place globally. Most automakers are
adding electric models to their lineups to prepare for the new electric future. From the analysis of the
automotive market, it is evident that there is a growing interest in such vehicles. They are expected
to account for half the models released after 2030. Electric-drive vehicles include battery-electric
vehicles. As indicated in the research literature and emphasized by experts, electric vehicles (EVs) are
supposed to be an environmentally friendly alternative to conventional vehicles. The rising number
and variety of EVs contribute to a better understanding of their performance. With more EVs on
the market, there are problems to be solved and challenges to overcome. This article is the first
part of a two-article series reviewing the strengths and weaknesses of EVs. The article analyzes the
environmental effects of EVs at each stage of their life cycle, compares large- and small-scale recycling
Citation: Guzek, M.; Jackowski, J.;
methods, and explores the potential applications of second-life batteries. This article is an attempt to
Jurecki, R.S.; Szumska, E.M.;
Zdanowicz, P.; Żmuda, M. Electric
find out how environmentally friendly EVs are.
Vehicles—An Overview of Current
Issues—Part 1—Environmental Keywords: electric vehicle; electric drive; EV safety; environment protection; source of energy; LCA;
Impact, Source of Energy, Recycling, recycling; second life of batteries
and Second Life of Battery. Energies
2024, 17, 249. https://doi.org/
10.3390/en17010249
1. Introduction
Academic Editor: Chunhua Liu
The use of electric propulsion in motor vehicles is not a new idea. The pioneer of
Received: 27 November 2023 electrically powered vehicles was Thomas Devenport, who built a small vehicle powered
Revised: 27 December 2023
by a Volta galvanic battery in 1834 [1]. The development of the lead-acid battery in 1859
Accepted: 31 December 2023
by Gaston Planté, and the construction of an alternator in 1866 by Warner von Siemens
Published: 3 January 2024
had a significant impact on the development of vehicles. The initial electrically powered
vehicle function was based on a tricycle developed by Percy and Ayton in 1882, which
was powered by batteries with a weight of approximately 45 kg. The operation of electric
Copyright: © 2024 by the authors.
vehicles at the time, compared to steam vehicles, revealed many advantages, where the
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. key ones included: quiet operation, ease of handling and driving, good dynamics, ease of
This article is an open access article motor installation (with smaller dimensions compared to steam), and simplification of the
distributed under the terms and drive train. By the end of the 19th century, electric carriages for hire and small two-seater
conditions of the Creative Commons electric vehicles with a range of approximately 48 km appeared in some European cities.
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// In 1898, the electric vehicle set a new speed record of 63.2 km/h. In addition to develop-
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ ments in the technology of the vehicles themselves, there have been developments in the
4.0/). accompanying infrastructure (e.g., chargers called Electrant—short for electric hydrant)

Energies 2024, 17, 249. https://doi.org/10.3390/en17010249 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

Energies 2024, 17, 249 2 of 25

and energy storage technology (e.g., nickel–iron Edison cells). Electric vehicles of the time
however did not replace horse-drawn vehicles. The main reasons for that were the short
range of the vehicles, the high manufacturing costs, and the need to frequently recharge
the exceptionally heavy batteries. Electric vehicles returned in the 1970s. The fuel crisis,
combined with increasing air quality problems in cities has given rise to the search for
alternatives to internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEVs). The EV1 presented by General
Motors in 1996 was a breakthrough design. The vehicle remained in production until
1999 and enjoyed a positive reputation among users. Another design of importance in the
history of electric cars was the Roadster presented by Tesla Motors in 2007. The vehicle
was equipped with lithium-ion batteries and had a range of nearly 400 km on a single
charge. Today, most car manufacturers have electric models in their range. There are also
corporations entering the market that produce only electric vehicles, such as, for instance,
Tesla Motors and BYD Auto.
Electric-powered vehicles are gaining an increasing share of the passenger and com-
mercial vehicle market. Electric vehicles include battery electric cars (BEVs), vehicles in
which an internal combustion engine cooperates with an electric drive (HEV—Hybrid
Electric Vehicles, PHEV—Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles) or vehicles equipped with fuel
cells or electrochemical batteries (FCEV—Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles). Electric drives in
various types of vehicles are subject to constant research and improvement. Vehicles in
which electric drives cooperate with other energy sources require complex systems related
to energy flow management or the battery charging process [2]. For example, in FCEV tech-
nology, analyses related to thermal safety and degradation of fuel cells, aging suppression
to trade-off energy sources durability, and hydrogen mass consumption [3,4].
Several challenges can be identified ahead of electric propulsion technology at present
with optimism regarding its future. New technologies applied to electric vehicle propul-
sion systems have the potential to make a significant contribution to the development of
intelligent and sustainable transport and to significantly reduce energy consumption and
emissions under various road conditions [5,6].
Today, electric cars account for 15% of all passenger cars currently used on a world
scale. The increasing number of cars currently in use allows for testing the electric drive
technology under regular operating conditions. User feedback and data derived from
electronic on-board systems installed in the vehicles provide valuable information for
manufacturers and serve as the basis for further EV development. However, every so often,
some voices and situations make it clear that electric cars need significant improvements.
However, you should be aware that with the popularization of electric vehicles,
certain problems also arise. Undoubtedly, the advantages of EVs include zero emissions
of pollutants and noise. However, there will be environmental concerns. Selected issues
include the impact of EVs on the environment during the production phase, the purity of
the electricity used to charge these vehicles, and the risks associated with recycling.
For the most part, scientific papers on EVs focus on issues related to EV operation (i.e.,
efficiency of the drive under given conditions, accuracy in estimating range and energy
consumption, lithium-ion battery technology), cost of use and purchase, factors relevant to
purchase, battery charging technology, or planning the location of charging infrastructure.
This paper aims to present the environmental aspects of the life cycle of an electric vehicle.
This work attempts to assess whether the production, use, and recycling phases of an
electric vehicle impose a burden on the environment and natural resources. This article
provides a critical analysis of the effects EVs may have on the environment during their life
cycle. It attempts to answer the following questions:
• Are EVs environmentally friendly over their entire life cycle?
• Can EVs be considered zero-emission vehicles?
• Can maximum efficiency be achieved while reclaiming the critical raw materials
(CRMs) from spent EV batteries?
• Will solutions like ‘second-life batteries’ reduce the negative impact of EVs on the
environment?
Energies 2024, 17, 249 3 of 25

The critical study of EVs presented in this article aims to highlight the fact that the
long-term implications of electromobility may be in some aspects negative. The analysis
was based only on data found in the research literature.
The review aimed to highlight the following problems that the development of electric
vehicles must face:
• The environmentally friendly electric vehicles assessment significantly depends on
the emission assessment method used,
• A small share of renewable energy sources in the electricity production structure has a
significant impact on the environmental friendliness of electric vehicles,
• Recycling of electric vehicle batteries should ensure maximum recovery of rare
earth metals,
• There is a need to develop second-life solutions used on a global scale that will extend
the life of electric vehicle batteries.
The following literature review methodology was used. The literature review was
completed in August 2023 using various databases (mainly Web of Science and Scopus),
press releases, and the European Union legal acts database. The literature was identified
using: a title, abstract, and keywords in accordance with the search profile of the mentioned
literature sources. The focus was on the following terms: electric vehicles/cars, battery
electric vehicles, environmental impact of electric vehicles/cars, electric vehicles/cars
battery recycling, battery second life, and recycling process.
The article is divided into two parts. In this—Part 1, the electric drive is presented in
terms of its use in motor vehicles. The advantages of this propulsion system and the risks
arising at the manufacturing, operating, and recycling stages of the vehicle are indicated
herein. The remaining, particularly important issues concerning the availability and types
of infrastructure dedicated to EVs and the safety of EV use are presented in Part 2.
This article discusses the selected problems related to the impact on the natural
environment posed by the production, use, and disposal process of EVs; it also discusses
the structure of electricity generation sources in selected countries; the methods of recycling
Li-ion batteries as well as their potential, and subsequent applications. The analysis of
the areas mentioned above presents a unique perspective related to the review nature of
the article.
The article is divided into chapters. Section 2 assesses the environmental impact of EVs.
Attention was focused on the entire life cycle of the electric vehicle, i.e., from the sourcing
of materials through to the production of the assemblies and vehicle, its operation, and
disposal. The manufacturing processes of electric and conventional vehicles were compared
mainly in terms of CO2 emissions. Section 3 seeks to answer the question of how green
an electric vehicle is. To answer this question, an analysis was made of the contribution
of individual energy generation sources to the total electricity generation process. The
concept of the energy mix was introduced for this purpose. This section presents a detailed
analysis of the energy mix carried out for European Union countries. Section 4 describes
EV battery recycling and reusability. EU regulations related to recycling efficiency targets
for Li-ion batteries were cited. The most popular commercial recycling methods for Li-ion
batteries are described and compared. The possibility of a second life for batteries from
EVs was identified and provided together with the citations of such solutions.

2. Assessment of the Environmental Impact of EVs

When analyzing the impact of motorization on the environment, it is possible to
distinguish impact categories that define the types of environmental effects. Examples of
impact categories include climate change, ozone depletion, eutrophication, acidification,
smog formation, poisoning of ecosystems, deterioration of human health, reduction in
fossil fuel, mineral and water resources, and conversion of land with natural ecosystems.
A vehicle fleet consisting solely of hybrid vehicles which still use the internal combustion
engine may not be sufficient to meet the CO2 emission value targets as specified in the
Energies 2024, 17, 249 4 of 25

European Green Deal. The solution is to increase the share of electric vehicles among all
vehicles in the EU.
Electric vehicles are described as zero-emission and eco-friendly, as they do not emit
any dust and gas compounds at the point of use (this is the Tank-to-Wheel (TTW) phase).
Therefore, in the comparison of an electric car with a hybrid and conventional vehicle
during ICEV operation, the EV seems as the most ‘green’. In order to objectively assess the
environmental impact of a vehicle, emissions during manufacture and disposal (known as
WTW—Well-to-Wheel) must be taken into account in addition to its useful life. However,
numerous studies assessing the environmental impact of BEVs overlooked these stages.
The period from the sourcing of materials, production, and assembly through to the
operation and disposal of the vehicle is referred to as their life cycle. By considering the
life cycle of a vehicle, it is possible to have a closer look at the emissions at each stage of
the cycle (LCA method—Life Cycle Assessment) and to estimate the total cost (LCC—Life
Cycle Cost). The vehicle life cycle includes the following stages [7,8]:
• Design stage;
• The manufacturing stage, which also includes the extraction of raw materials, the
manufacture of components and parts;
• The stage of assembling the vehicle and transporting it to the storage facility or the
end user;
• The operational phase, consisting of the use and maintenance of the vehicle;
• The disposal stage, including dismantling, sorting, partial reuse, recycling, or landfilling.
LCA takes into account the total emissions from the sourcing of the materials for a
product to its disposal or so-called ‘cradle-to-grave’ [9]. While assessing the life cycle of
a vehicle, the main input information includes fuels and other consumables, minerals,
construction materials, electricity, and heat. The key products, however, include emissions,
solid and liquid waste, noise, and electromagnetic radiation. This makes it possible to
identify and quantify the materials used and forms of energy and waste introduced into
the environment as well as to assess the environmental impact of these materials, energy,
and waste.
Another form of help in assessing the environmental impact of an electric vehicle
includes the estimation of the ‘carbon footprint’ (CFP). This method includes estimating
the total amount of greenhouse gas emissions produced at each stage of a vehicle’s life
cycle. The carbon footprint is defined as the total value of CO2 and other greenhouse
gas emissions converted into CO2 equivalents, which arise from the extraction of the raw
materials necessary to manufacture the vehicle, through its production, use, and disposal
(so-called from-cradle-to-grave) [10–12].
The initial phases of the vehicle life cycle can be described as ‘from-cradle-to-gate’.
These are the stages that take into account the sourcing of materials for vehicle components
and parts, their manufacture, the assembly of components, and the complete vehicle.
Taking into account the extraction of metal ores and materials, the production of parts
and components, and their assembly for all vehicle components, excluding the engine
and drivetrain, the CO2 emission levels for electric and internal combustion vehicles are
similar [13]. A comparative study dealing with the lifetime of electric and conventional VW
Caddy vehicles [13], based on the data provided in the Ecoinvent Database, indicates that
batteries are the major contributor to high CO2 emissions associated with EV production
(Figure 1).
 87 and 95 g of carbon dioxide equivalent per kilometer (g CO2-eg/km). In the case of the
production of a conventionally powered vehicle, this value was 43 g CO2-eq/km and is
about twice lower than for EVs. The higher carbon dioxide levels from the production of
EVs are compensated for by lowering the CO2 emissions from their use. This, however, is
Energies 2024, 17, 249 dependent on the emissions related to the structure of electricity production. 5 of 25
Figure 1 shows the total carbon dioxide emissions during the production of an elec-
tric and gasoline vehicle.

Figure 1.
Figure Cumulative carbon
1. Cumulative carbon dioxide
dioxide emissions
emissions in
in the
the production
production phase,
phase, in
in kg-CO (based on
kg-CO22 (based on [13]).
[13]).

In the production of a complete vehicle, the ICEV has about 60% lower CO2 emissions
Battery production contributes to between 35% and 41% of the global warming po-
than the electric vehicle [14]. That is due to the high level of greenhouse gas emissions in
tential at the EV manufacturing stage [16]. The battery manufacturing process is respon-
the production of lithium-ion batteries, electric traction motors, and electronic controllers.
sible for a significant proportion of the emissions due to the highly energy-intensive pro-
The authors of the paper [15] also noted that EVs display higher mercury emissions in
cesses required to obtain the materials used to make the batteries. Replacing conventional
the production stage. It was found that with current technologies, the lifecycle mercury
vehicles
emissions with
of electric
electric vehicles
vehiclesrepresents
with a range a significant
of 300 mileschange arein92%
natural
higherresource use pat-
than those of
terns around the world. In particular,
conventional internal combustion engine vehicles. the global demand required for battery production
of lithium,
At thecobalt, graphite, other
EV production stage,rare
the minerals, and earth
electrochemical elements
battery is one is of
expected
the most to signifi-
critical
cantly increase [17]. Moreover, many works point to an unstable
components in terms of greenhouse gas emissions in this area. According to research supply chain for the raw
materials used
presented in theinpaper
the production of lithium-ion
[16], the global warmingbatteries.
potentialThe (anuneven
indicator distribution
to quantify of the
the
basic minerals
greenhouse needed
effect of a to produce Li-ion
substance) may be
associated affected
with by variousoftypes
the production of geopolitical
electric vehicles is
and economic turmoil. The extraction and processing of the
between 87 and 95 g of carbon dioxide equivalent per kilometer (g CO2 -eg/km).raw materials of rareInminerals
the case
and
of theearth elements
production ofare scattered around
a conventionally the world,
powered unlike
vehicle, this oil deposits.
value was 43The g COfossil fuel sup-
2 -eq/km and
ply chaintwice
is about has already
lower thanbeenforestablished and remains
EVs. The higher carbonrelatively stable,
dioxide levels while
from thethe Li-ion sup-
production of
ply chain is under development and continues to evolve rapidly [18–20].
EVs are compensated for by lowering the CO2 emissions from their use. This, however, is
Considering
dependent on the the ever-changing
emissions manufacturing
related to the structure of technologies manufacturing, it is dif-
electricity production.
ficultFigure
to fully estimate
1 shows thethe values
total of greenhouse
carbon gas and
dioxide emissions energy
during theemissions
production inoftheanproduc-
electric
tion of powertrain
and gasoline vehicle. components and elements. Based on a review of 51 papers regarding
the LCA of conventional
Battery and electrictovehicles,
production contributes betweenthe 35%authors
and 41% of the paper
of the [21]warming
global concluded that
poten-
there are numerous analyses and differences in the environmental impact
tial at the EV manufacturing stage [16]. The battery manufacturing process is responsible of EV and ICEV
production.
for a significantTheproportion
work [22],of based on a broad
the emissions duereview
to the of workenergy-intensive
highly on LCA of vehicles with
processes
different
required to powertrain
obtain thetypes, concludes
materials used tothatmakethethe
assessment
batteries. of environmental
Replacing impacts
conventional in
vehi-
combination
cles with electricwithvehicles
resourcerepresents
procurement, materialchange
a significant processing, and parts
in natural manufacturing
resource use patterns is
an area where
around knowledge
the world. is lacking
In particular, theand requires
global further
demand research.
required for However, it should be
battery production of
mentioned
lithium, cobalt,thatgraphite,
electric powertrain components
other rare minerals, require
and earth significantly
elements is expectedlarger volumes of
to significantly
increase
raw [17]. Moreover,
materials many
and rare earth works
metals point production
during to an unstable supply chain
compared to ICEVs.for the
Whilerawdriving,
materi-
als used in the production of lithium-ion batteries. The uneven distribution of the basic
minerals needed to produce Li-ion may be affected by various types of geopolitical and
economic turmoil. The extraction and processing of the raw materials of rare minerals and
earth elements are scattered around the world, unlike oil deposits. The fossil fuel supply
chain has already been established and remains relatively stable, while the Li-ion supply
chain is under development and continues to evolve rapidly [18–20].
Considering the ever-changing manufacturing technologies manufacturing, it is diffi-
cult to fully estimate the values of greenhouse gas and energy emissions in the production
of powertrain components and elements. Based on a review of 51 papers regarding the
LCA of conventional and electric vehicles, the authors of the paper [21] concluded that
there are numerous analyses and differences in the environmental impact of EV and ICEV
production. The work [22], based on a broad review of work on LCA of vehicles with
different powertrain types, concludes that the assessment of environmental impacts in
combination with resource procurement, material processing, and parts manufacturing
is an area where knowledge is lacking and requires further research. However, it should
Energies 2024, 17, 249 6 of 25

Energies 2024, 17, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 26

be mentioned that electric powertrain components require significantly larger volumes of

raw materials and rare earth metals during production compared to ICEVs. While driving,
BEVs emit virtually no harmful particulate and gaseous emissions (except for the wear
BEVs emit virtually no harmful particulate and gaseous emissions (except for the wear
products, e.g., friction linings, and tires). This results in low overall greenhouse gas emis-
products, e.g., friction linings, and tires). This results in low overall greenhouse gas emis-
sions during the operational phase. As much as 75–95% of the life cycle GHG emissions
sions during the operational phase. As much as 75–95% of the life cycle GHG emissions
of ICEVs arise from the combustion of fuel during operation [23]. In the use phase, the
of ICEVs arise from the combustion of fuel during operation [23]. In the use phase, the
environmental performance of EVs is strongly dependent on the size and energy capacity
environmental performance of EVs is strongly dependent on the size and energy capacity of
of the battery, and the type and method of power generation used to charge the battery
the battery, and the type and method of power generation used to charge the battery [24,25].
[24,25]. As the results of the analyses presented in the paper [26] have shown, increasing
As the results of the analyses presented in the paper [26] have shown, increasing the energy
the energy
density density of
of batteries bybatteries
100 Wh/kg by 100canWh/kg
reducecan air reduce
pollutant air emissions
pollutant emissions over
over the life of the
an
life of an EV by 14–20%. It is important that EVs have the longest possible
EV by 14–20%. It is important that EVs have the longest possible lifetime mileage, as close lifetime mileage,
as possible
as close as topossible
that oftoanthat of ancombustion
internal internal combustion vehicle. Significant
vehicle. Significant environmental
environmental benefits
benefits can thus be achieved [27,28]. However, the battery
can thus be achieved [27,28]. However, the battery life is much shorter than thatlife is much shorter than
of that
the
of the vehicle. This carries with it the need to change the battery
vehicle. This carries with it the need to change the battery during the use of an electric during the use of an
electric vehicle. The energy storage efficiency of a lithium-ion battery
vehicle. The energy storage efficiency of a lithium-ion battery decreases with time because decreases with time
because
its its degradation
degradation progresses progresses
with time. with
Thetime.
user The user
is thus is thus
faced withfaced with the dilemma
the dilemma of whether of
whether to replace the battery
to replace the battery or the vehicle. or the vehicle.
Figure 22 shows
Figure shows thethe total
total CO
CO22 emissions
emissions by by electric
electric (VW
(VW e-Golf)
e-Golf) and
and gasoline
gasoline vehicles
vehicles
(VW Golf
(VW Golf VII
VII 1.4
1.4 TSI
TSI140
140KM)
KM)overovertheir
theirlife
lifecycle.
cycle. The
The calculations
calculationsof ofthe
thecumulative
cumulativeCO CO22
emissionsassociated
emissions associatedwith
withboth
bothtypes
types of of vehicles
vehicles took
took intointo account
account the the European
European condi-
conditions
tions (average
(average “European
“European mix”).mix”). The calculations
The calculations cover
cover the the whole
whole EV lifespan,
EV lifespan, from pro-
from production
duction to disposal, with a long period of use of 10 years and a
to disposal, with a long period of use of 10 years and a total of 150,000 km of driving. total of 150,000 km of
driving.

Figure 2. Emissions in the entire life cycle of a vehicle (150,000 km, 10 years) in kg-CO2 (based
Figure 2. Emissions in the entire life cycle of a vehicle (150,000 km, 10 years) in kg-CO2 (based on
on [13]).
[13]).
During the use of EVs, an important issue is how the electricity is produced, as this
During the use of EVs, an important issue is how the electricity is produced, as this
is the main cause of the environmental impact of EVs during the operational phase. Only
is the main cause of the environmental impact of EVs during the operational phase. Only
when global electricity generation is clean and essentially free of CO2 emissions from fossil
when global electricity generation is clean and essentially free of CO2 emissions from fossil
fuels will electric vehicles be able to realize their full potential in reducing greenhouse gas
fuels will electric vehicles be able to realize their full potential in reducing greenhouse gas
emissions from transport.
emissions
In the from transport.
end-of-life phase, the end-of-life vehicle is taken directly to a dismantling station,
where it is dismantled.phase,
In the end-of-life the end-of-life
The automotive wastevehicle is taken
generated directly
in such to a dismantling
a project is selected and sta-
tion, where it is dismantled. The automotive waste generated in such
then disposed of by recovering parts and recycling raw materials. The essence of recycling isa project is selected
and
to then disposed
minimize waste whileof by reducing
recovering theparts
needand recycling
for raw raw and
materials materials.
energyThe essence of re-
by incorporating
cycling is to minimize waste while reducing the need for raw
recovered raw materials and materials into recycling. A wide variety of materials materials and energycan by
incorporating recovered raw materials and materials into recycling.
be sourced from end-of-life vehicles; these materials include ferrous metals (71%), glass A wide variety of ma-
terialsplastics
(3%), can be(8%),sourced from
rubber end-of-life
materials (5%),vehicles; these
and light materials
metals includeElectric
(7%) [29–32]. ferrousvehicle
metals
(71%), glasscomponents
powertrain (3%), plastics (8%), valuable
contain rubber materials
resources(5%),
that and
can light metalsor
be recycled (7%) [29–32]. Elec-
remanufactured.
tric vehicleinpowertrain
However, particular,components
in the case ofcontain
electricvaluable
motors resources that canbattery
and lithium-ion be recycled or re-
systems, it
manufactured. However, in particular, in the case of electric
involves the need to adapt the dismantling and recycling process [33,34]. motors and lithium-ion bat-
tery As
systems,
reported it involves the need
in the paper [35],tomore
adapt the1.3
than dismantling
million tonnesand recycling process
of batteries from [33,34].
electric
As reported in the paper [35], more than 1.3 million tonnes
vehicles will be taken out of service by 2025. Such a large number of end-of-life of batteries from electric
Li-ion
vehicles will
batteries posebea taken
risk ofout of service
serious by 2025. Such
environmental a largeand
pollution number
wasteofofend-of-life
resources.Li-ionIt is
batteries pose a risk of serious environmental pollution and waste of resources. It is there-
fore necessary to introduce systems and chains for the effective collection and disposal of
Energies 2024, 17, 249 7 of 25

therefore necessary to introduce systems and chains for the effective collection and disposal
of batteries. The battery recycling process depends on the type of battery, necessitating
the development of a battery-specific approach [36,37]. According to the authors of the
paper [38], the recycling of the steel, aluminum, and cathode material of the traction battery
contributes to 61%, 13%, and 20%, respectively, of the total greenhouse gas value reduction
produced during the life cycle of an electric vehicle.
In the long term, battery recycling may also play a key role in reducing demand for
CRMs (c), more specifically, lithium and nickel. Recycled metals could meet 5.2–11.3% of
the demand for new materials [39]. In particular, since, as stated in the work no. [40], there
exists a potential risk of depletion of nickel, cobalt, and lithium reserves by 2050 [41].
Battery packs recovered from end-of-life electric vehicles can be reused in stationary
applications, e.g., as part of the so-called ‘smart grid’ or as energy storage for photovoltaic
systems [42,43]. Using electric vehicle batteries to store energy and save energy during peak
hours is a strategy that can provide savings for residential users, thereby reducing the load
on the electricity grid. Based on an extensive literature review of work on battery recycling
from electric vehicles, the authors of the paper [44] concluded that a holistic approach to the
integrated assessment of closed-loop and environmental aspects of batteries is, however,
lacking. It was noted that in addition to repurposing and recycling, the EV life cycle should
also include repair and maintenance, retrofitting, and/or battery reconditioning.
The analysis provides an answer to the first question, i.e., whether or not EVs can
be regarded as environmentally friendly over their whole life cycle. In summary, the
results of LCA analyses of vehicles with different types of powertrains presented in many
papers show that the massive expansion of electrification of transport could shift the impact
of greenhouse gas emissions to environmental burdens such as particulate matter (PMx )
formation, acidification or resource depletion [45,46]. The shift of environmental burdens
from the use phase to the extraction phase of raw materials and production implies a
delocalization of impacts, which poses new challenges at environmental, social, and legal
levels. Approximately 80% of the environmental burden of an EV’s life cycle depends on
both the battery and the energy consumption during operation [47], where the battery
accounts for 40–50% of total greenhouse gas emissions [48]. For the purpose of being able
to talk about the positive impact of EVs on the environment, these vehicles should have
a lower environmental impact than conventional vehicles during their lifetime. In the
final phase of the EV life cycle, the possibility of recycling is limited due to the chemical
composition of the batteries and the drive components [49,50]. Electric vehicles have
been used in road transport for a relatively brief period compared to vehicles driven by
an internal combustion engine. The analysis of the entire life cycle of vehicles allows
assessing which type is more eco-friendly. The current decisions of lawmakers encourage
the widespread use of electric vehicles. For that reason, the next decade is expected to bring
improvements in the EV production process, as they currently generate more than twice as
much CO2 as the production process of vehicles with internal combustion engines.

3. The Energy Mix

As demonstrated in numerous publications, the use of EVs can make a significant
contribution to reducing emissions. As emission levels are still high in a great number of
large city centers, works are underway to identify emission sources in detail together with
the manner of reducing them [51–53].
During use, electric cars do not generate emissions in this respect. However, these
emissions may arise at the site of electric electricity generation. Therefore, the answer to
the question: how green is an electric vehicle?—is not easy. In the countries where electric
vehicles are in use, the share of clean energy available for installations varies. Indeed, the
environmental performance of an electric vehicle is directly related to the emissions of
harmful compounds [54] generated during the generation of the electricity required to
charge the vehicle’s batteries.
Energies 2024, 17, 249 8 of 25

The share of energy generated from different sources is specified by the so-called
energy mix. The energy mix is the structure (share) of individual sources in the production
of such energy. The energy mix is constantly changing [55]. Electricity may come from a
variety of sources: renewable and non-renewable, emitting and non-emitting [56,57].
In most countries, electricity may be generated by plants using non-renewable fossil
fuels: coal (hard coal, lignite), oil, natural gas, nuclear, and renewable energy sources:
hydroelectric plants, wind power [58], photovoltaic farms, etc.
Depending on the specific characteristics of a country, its location, availability of fossil
fuels, terrain, or atmospheric factors, the shares of each can vary significantly [59,60].
Within the EU, the emphasis on clean renewable energy generation is linked to the
introduction of Directive (EU) 2018/2001 of the European Parliament and of the Council
of 11 December 2018 on the promotion of the use of energy from renewable sources
(recast) [61]. The European Commission has adopted a set of proposals to align the EU’s
climate, energy, transport, and taxation policies aiming to reduce net greenhouse gas (GHG)
emissions by at least 55% by 2030 compared to the levels registered in the 1990s [62]. All
27 EU Member States have committed to making the EU the first climate-neutral area by
2050. In 2020, the EU’s target was a reduction of 20% in GHG. In fact, an average reduction
of 31.7% was achieved within the EU [54]. Thus, the objective has been achieved. The 50%
GHG reduction level was recorded in Europe by four countries: Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania,
and Romania.
Renewable energy may also have an impact on the economies of the other Member
States [56,60,63,64]. The ETC Carbon Emission Trade scheme related to the cost of CO2
allowances also has a major impact on emitting energy sources; hence, the need for changes
in the structure of energy procurement [65].
In several countries, works are carried out to define the direction of energy systems,
specifically regarding renewable energy sources [66,67]. In the EU, national energy par-
ticipation issues are also being addressed. Articles [68,69] analyzed the impact of fossil
sources on the energy mix. Based on Eurostat data, the energy mix in the European Union
in 2021 was dominated by renewable energy—49%, nuclear energy—31.3% and solid fossil
fuels—18.1%, natural gas—6.4%, crude oil—3.1%. It is however important to remember
that within the EU, energy production only covered 44% of the energy needs; the remaining
56% were imports [70].
Energy production varies considerably between the EU Member States. Among
European countries, there are several countries where the share of energy obtained from
renewable sources is very high, e.g., Malta and Iceland—(100%), Latvia (99.5%), and Cyprus
(95.9%). Nuclear energy has a high share in France (75.6%), Belgium (70.4%) and Slovakia
(58.3%). Electricity drawn from the combustion of solid fuels dominates in Poland at
71.5% [71], Estonia at 55.9%, and the Czech Republic at 44.5%. Natural gas is the main
source of electricity in the Netherlands, as it accounts for 58.4%, while in Norway, it is 47%,
and in Ireland, it is 41.6%. Crude oil supplemented the energy balance in most countries,
including Norway (45.4%), Denmark (34.7%), and Croatia (16%) [70].
Such diverse shares of the energy mix are the result of country-specific characteristics,
locations, deposits, and policies. A summary of the data for each country is presented in
Figure 3.
 Energies 2024, 17, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 26
Energies 2024, 17, 249 9 of 25

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Energies 2024, 17, 249 10 of 25

4. EV Battery Recycling and Second-Life

Lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) have emerged as the battery of choice used in hybrid and
electric cars as a result of the continuing process of improvement and refinement of energy
storage devices [72,81]. The main advantages of LIBs include [82] their small size, relatively
long lifespan, high energy density, high number of recharges (which translates into long
service life), low maintenance costs, high power, low weight, no memory effect and low
self-discharge rates per day. With these qualities, lithium-ion batteries provide vehicles
with sufficiently high torque to achieve high speeds and a relatively long driving range.
If the LIBs capacity falls below 80%, they are believed to be no longer eligible for
powering hybrid vehicles [81]. These batteries can be recycled or used in other applications.
Recycling provides opportunities for reusing products, securing the supply chain, and
overcoming dependency on imported raw materials.
The recycling process becomes particularly important as it is estimated that the de-
mand for key raw materials that are essential for battery production will increase, while
their availability will decrease (due to finite/exhaustible resources) [83].
Based on research on chemical compounds (continuing since the 1980s) that can be used in
accumulators/batteries to power engines or electric motors in BEVs or HEVs, the following types
of accumulators/batteries have been developed: sodium–beta, nickel–zinc, nickel–iron (Edison
cells), nickel–cadmium (Ni-Cd), lead–acid, nickel metal hydride (Ni-MH), lithium–ion (Li-ion),
lithium polymer, lithium–ion polymer, lithium–nickel–manganese, lithium–magnesium, sodium–
nickel–chloride, sodium–sulfur (high-temperature battery) and several other types. Currently,
Ni-MH and lithium batteries stay on top of the competition [82,84].

4.1. Selected EU Legal Regulations

One of the main reasons why an increasing number of vehicles are fitted with electric
or hybrid drive systems is that manufacturers are legally required to meet stringent exhaust
emission standards, which are complemented by an increasing body of legislation aimed
to replace combustion engines with zero-emission engines. In an effort to boost recycling
and promote environmental measures, the European Union policy makers have introduced
laws imposing an obligation on vehicle manufacturers to keep reusability, recyclability,
and recoverability requirements in mind when designing new vehicles, e.g., to employ
solutions to make recycling and recovery easier [81,84,85]. New vehicles may only be
sold in the EU if they may be reused and/or recycled to a minimum of 85% by weight
or reused and/or recovered to a minimum of 95% by weight. Also, critical raw materials
(CRMs) include lithium and cobalt, which are both vital for the production of batteries,
while the European Union is heavily dependent on the importation of these materials from
outside the EU [86,87]. In order to eliminate bottlenecks in the supply chains and diversify
the supply sources of critical raw materials, the EU focuses on the recovery of materials
in the recycling process on the path to a circular economy. In accordance with Directive
2006/66/EC, as amended [88], the EU Member States shall take necessary measures to
maximize the separate collection of waste batteries and accumulators and to minimize the
disposal of batteries and accumulators as mixed municipal waste in order to achieve a high
level of recycling for all waste batteries and accumulators. The directive also requires that
manufacturers design their appliances in such a way that waste batteries and accumulators
can be readily removed.
According to [89], sustainable batteries and vehicles underpin the mobility of the
future. To progress swiftly in enhancing the sustainability of the emerging battery and
accumulator value chain for electro-mobility and boost the circular potential of all batter-
ies, a new regulatory framework should be introduced. Work on the new legislation to
introduce changes in the handling of batteries and used batteries was initiated in 2020. The
published legislative proposal [90] is designed to repeal and replace the current Directive
2006/66/EC by Regulation. It is worth noting that in the EU legal order, a regulation
and a directive have different legal meanings. A regulation has general application and is
directly applicable to all EU members. A directive is binding on each EU member to which
Energies 2024, 17, 249 11 of 25

it is addressed, leaving the national authorities free to choose the forms and means as to
the result.
The draft regulation is one of the instruments for implementing the European Green
Deal. The target recycling efficiency for portable lithium batteries is scheduled to reach 65%
by 2025 and 70% by 2030 (by weight). The regulation also proposes recovery levels of raw
materials at all recycling levels: 35% by 2026 and 70% by 2030 for lithium. According to the
current directive, the recycling rates of materials from waste batteries and accumulators is
assumed at 50% by weight. The regulation establishes extended producer responsibility for
batteries that are supplied in a Member State for the first time. It entails a requirement for
producers of batteries to ensure the attainment of the waste management obligations. The
regulation also defines the waste status and the requirements for repurposed (second-life)
batteries and the regeneration of industrial batteries and EV batteries (second-life cycle).

4.2. Recycling
Waste vehicles and EV batteries pose a serious threat to the natural environment and
are a valuable source of various metals, including rare earth metals [91]. The recycling of
electronics classified as waste has become essential for environmental reasons. To recycle
BEVs, PHEVs, and HEVs and more sustainably use scarce resources, it is necessary to
dismantle electronic and electrical components, which are then redirected for further use
or material recovery [84]. By recycling materials used in batteries and accumulators, the
EU can become less dependent on the imports of raw materials in the future. Moreover,
approximately 70% of the world’s lithium deposits are located in South America (Argentina,
Bolivia, Chile). Geopolitical instability in this area may affect the supply conditions and
the price of batteries and, consequently, the production costs and the final price of electric
vehicles [92]. The exploitation of scarce and hard-to-reach resources will affect the cost of
battery production and increase the environmental footprint, which makes the recycling of
electric car batteries even more important [93]. Lithium-ion batteries are most commonly
used in BEVs and PHEVs, while nickel–metal hydride (Ni-MH) batteries are commonly
used in HEVs [94]. Table 1 lists examples of battery recycling processes.

Table 1. The recycling process of Ni-MH and Li-ion batteries [84].

Nickel–Metal Hydride Battery Lithium–Ion Battery

(NI-MH) (Li-Ion)
• sorting,
• draining residual energy,
• thermal decomposition of organic
components, mainly plastics,
• cooling the battery to a temperature of at
least −160 ◦ C using liquid nitrogen
• extraction metallurgy, i.e., melting and
purification of metals, (lithium, which is explosive at room
• recovery of nickel and iron for use in the temperature, is considered relatively safe
production of stainless steel, at this temperature),
• shipping metal hydride components as • battery cutting and shredding,
slag (low-value material used as road • separation of shredded material (sorting),
aggregate etc.) • lithium conversion to lithium carbonate
or lithium oxide,
Additional processes: • neutralization of electrolytes into
• cadmium oxidation at 760 ◦ C, stable compounds,
• distillation at 900 ◦ C for 24 h, • cobalt recovery from lithium cobalt oxide
• purification and preparation of (Li CoCO2 ), if present
Ni-Fe residues.

As shown in Table 1, the recycling process for the two types of batteries considered
involves not only relatively simple (e.g., sorting) but also complex activities, which may
need to be performed under special conditions.
Energies 2024, 17, 249 12 of 25

The recycling of LIBs is primarily designed to recover elements contained in the active
electrode materials, i.e., lithium, cobalt, graphite, nickel, and manganese [95]. A detailed
review of LIBs recycling processes is presented in the literature [83,96].
The recycling process involves pre-treatment to make battery recycling more efficient
and to reduce energy consumption downstream. Laboratory-scale pre-treatment typically
involves battery discharge (24 h bath in, e.g., distilled water), dismantling (usually manu-
ally), and separation [83]. Pre-treatment at the industrial scale typically includes discharge
(same as laboratory-scale pre-treatment), dismantling (manual or mechanical), dry or wet
grinding and crushing in a protective atmosphere (this is necessary for, e.g., hydrometallur-
gical recycling), classification (the size of fractions obtained reflects the content of materials
eligible for recovery), separation (size-dependent fraction separation), dissolution (of active
materials that still remain attached to the current collectors), and thermal treatment, e.g.,
vacuum pyrolysis. Thermal processing can be skipped or applied before or after mechanical
methods as there are many approaches to mechanical pre-treatment in LIBs recycling. It is
worth noting that recycled batteries are not flammable during vacuum pyrolysis and can be
safely processed mechanically without the risk of fire [83]. The products of pre-treatment
are partly separated metals, plastics, and black mass. In some of the pre-treatment processes,
electrolytes can also be recovered from batteries [97]. Electrolyte recovery is a novelty in
the recycling process. Example of black mass composition (% by weight) [98]:
• Lithium compounds: 2–6%;
• Cobalt: 5–20%;
• Nickel: 5–15%;
• Copper: 3–10%;
• Aluminum: 1–5%;
• Iron: 1–5%;
• Manganese: 2–10%;
• Residue: graphite with flakes of iron, aluminum, and copper.
Black mass is industrially processed using pyrometallurgical and/or hydrometallurgi-
cal methods [81–83]. A high-temperature furnace is used for the pyrometallurgical recycling
process to reduce and refine valuable metals. Roasting, calcination, and smelting are the
most common techniques used for pyrometallurgy [83]. Battery components decompose at
high temperatures (usually up to 1400 ◦ C). This method is designed to separate and collect
precious metals, mainly cobalt, nickel, and copper, using thermodynamic reactions [99].
In conditions of high temperature, organic solvents contained in the batteries, lithium
and fluoride, evaporate and are not recovered [100]. Hydrometallurgy recycling involves
physical and chemical operations in liquid media. The recycling of batteries by pyromet-
allurgy may include the following steps: leaching (dissolving or leaching metals with an
alkaline or acidic agent); removal of impurities (clarification of the leaching solution); and
the recovery of nickel, cobalt, manganese, and lithium [83]. Metals dissolved in a liquid
solution can then be precipitated individually, usually as salts, which requires additional
chemical treatment to obtain the correct composition before they can be reused in batter-
ies [99]. Electrochemical (electrohydrometallurgical) methods can also be used to recover
valuable metals from LIBs [99]. The selective extraction and recovery of high-purity metals
is carried out by electroplating using a leaching solution containing dissolved metals. The
electro-hydrometallurgy reduces the pollution of water used in recycling processes.
The disadvantage of the current metallurgical processes is the environmental impact,
i.e., the emission of toxins into the air or a significant amount of sewage generated [83].
The advantages and disadvantages of both mainstream industrial methods are compared
in Table 2. The comparison presents the advantages and disadvantages of LiBs recycling
methods most frequently found in the literature. Common names for LiBs recycling mainly
refer to the names of the companies that use them. Selected LIBs recycling companies and
the methods they use are listed in Table 3.
Energies 2024, 17, 249 13 of 25

Table 2. Advantages and disadvantages of industrial recycling processes involving pyrometallurgical

and hydrometallurgical methods [83,99].

Pyrometallurgy Hydrometallurgy
• Recycling of Li-ion batteries representing various
compositions/configurations
• High efficiency of
Advantages metal recovery
• Pre-treatment is not mandatory • No emission of toxins into
• High metal recovery the air
• High purity of
recycled products
• Lithium–iron–phosphate (LFP)
batteries are not recyclable
• High energy intensity (high • Mechanical pre-treatment
energy consumption) is mandatory
Disadvantages • Purification measures are • High water consumption
necessary to prevent toxin • Anode materials are
emissions into the air not recyclable
• Graphite and binders are lost
(not recovered)

Table 3. Selected LIBs recycling companies and the processes used [81,83,96–99].

Method Used Process/Company Name State

Pyrometallurgical, hydrometallurgical Umicore Belgium
Mechanical uRecycle Sweden
Electro-hydrometallurgical AquaMetals USA
Hydrometallurgical Valibat France
Hydrometallurgical Brunp China
Mechanical, Hydrometallurgical Duesenfeld Germany
Mechanical, Hydrometallurgical Retriev Canada, USA

As can be seen from Table 2, where the battery recycling methods are compared,
hydrometallurgical processing is the most widely used. A key benefit of this approach is
the high effectiveness of the process, high purity of the recycled materials, relatively low
energy consumption, and non-toxic emissions. The data in Table 3 showing the global
LIB recycling leaders and the methods they use reveal an increase in the popularity of
hydrometallurgical processing.
Direct recycling is a new method of recycling, which is currently performed at the
laboratory scale. The recycling process consists of multiple physical and chemical steps
characterized by low energy consumption [81,99]. In this method, the cathode needs to
be carefully separated from the rest of the battery, which usually requires manual work
due to variations in the design of batteries. For recycling to be effective, an individual
approach needs to be employed to cater to the diversity of battery structures and chemical
compositions. Biological technologies using microorganisms also raise high hopes as a new
exciting recycling method [81].
The above considerations indicate that only part of the materials can be recycled
irrespective of which battery recycling method is used. EV batteries are characterized by a
complex structure, which contains materials with supplies that are or may be at risk in the
near future (as they may receive a status of CRMs, i.e., Critical Raw Materials). For that
reason, it is necessary to improve the technology which is going to allow us to obtain the
largest possible share of materials through recycling used batteries. In the near future, it
seems that recycling companies may become important partners in the automotive sector.
Replacing vehicles driven by internal combustion engines with EVs is going to require the
development of efficient recycling processes for the purpose of ensuring the recovery of
exhaustible minerals. Considering the varying structure and chemical composition of EV
Energies 2024, 17, 249 14 of 25

batteries, it is also necessary to normalize and standardize the batteries used in electric
vehicles in the near future. This, on the other hand, brings forth another question: are
vehicle manufacturers prepared to cooperate in this specific area and should lawmakers
initiate them?

4.3. The Second Life of a Battery

According to [100], the second life of a product is any action aimed at reusing products
or its components that are not waste for any other purpose than the first use. This is the
overarching goal of the circular economy as it allows the maintenance of the value of
products while minimizing the generation of waste. In the EU, the priorities for products
are in descending order of priority:
• Extending the product’s service life;
• Avoiding waste generation;
• Re-use and second life;
• Recycling.
According to [100], before deciding to send the batteries to recycling, the EV batteries
are subject to a diagnosis. The diagnosis determines if the batteries’ operational life can be
extended and if it is appropriate a waste-prevention measure. There are many prospective
applications for battery reuse, including applications related to the use of batteries for
electricity storage ranging from residential purposes to applications for urban electro-
mobility [93]. To address the issue of a growing number of electric vehicle models and
batteries, automakers may be designing their EVs with second-life applications in mind, as
the supply of second-life batteries for stationary applications is projected to exceed 200 GW
hours per year by 2030 [101].
The United States Advanced Battery Consortium (USABC) tests operated by the US
Council for Automotive Research (USCAR) are one way to determine the service life of
batteries used in BEVs. The USABC was established in 1991 to promote the research and
development of electrochemical energy storage systems. USABC regulatory documents
specify the end of life (EoL) of a battery if the following criteria are met [102,103]: (1) the
delivered batteries (module, cells) retain less than 80% of their original capacity, (2) the
maximum peak power is less than 80% of the rated power at 80% depth of discharge. A
dynamic stress test (DST) is used to test for compliance with the first criterion, and the
battery power in the second criterion is determined using the peak power test.
The following factors have a direct impact on battery aging: operating temperature,
depth of discharge (DoD), discharge rate (C-rate), state of charge (SoC), and time. Increasing
the battery capacity will improve the battery service life and the battery cycles will have
a lower DoD; the lower the C-rate, the longer the service life and the lower the operating
temperature [104]. In most cases, large capacity batteries are not required for EVs to support
the current driving routines, i.e., the average battery capacity exceeds (about 10 times)
total daily energy use in battery-powered electric passenger cars, which translates in an
ineffective use of resources for battery construction [104].
Battery aging, manifested by a decrease in its capacity and power, is one of the key
challenges in LIBs [97]. The first modern electric vehicles had a driving range of up to
approx. 100 km and batteries with a capacity of 16–24 kWh. Manufacturers were concerned
about battery aging and the inability to meet customer transport requirements, and they set
the EoL for these batteries at around 80% [97]. Meanwhile, the capacity of batteries used
in vehicles has changed with the growing number of electric cars produced. Initially, the
battery capacity was 16 kWh and 24 kWh. With decreasing production costs, new vehicles
driving on roads were fitted with batteries with a capacity of 30, 40, 70, and 90 kWh [104].
So, should the 80% criterion be obligatorily applied to LiBs? The decision on battery
EoL rests solely with the vehicle user and should take into account the vehicle’s mainte-
nance and driving routines. There are two approaches to using battery systems for grid
applications [82]:
• Stationary storage applications of second-life batteries (electricity storage);
Energies 2024, 17, 249 15 of 25

• Vehicle-to-grid (V2G), in which a battery remains in the vehicle and is used for energy
storage to be returned to the grid.
Stationary second-life applications of EV batteries can be divided into two groups [93]:
integration with the national energy grid (e.g., for seasonal energy storage and distribu-
tion, integration with renewable energy sources, grid regulation), and end-user-oriented
applications (e.g., energy management, transport solutions, integration with distributed
solutions using renewable energy sources in various areas, e.g., construction, services,
residential) [93]. Rechargeable battery systems are recognized as one of the most promising
solutions for generating electricity from renewable energy sources [82], which presents
a potential opportunity to reuse withdrawn batteries that were used to power electric
vehicles. To meet the energy requirements, more than one battery from an electric vehicle
will be required in most cases, and their heterogeneity is a drawback. Problems with the
collection and second life of batteries in mobile and stationary energy storage applications
can be traced to the high diversity (heterogeneity) of battery models, forms, chemical
compositions, electrical properties, and state of health (SoH) [93,104].
The specificity of battery reuse depends on the rate and reason (e.g., aging, accident)
of phasing out electric vehicles and is independent of the decision maker who changes
the original purpose of the battery [93]. Once retired, most EV batteries will have a SoH
higher than 75% over the next 20 years, which opens up a market for companies to give EV
batteries a second life. However, battery reuse is an option that, given the growing market
of electric vehicles, will quickly cater to the demand for stationary energy storage [104].
The second life of EV batteries can evolve in the following directions [93,105]:
• Direct reuse—lower costs, no or little adaptability to connect to other batteries;
• Battery dismantling to the module level—versatile reuse options; a new battery man-
agement system (BMS) and control systems need to be used;
• Battery dismantling to the cell level—most often implemented by regeneration com-
panies, high versatility of applications, high costs (more labor-intensive processes),
selection of cells depending on their SoH.
In the EV battery reuse model, batteries are collected after the end of their first life, at
which point the first selection takes place (Figure 4) [98]. Damaged batteries are recycled,
while the remaining ones are handed over to regeneration plants, where they are tested
to determine their SoH. Batteries with an SoH above 88% can be directly reused again as
spare parts in their original application. Batteries with an SoH of 75–88% are suitable to be
repurposed for stationary energy storage applications or other transportation services with
lower power requirements and demands on the battery performance (power source for
hybrid trucks in urban driving). Batteries with an SoH below 75% can be dismantled into
modules or cells for repurposing in less demanding applications, for example as a power
source for portable computers, mobile systems to help people (e.g., cleaning robots), electric
vehicles with low requirements (e.g., electric bicycles, golf vehicles, forklifts). Possible
applications for EV battery second life are presented in Figure 5.
 Energies2024,
Energies 2024,17,
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commercial energy storage using second-life Nissan Leaf batteries. The first unit of
this type was installed at a Nissan supplier to meet peak electricity demand.
• BMW and MINI batteries as mobile power units [113,114]—in 2020, BMW Group UK
announced a cooperation with Off-Grid Energy. Retired BMW and MNI batteries,
Energies 2024, 17, 249 17 of 25

which can no longer efficiently be used in EVs, were adapted to create mobile power
units. The first prototype unit has a 40 kWh capacity with a 7.2 kW fast charge.
• Chevrolet Volt batteries used as energy storage for lighting used at the GM’s Enter-
prise Data Center [115]—in 2015, GM released news about the retired Chevrolet Volt
batteries provided electricity to help keep light in the building. The second-life battery
application was included in the grid of renewable energy sources (two 2 kW wind
turbines and a 74 kW solar array).
• Stationary energy storage based on Renault vehicle batteries [102,116]—in 2018, the
Renault Group announced the launch of the stationary energy battery storage project
called Advanced Battery Storage. The project is based on retired Renault Group electric
vehicle batteries. The stationary energy battery storage acts as a buffer to help manage
the discrepancy between the supply and demand of electric energy. The project is set
to be deployed in Europe to reach a capacity of 70 MWh.
• Stationary energy storage based on Kia vehicle batteries [117]—automaker Kia and
Deutsche Bahn (Germany’s rail and logistics company) have partnered to use retired
Kia EV batteries to create efficient and cost-effective energy storage systems. The
developed energy storage units are modular and can be used in many different
applications, e.g., collecting surplus electricity from photovoltaic systems or, as part of
a distributed system, supplying energy throughout the day to Deutsche Bahn depots
where trains are prepared for operation. The first pilot project was launched at the
EUREF Berlin campus in July 2022.
• The energy storage at EV recharging stations and buildings based on Volvo vehicle
batteries [118]—Volvo Buses, in cooperation with Stena Property and BatteryLoop,
have developed energy storage systems based on retired bus batteries used in charging
stations and residential buildings. Batteries are used to store renewable energy for
residential complexes, e.g., Fyrklövern in Gothenburg.
• Nissan Leaf batteries used for energy storage at Amsterdam ArenA [118]—the energy
storage with a capacity of 4 MWh is used to provide appropriate support in crisis
situations when events are taking place at the stadium. The storage is powered by
renewable energy sources. Previously, diesel generators were used for this purpose.
• BMW i3 batteries as energy storage for renewable energy sources at the manufacturing
site where this model is produced [118].
In [119], the following three main factors were identified to determine a battery’s
second life: battery ownership, cross-industry partnerships, and government support. The
factors were identified based on research conducted covering innovative business models
of various stakeholders of the electric vehicle industry (electric car manufacturer, recycling
company, charging infrastructure supplier, and joint venture company dealing with the
second use of batteries). There is an important prerequisite for second-life business models:
Who is responsible for the EoL of EV batteries? Clear global regulations regarding liability
for retired EV batteries will initiate large-scale second-life solutions. Moreover, reusing
retired EV batteries for secondary uses delays their recycling phase. Extending battery
life also helps reduce waste and resource exploitation. Solutions for reusing used EV
batteries therefore become a link between the energy sector. The profitability of second-life
solutions in the energy sector is determined, among others, by regulations regarding the
range of energy prices during peak hours. The lack of a range of energy prices during
peak hours may limit the economic viability of second-life solutions. Start-up FreeWire
Technology introduces an innovative business model for charging services that provides
the first solution combining electric vehicle charging with grid-level energy management
by creating a network of grid-adapted mobile electric vehicle chargers. The start-up uses
used Nissan Leaf batteries supplied by 4R Energy (joint venture, industry partnerships
between Nissan and Sumitomo). The second use of batteries is therefore a catalyst for
innovation in business models.
From the point of view of a company (e.g., supplier of energy storage solutions, EV
manufacturer), the second life of retired EV batteries makes sense if it allows reducing costs
Energies 2024, 17, 249 18 of 25

and extend the battery life. In [106], four business model scenarios were analyzed taking
into account the principles of the circular economy:
• No. 1—production and use of batteries in the vehicle and recycling of used batteries—
Original Equipment Manufacturer (OEM) uses non-standard batteries (not regulated
by external regulations). Used batteries after their first life are collected by dismantlers
(cooperating with the OEM) and sent for recycling.
• No. 2—production and use of batteries in the vehicle and improved recycling—the
recycler collects batteries from workshops or dismantling points. The recycling company
uses an automated process to handle large volumes of used batteries.
• No. 3—production and use of batteries in a vehicle, repair and reuse in a vehicle, and
recycling—after their first life, batteries are subjected to diagnostics (by the workshop
worker) or dismantling to assess their condition and the possibility of reuse. In
cooperation with the OEM, the battery is regenerated or repaired and then used in the
same or other vehicle (with lower requirements). Batteries that cannot be repaired are
sent for recycling.
• No. 4—production and the use of batteries in a vehicle, repair, and reuse in various
applications, and recycling—after removing the battery from the vehicle, it is assessed
in terms of condition and the possibility of its reuse. Unlike model no. 3, early
diagnostics allows you to determine second-life applications, which allows you to
reduce maintenance and transportation costs because the reclaimed battery goes to
the right place.
Model No. 1 is mainly aimed at optimizing the profits of OEM and EV manufacturers
without taking actions aimed at the second life of the battery. Model No. 2 is burdened
with uncertainty due to the unknown structure and chemical composition of future EV
batteries. Model No. 3 may be used in the vehicle segment whose customers are fleet
operators. Model No. 4 requires close cooperation throughout the entire chain.
Government support is important for second-life applications. The problem has been
noticed in the EU, and regulation [90] will specify the extended manufacturer liability for
batteries delivered in member countries for the first time. Extended producer responsibil-
ity includes a requirement for battery manufacturers to ensure that waste management
obligations are met. The regulation will also specify when a battery will have the status of
waste and requirements related to the use for other purposes and regeneration of industrial
batteries and electric vehicle batteries (second life cycle).
Decommissioned batteries used in electric vehicles which no longer meet the require-
ments for their original use can be successfully used in less demanding applications, as
presented above. The lack of legal regulations and requirements for extending the lifespan
of used EV batteries means that they are treated as waste to be recycled. The current trends
in the development of the battery recycling sector show that they have a chance to become
an important element within the energy sector (for instance, energy storage) in the years to
come. The transport industry solutions in less demanding applications, such as bicycles
and electric motorcycles, are still underestimated. Such scenarios for the life cycle of an EV
battery requires solutions at the design stage that are going to allow for both the first- and
second-life applications of the product. It is also worth noting that postponing recycling
allows for the development of more efficient recovery methods of CRMs.

5. Conclusions
The continuing growth in popularity of EVs in all countries of the world and the
reported future restriction of registration of combustion engine vehicles in EU countries
means that EVs are now being considered as the main mode of propulsion in vehicles of the
near future. The various financial incentives and subsidies applied by countries to facilitate
the purchase of electric cars are stimulating the growth of EV sales and contributing to an
increased share of EVs in the automotive market. A significant portion of the literature is
about the indisputable advantages of electric propulsion. However, considering the site
Energies 2024, 17, 249 19 of 25

of operation and local conditions, it is possible to identify certain problems that may arise
during their use and that need to be resolved in the near future.
Considering the widely reported advantages of EVs, the paper aimed to discuss
aspects related to the production, use, and decommissioning of EVs. The critical analysis
of EVs presented in this article aimed to answer four questions: Are EVs environmentally
friendly over their entire life cycle? Can EVs be considered zero-emission vehicles? Can
maximum efficiency be achieved while reclaiming the critical raw materials (CRMs) from
spent EV batteries? Will solutions like ‘second-life batteries’ reduce the negative impact
of EVs on the environment? From a review of the research literature on the subject, it can
be concluded that over their whole life cycle, EVs, just like ICEVs, have a negative impact
on the environment mainly because of their reliance on critical raw materials and the
production of GHGs, causing harm to living organisms. Unlike conventional vehicles, EVs
have a negative impact on the environment not only during the extraction of raw materials
but also at the vehicle production, use, and recycling stages. The most problematic is the
production and disposal of the components of the electric transmission system, particularly
lithium-ion batteries.
The work is divided into two parts, which include a discussion of both the benefits but
also some of the risks of using these vehicles. This first part identifies the environmental
issues associated with the entire life cycle of an EV. An electric vehicle and battery recycling
system are also presented. Electric vehicles are now one of the proposed solutions aiming
to reduce greenhouse gas emissions in transport as a global effect.
The main question we were guided by when writing this paper is: is an electric car
fully ecological? The answer to this question is not obvious. Therefore, in order to fully
assess the environmental friendliness of EVs, the entire life cycle of the car was analyzed.
An attempt to identify the main threats related to the use of EVs may constitute the basis
for taking actions aimed at eliminating them.
The share of individual sources in electricity production in EU countries (energy mix)
is also discussed. Unfortunately, at the stage of use, the level of ecology of EV vehicles is
directly dependent on the method of obtaining electrical energy, and therefore in countries
where energy produced is obtained from fossil sources, it is still difficult to achieve high
reduction in emissions. Unfortunately, this can mean that the combined environmental
performance ratings of an electric vehicle may not be as ‘ideal’. Activities of many countries
aimed at accelerating energy transformation are an opportunity for increasing the share of
EVs and reducing the ecological costs of their use. From this aspect, the article demonstrates
the vital importance of the manner in which electricity is generated/sourced and the use
of renewable (‘clean’) energy sources in both the production and operation phases of EVs.
In terms of, ‘green energy,’ there is great variation between countries because energy is
obtained from a variety of sources. In the European Union, the energy mix is dominated
on average by renewable energy—49% and nuclear energy—31.3%. However, due to their
location and local conditions of the countries, these sources vary greatly. For instance,
Malta and Iceland have 100% renewable energy sources; on the other hand, fossil fuels
such as coal are mainly used by Poland (71.5%), Estonia (55.9%), or the Czech Republic
(44.5%), while natural gas is mostly used in the Netherlands (58.4%). The analyses of the
energy mix of EU countries lead to the conclusion that in countries that predominantly use
fossil fuels for energy production, the electric vehicle cannot be considered as completely
emission-free.
Based on the literature analysis carried out, it can be concluded that electric drive
technology in vehicles requires further development. Although electric vehicles do not emit
greenhouse gases while in operation, they display high emissions in both the production
and recycling stages and require significant energy input.
The important conclusion of this review is the need to change and improve the entire
life cycle of an electric vehicle. The design stage makes for an important consideration, as
the materials and raw materials selected should be recyclable to the greatest extent possible
and later reused. In addition, the rare minerals and earth elements used constitute a need
Energies 2024, 17, 249 20 of 25

to adopt an appropriate system for their acquisition and distribution. Energy input is still
required in the EV production phase. Only using more renewable energy sources will
reduce the carbon footprint and GHG emissions, because EV production requires more
energy than ICEV. That is due to the highly energy-intensive processes of extraction and
processing of the materials used to manufacture the drive components and batteries.
On the other hand, during the use phase, electric vehicles show significantly lower
GHG emissions when compared to ICEVs. At the point of use, EVs do not emit compounds
and are therefore referred to as ‘non-emitting.’ However, mains electricity is used when
charging the battery. However, when charging the EV battery, the energy from the energy
networks is used.
Recycling batteries and their second life is also an important environmental issue. The
possibility of reusing materials that are also ‘costly’ in ecological terms, and the ongoing
development of recycling technologies and methods in this area, raises hopes. In this
specific issue, directives adopted by the EU imposing mass recovery and recycling rates
for end-of-life vehicle waste prove to be particularly helpful. The overview of battery
reusability provided in the article depends on the degree of battery wear and the reason
(e.g., accident) for the EV recall. It is estimated that most of the batteries from the recalled
EVs will have an SoH (state of health) rating over 75%, making it a great opportunity
for reuse.
The continuous increase EVs in the vehicle stock is a challenge for the LiBs recycling
sector and the opportunity to obtain low-cost energy storage in second-life LiBs applications.
It is expected that the recycling of LiBs and their second life will be an important direction
for further research in the near future. Existing industrial recycling methods do not allow
lithium recovery, the resources of which will be exhausted in the future. Limited resources
of rare earth metals can increase the production price of new LiBs and the sales price of
EVs. The use of direct recycling on an industrial scale is an important direction for further
research and offers great opportunities in the recycling of LiBs. An incorrect approach to
batteries after the first life and the lack of a rational SoH assessment (taking into account,
e.g., daily routines) in the near future may lead to an irrational management of used LiBs,
which will be recycled (necessity of energy consumption) or stored (exposure to leaks or
fire—additional environmental hazard). The overview of battery reusability provided for
in the article depends on the degree of battery wear and the reason (e.g., accident) for
the EV recall. The unification of LiBs (chemical composition, dimensions) used by EV
manufacturers is an important challenge, which may consequently help in the development
of second-life applications. Meeting this challenge is difficult as vehicle manufacturers
strive to develop new LiBs with better performance characteristics. Taking into account the
market competitiveness of vehicle manufacturers, we should expect the production of new
batteries with a different chemical composition even without the use of lithium.
The authors have chosen to concentrate on the EU because of regional considerations
influenced by specific challenges and developments in the context of electric vehicles.
Beyond the EU, major contributors to the production of EVs and electric drive compo-
nents include China, Japan, and the USA. Evaluating the environmental impact of EVs
in different countries necessitates a comprehensive analysis spanning the entire vehicle
life cycle. Regional disparities in energy sources, manufacturing processes, and govern-
mental policies significantly influence the overall sustainability of electric mobility in each
country [120–123]. A pivotal factor in this assessment is the environmental impact of bat-
tery production. The sustainable manufacturing and recycling of batteries are paramount
in mitigating the overall environmental footprint of EVs. China’s prominence as a key
player in battery manufacturing underscores the critical importance of adopting sustainable
production practices.
This part largely summarizes the environmental aspects associated with the life cycle of
an electric vehicle. Part 2 of this article presents infrastructure issues, mainly the availability
of charging stations, affecting the so-called range anxiety, and safety of use including
fire hazards.
Energies 2024, 17, 249 21 of 25

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, methodology, validation, formal analysis, investigation.

writing—original draft preparation, writing—review and editing, visualization—M.G., J.J., R.S.J.,
E.M.S., P.Z. and M.Ż. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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