ZNOTES.

ORG

UPDATED TO 2023-2025 SYLLABUS

CAIE AS LEVEL
MATHEMATICS
SUMMARIZED NOTES ON THE PURE 1 SYLLABUS
Prepared for Shouryasena Reddy Pamulapati for personal use only.
CAIE AS LEVEL MATHEMATICS

1. Quadratics
1.1. Completing the Square
The equation y = ax 2 + bx + c written in the form of
y = p(x + q)2
+ r is called the complete square form
The vertex is (−q, r) .

Example Example

Express 3x 2 + 9x + 5 in the form of p(x + q)2 + r , where If kx 2 + 4kx + 3k = 0 , find the inequality in terms of k for
p, q and r are constants and find its vertex which the equation has distinct real roots.
Solution: Solution:
Apply b2 − 4ac > 0 for the equation to have two distinct real
3x 2 + 9x + 5 roots:
= 3(x 2 + 3x) + 5 (4k)2 − 4(k)(3k) > 0
3 2 3 2
= 3 ((x + ) − ( ) ) + 5 ⟹ 16k 2 − 12k 2 > 0
2 2
​ ​

⟹ 4k 2 > 0
3 2 7
= 3 (x + ) − ⟹ k < 0 and k > 0
2 4
​ ​

Hence its vertex is (− 32 , − 74 ) .

​ ​
1.4. Quadratic Inequalities

1.2. Sketching the Graph Case 1: Assuming d < β,

y-intercept (x − d) (x − β ) < 0 ⟹ d < x < β

x -intercept (x − d ) (x − β ) > 0 ⟹ x < d or x > β
Vertex (turning point)
Case 2: When no x term,
1.3. Discriminant of a Quadratic
x2 − c > 0
Expression
⟹ x < − c or x > ​ c ​

The discriminant describes the roots for a quadratic

equation ax 2 + bx + c = 0 x2 − c ≤ 0
The discriminant of ax 2 + bx + c is
⟹− c≤x≤ ​ c ​

b2 − 4ac
Example
If b2 − 4ac = 0 , real and equal (repeated) roots
If b2 − 4ac < 0 , no real roots x 2 + 6x + 8 < 0
If b2 − 4ac > 0 , real and distinct roots factorize: x 2 + 6x + 8 = (x + 4)(x + 2)
find roots:

x = -4
x = -2
sketch parabola which touches the x-axis at -4 and -2

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CAIE AS LEVEL MATHEMATICS

as x = u → x = u2
​

Reject x = − 12 as it has no solutions,

​ ​

∴ x = 19 ​

2. Functions
2.1. Terms
Function: is a relation that uniquely associates one set of
values to another set
Domain: is the set of values that are the inputs of the
function
Range: is the set of values that are the outputs of the
function
Inverse Function: The function which maps the Range back
into its Domain.
Mapping:
the blue region represents the section of the parabola where
It takes a value from the domain and links it to the
the value of the quadratic is < 0
range
therefore, the answer of x 2 + 6x + 8 < 0 is: −4 < x <
they can be:
−2 one-to-many
many-to-one
1.5. Solving Equations in Quadratic one-to-one
or many-to-many
Form
in cases like x 4 − 5x 2 + 4 = 0 and 6x + x − 1 = ​ 0,
they are not quadratic equations but can be converted
into quadratic equations in some function of x

Example
Solve the equation x 4 − 5x 2 + 4 = 0
Solution:
We let u = x 2 , this gives us: u 2 − 5u + 4 = 0 , which is a
quadratic equation and can be solved

(u − 4)(u − 1) = 0

u = 4, 1

as x 2 = u → x = ± u ​

∴ x = ±2 or ±1

Example
Solve the equation 6x + x − 1 = 0
​

Solution:
We let u = x , this gives us 6u 2 + u −
​ 1 = 0 , which is a Notations
quadratic equation and can be solved
Functions can be either written as f(x), g(x), etc. (e.g.
(3u − 1)(2u + 1) = 0 f(x) = 2x + 5 )
1 1 Or they can be written as f : x ↦ 2x + 5
u= ,−
3 2
​ ​

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CAIE AS LEVEL MATHEMATICS

Example:
2.2. Find Range
f (x ) = 3x + 4
Find the highest possible y -value and lowest possible y -
value based on the domain y = 3x + 4
For Quadratic functions, such as f (x ) = 3x 2 + 5x − 6 ,
complete the square first to find the vertex and use it to y − 4 = 3x
find its range.
y−4
If coefficient of x 2 is positive, vertex is minimum x=
3
​

If coefficient of x 2 is negative, vertex is maximum

Swap all the x with y ,
2.3. Composition of 2 Functions x−4
y=
3
​

Definition: a function with another function as an input

fg (x ) ⇒ f (g (x )) Replace y with f −1 (x ) ,
E.g. f (x ) = 4x + 5 g (x ) = x 2 − 5 x−4
Then fg (x ) = 4 (x 2 − 5 ) + 5 f −1 (x ) =
3
​

A composite function like fg (x ) can only be formed when

the range of g (x ) is within the domain of f (x ) Example:
Make f (x ) = x 2 + 1 a one-to-one function.
Solution:
2.4. One-One Functions
x 2 + 1, x ∈ R
Definition: One x value substitutes to give one y value
One value of x that doesn’t have alternate value of x which
maps same value of y is 0
∴ We separate the function into two functions

No indices
If the function is not one-to-one, restrict the function in a
domain such that the function is one-to-one under that
domain.
Only one-to-one functions are invertible.
x2 + 1, x ≤ 0 and x2 + 1, 0 ≤ x
2.5. Finding Inverse
Definition: An inverse function shows what the input is
based on the output, e.g. if f(3 ) = 5 , then f −1 (5 ) = 3 .
In other words, it reverses the process. The graph of y =
f (x ) and y = f −1 (x ) is symmetrical by the line y = x .
An inverse function has a property such that:

ff −1 (x ) = f −1 f (x ) = x

Make sure that it is a one-to-one function. If it is, then,

Write f (x ) as y
Make x the subject
Swap every single x with y . By now, you should have y as
the subject
Replace y withf −1 (x ) . Read as “The f the inverse of x ”

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CAIE AS LEVEL MATHEMATICS

4 [(x − 3 ) − 3 2 ] + 11
2

4 (x − 3 )2 − 25

Part (ii)
Observe given domain, x ≤ 1 .
Substitute highest value of x

g (x ) = 4 (1 − 3 )2 − 25 = −9

Substitute next 3 whole numbers in domain:

x = 0, −1, −2 g (x ) = 11, 39, 75

Thus, they are increasing

∴ g (x ) ≥ −9
Part (iii)
Let y = g(x), make x the subject

y = 4 (x − 3 )2 − 25
y + 25 2
= (x − 3 )
4
​

y + 25
x=3+
4
​ ​

Can be simplified more

1
x=3± y + 25
2
​ ​

Positive variant is not possible because x ≤ 1 and using

2.6. Relationship of Function & its positive variant would give values above 3

Inverse 1
∴x=3− y + 25
2
​ ​

The graph of the inverse of a function is the reflection of a

1
graph of the function in y =x ∴ g −1 (x ) = 3 − x + 25
2
​ ​

Domain of g −1 (x ) = Range of g (x ) ∴ x ≥ −9
{W12-P11} Question 10:
f (x ) = 4x 2 − 24x + 11, for x∈ R
g (x ) = 4x 2 − 24x + 11, for x ≤ 1 2.7. Translation

1. Express f(x) in the form a (x

2
− b) + c, hence state Let y = f (x )
coordinates of the vertex of the graph y = f(x)
2. State the range of g
3. Find an expression for g −1 (x) and state its domain

Solution:
Part (i) Shift along x-axis by a units to the right: f (x − a)
First pull out constant, 4 , from x related terms:

4 (x 2 − 6x ) + 11

Use following formula to simplify the bracket only:

n 2 n 2
(x − ) −( )
2 2
​ ​

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CAIE AS LEVEL MATHEMATICS

Shift along y-axis by b units upwards: f (x ) + b

If a > 1 it will shrink the graph sideways

If 0 < a < 1 it will expand the graph sideways
Example
Stretches upwards and downwards: af (x )
The graph of y = x 2 + 3x + 2 has been translated 1 unit
left and 3 units upward; find the equation of the resulting
graph.
Answer:
The translation vector would be [-1, 3], so where f(x) =
x 2 + 3x + 2

y = f(x − (−1)) + 3

y = f(x + 1) + 3

y = (x + 1)2 + 3(x + 1) + 2 + 3

y = x 2 + 2x + 1 + 3x + 3 + 2 + 3

∴y = x 2 + 5x + 9

2.8. Stretch
Stretches the graph sideways:f(ax)

If a > 1 it will expand the graph up & downwards

If 0 < a < 1 it will shrink the graph up & downwards

Example

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CAIE AS LEVEL MATHEMATICS

the graph of y = 5x 2 + 2 is stretched by a factor of 2 along 5= (a − 0)2 + (1 − 4)2 ​

the y-axis, find the resulting equation of the graph.

for this stretch factor, y = 2f(x) 25 = a2 + 9

y = 2(5x 2 + 2) a2 = 16

∴y = 10x 2 + 4 ∴a =4

Example 3.2. Midpoint of a Line Segment

the graph of y = x 2 + 3x + 2 is stretched by a factor of 1 The midpoint between two points (x 1 , y1 ) and (x 2 , y2 ) is ​ ​ ​ ​

3 ​

along the x-axis, find the resulting equation of the graph. x 1 + x 2 y1 + y2

for this stretch factor, ( , )
​ ​ ​ ​

2 2
​ ​

y = f(3x)
Example
2
y = (3x) + 3(3x) + 2
A line segment joining points P (2, −3) and Q(4, a) has a
∴y = 9x 2 + 9x + 2 midpoint M (b, −2) . Find the values of a and b.
Answer:
2.9. Reflections x 1 + x 2 y1 + y2
M =( , )
​ ​ ​ ​

2 2
​ ​

For reflection of the equation y = f(x) in the x-axis, the

resulting equation is y = −f(x) thus
For reflection of the equation y = f(x) in the y-axis, the y1 + y2
−2 =
​ ​

resulting equation is y = f(−x) 2

​

−3 + a
Example −2 =
2
​

Find the reflection of the graph equation y = 2x 2 + 3x + 2 a − 3 = −4

in the y-axis and x-axis and write their equations.
Answer:
∴a = −1
for the reflection in y-axis, y = f(−x) x1 + x2
b=
​ ​

2
​

2
y = 2(−x) + 3(−x) + 2
2+4
b=
∴ y = 2x 2 − 3x + 2 2
​

for the reflection in x-axis, y = −f(x)

∴b =3
2
y = −1(2x + 3x + 2)
3.3. Equation of a Straight Line
∴ y = −2x 2 − 3x − 2
Straight-line equations are linear equations in the form of

3. Coordinate Geometry y = mx + c
m is the gradient
and c is the y -intercept
3.1. Length of a Line Segment If a single point A(x 1 , y1 ) on the line with a gradient m is
​ ​

given and the general point is P (x, y) , then the equation

The distance between two points (x 1 , y1 ) and (x 2 , y2 ) is
​ ​ ​

of the line can be written in the form of y − y1 = ​

m(x − x 1 )
(x 2 − x 1 )2 + (y2 − y1 )2
​

​ ​ ​ ​ ​

Example
Example
Find the equation of the straight line with gradient 3, which
the distance between points P (0, 4) and Q(a, 1) is 5 units.
passes through the point (1,6).
Find the positive value of a.
Solution:
PQ = (x 2 − x 1 )2 + (y2 − y1 )2
​ ​ ​ ​ ​

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CAIE AS LEVEL MATHEMATICS

A(1, 6)m = 3 Substitute known values

3 9
3= 2 ​ (−1 ) + c and so c = 2 ​

y − 6 = 3(x − 1) Final perpendicular equation:

y = 3x − 3 + 6 2y = 3x + 9
∴y = 3x + 3 Find the point of intersection by equating two equations

Example 2 3x + 9
11 − x=
3 2
​ ​

Find the equation of the straight line that passes through the 13
points (-5, 3) and (-4, 1). 13 = x
3
​

Solution:
x = 3, y = 9
y2 − y1 1−3
m= =
​ ​

x2 − x1 −4 − (−5) Vector change from (−1, 3 ) to (3, 9 ) is the vector change

​ ​

​ ​

from (3, 9 ) to R
−2
m= Finding the vector change:
1
​

m = −2 C hange in x = 3 − −1 = 4

y = −2x + c C hange in y = 9 − 3 = 6

Substitute any point in this equation to find the value of c Thus R

x = 3 + 4 = 7 and y = 9 + 6 = 15
1 = −2(−4) + c
R = (7, 15 )
1=8+c

c = −7 3.5. Equation of a circle

∴y = −2x − 7 Standard Form: (x − a)2 + (y − b)2 = r 2

Centre = (a, b)
3.4. Special Gradients Radius = r
General form: x 2 + y2 + ax + by + c = 0
Parallel lines: m1= m2 ​
Centre = (− a2 , − 2b )
​ ​

a 2 b 2
Perpendicular lines: m1 × m2 = −1 ​ Radius =( 2 ) + ( 2 ) − c 2
​ ​

The gradient at any point on a curve is the gradient of the Note: if eqn. of circle is in general form, it’s highly
tangent to the curve at that point recommended to convert it into its standard form by
The gradient of a tangent at the vertex of a curve is equal completing square to easily find center and radius
to zero – stationary point Tangents on a circle are always perpendicular to its
radius
{S13-P12} Question 7: If a right-angled triangle is inscribed in a circle, its
Point R is a reflection of the point (−1, 3 ) in the line hypotenuse is the diameter of the circle
3y + 2x = 33 .
Find by calculation the coordinates of R
Example
Solution:
Find the equation of line perpendicular to 3y + 2x = 33 The equation of a circle: x 2
+ y2 + 4x + 2y − 20 = 0 The
intersecting point (−1, 3 ) line L has the equation 7x + y = 10 intersects the circle at
2 point A and B . The x -coordinate of A is less than the x -
3y + 2x = 33 ⇔ y = 11 − x coordinate of B .
3
​

2 1. Find the center and the length of diameter of the circle

m=−
3 2. Find the coordinates of A and B
​

3
m × m1 = −1 and so m1 =
​ ​

2 ​

Solution:
Perpendicular general equation: i. Rearrange the equation to standard form by using
3 completing square:
y= x+c
2
​

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CAIE AS LEVEL MATHEMATICS

x 2 + 4x + y2 + 2y = 20 convert 3π
4 radians into degrees and 45° into radians
​

Answer:
(x + 2 )2 − 4 + (y + 1 )2 − 1 = 20
3π 180
2 2 = ×
⇒ (x + 2 ) + (y + 1 ) = 25 4
​ ​

π
3 × 180
∴ its center: (−2, −1 ). Its diameter: 2 × 5 = 10 =
4
​

ii.Do simultaneous equation

∴= 135°
(x + 2 )2 + (y + 1 )2 = 25 & y = −7x + 10
π
2 = 45 ×
= −7x + 10 onto (x + 2 ) + 180
​

Use substitution y
(y + 1 )2 = 25 . ∴ = π4 ​

2 2
(x + 2 ) + (−7x + 11 ) = 25
4.2. Arc length
Find x
Arc length = rθ ( θ is in radians)
x 2 + 4x + 4 + 49x 2 − 154x + 121 = 25

50x 2 − 150x + 100 = 0 Example

x 2 − 3x + 2 = 0 find the arc length subtended at an angle of π4 radians of a ​

circle with radius 4

∴x=1 x=2 Answer:
Arc length = 4 × π4
= −7x + 10 to find y value:
​

Put x values back into y ∴ Arc Length = π

∴ A (1, 3 ) B (2, −4 )
4.3. Area of a Sector
4. Circular Measure A=
1 2
r θ In Radians
2
​

4.1. Radians {S11-P11} Question 9:

Radians is an angle measurement (just like degrees)

defined in which the arc length is the same as the radius
is an angle of 1 radian at the center

Triangle OAB is isosceles, OA = OB and ASB is a

tangent to PST

1. Find the total area of the shaded region in terms of r

and π
π
2. When θ = 3 and r
​ = 6 , find the total perimeter of the
shaded region in terms of 3 and π ​

Solution:
Part (i)
Use trigonometric ratios to form the following:

AS = r tan θ
π radians is equal to 180° and 2π radians is equal to 360°
to change from radians to degrees, multiply by 180
π ​
Find the area of triangle OAS:
π
to change from degrees to radians, multiply by 180
r tan θ × r 1
​

OAS = = r 2 tan θ
2 2
​ ​

Example
Use the formula of the sector to find the area of OPS:
3 1

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CAIE AS LEVEL MATHEMATICS

1 2 Draw the graph of y = 3cos(x − 12 π) − 1

OPS = r θ ​

2 Solution:
​

Area of ASP is OAS − OPS : Draw the graph of y = cos(x)

1 2 1 1
∴ ASP = r tan θ − r 2 θ = r 2 (tan θ − θ )
2 2 2
​ ​

Multiply final by 2 because BST is the same and shaded is

ASP and BST
1 2
Area = 2 × r (tan θ − θ ) = r 2 (tan θ − θ )
2
​

Part (ii)
Use trigonometric ratios to get the following:

π 6
cos ( ) =
3 AO
​ ​

∴ AO = 12

Finding AP:

AP = AO − r = 12 − 6 = 6

Finding AS:
π
AS = 6 tan ( ) = 6 3
3
​ ​

Finding arc PS:

Apply the transformation inside the brackets ...(x −
Arc PS = rθ 90)..., which translates the graph by
(90, 0)
π
PS = 6 × = 2π
3
​

The perimeter of 1 side of the shaded region:

Pe 1 = 6 + 6 3 + 2π
​ ​

Perimeter of the entire shaded region is double:

2 × Pe 1 = 12 + 12 3 + 4π ​ ​

5. Trigonometry
5.1. Introduction
opposite
sin(θ) = hypotenuse ​

adjacent
cos(θ) = hypotenuse ​

opposite
tan(θ) = adjacent ​

Apply the transformation which is being multiplied/divided

to the trig function, in this case, 3, which should stretch
the graph by a factor of 3 along the y-axis.

Example

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CAIE AS LEVEL MATHEMATICS

5.3. Cosine Curve

Finally, apply the transformation being added/subtracted

to the expression; in this case, it is −1 , which would
translate the graph by (0, −1) .

5.4. Tangent Curve

5.5. Exact Values of Trigonometric

Functions

5.2. Sine Curve

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CAIE AS LEVEL MATHEMATICS

sin θ
5.6. ASTC tan θ ≡
cos θ
​

sin2 θ + cos2 θ ≡ 1

Example
cos2 (x)−sin 2 (x) 1
Prove the identity cos(x) ​ + cos(x) ​ ≡ 2 cos(x)
Solution:
sin2 (x) can be written as 1 − cos2 (x) so we obtain
2 2
cos (x)−(1−cos (x)) 1
LHS = cos(x) + cos(x)
5.7. Finding other Angles from the
​ ​

cos2 (x)−1+cos2 (x)) 1

= cos(x) + cos(x)
​ ​

Principal Angle =
2
2 cos (x)−1 1
+ cos(x)
cos(x) ​ ​

2 cos2 (x)−1+1
= 23 , we know using a calculator
In the case of cos(x) ​

​
= cos(x) ​

2 cos2 (x)
or by memory that x = 30° or x = π6 , but this is only the
​

= cos(x) ​

principle angle, and there are many more solutions to = 2 cos(x)

this. cos2 (x)−sin2 (x) 1
∴ + ≡ 2 cos(x)
To find the other values, draw a graph and a horizontal cos(x) cos(x)
​ ​

line for the value given to find the angles at which the
trigonometric function states the value. In the previous 5.9. Trigonometry with Non-Right-
example, the graph would look like this.
Angled Triangles
In these cases, you can use the sine or cosine rules.

Example

As you can see, other points on the graph intersect with

the horizontal line; these are additional solutions.
In the question, a range might be given and you would
have to find all the solutions in that given range.
In this case, to find the other point A we can do 2π − π6 ,​

which equals to 11π 6

​

Here, we are using the property of trigonometry functions

that they are symmetrical, and thus, such calculations can
be used to find the angles.

5.8. Trigonometric Identities

Find the value of x
θ

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CAIE AS LEVEL MATHEMATICS

Solution: A neat way of expanding terms with high powers.

In this question, we are given two angles, and on one of the
(x + y)n = ( )x n + ( )x n−1 y + ( )x n−2 y2 + … +
sides, we have to find the length of the other side. n n n
0 1 2
​ ​ ​

a b
So we know we should use the sine rule sin(A) = sin(B)
​
=​

( ) = n Cr =
sin(C) ​

n n!
8 x
we can write this as sin(30)
​ = sin(60) ​

r
​

r! (n − r )!
​ ​

cross multiplying it would give us n

In summation : (a + b) = ∑ ( )an−k bk
8 sin(60) = x sin(30) n n
8 × 23 = 12 x k
​ ​

​ ​

k=0
8 3=x
(The summation form is just another way to express
∴x = 8 3
(a + b)n , it’s not important but some students may like to
​

Example see it that way)

This only works when n is a positive integer
Patterns:
nC = n Cn = 1
0 ​ ​

n
C 1 = n C n−1 = n
​ ​

nC = nC
r ​
n−r ​

To understand these patterns, you may use the

Pascal’s triangle

In the Pascals triangle for n C r ​

n is the row (starting from 0)

r is the position of the value from the left (starting
from 0)

Example

Find the value of x Expand the expression (a + b)5

Solution: Solution:
In this question, we are given two side lengths and the angle Using the binomial theorem, we get:
between them
5 5 5
In this case, we shall use the cosine rule a2 = b2 + c 2 − (a + b)5 = a5 + ( )a5−1 b + ( )a5−2 b2 + ( )a5−3 b3 +
(2bc ∗ cos(A)) 1 2 3
​ ​ ​

we can write this as x 2

= 4 2 + 4 2 − (2(4)(4)cos(60))
(a + b)5 = a5 + 5a4 b + 10a3 b2 + 10a2 b3 + 5a1 b4 + 1a0 b
x 2 = 16 + 16 − (16)
x 2 = 16 ∴ (a + b)5 = a5 + 5a4 b + 10a3 b2 + 10a2 b3 + 5ab4 + b5
∴x = 4
Example
5.10. Inverse Functions
Expand the expression (3x + 2)4
−1 Solution:
If trig (θ ) = a, then θ = trig (a)
Using the binomial theorem, we get:
Where “trig” represents any Trigonometric Function
Inverse trigonometric functions are used to find angle 4 4
(3x + 2)4 = (3x)4 + ( )(3x)4−1 (2) + ( )(3x)4−2 (2)2
1 2
​ ​

6. Series ∴ (3x + 2)4 = 81x 4 + 216x 3 + 216x 2 + 96x + 16

6.1. Binomial Expansion Example

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CAIE AS LEVEL MATHEMATICS

20
Find the coefficient of x 3 in the expansion of (1 + 2x)8 thus S20 ​ = 2 (2(7)
​ + (20 − 1)3)
Solution:
To find the coefficient of x 3 , we have to see at which term S20 = 10(14 + 57)
​

3
does the expansion have x
∴ S20 = 710 ​

(a + b)n = an + ( )an−1 b + ( )an−2 b2 + ( )an−3 b3 ... + bn

n n n
1 2 3 6.3. Geometric Progression
​ ​ ​

n
The pattern we can see here is that in ( r ), r is always the Definition: Sequence where successive terms are gained
value of the power of b. As b is 2x in the question, we have to from multiplying the same common value to the previous
make it to the power of 3 , and thus, r should be 3 term. For example, the sequence below: 2, 4, 8, 16, 32…
thus, the term would be 8 C 3 ⋅ (1)8−3 ⋅ (2x)3
​

= 56 ⋅ 1 ⋅ 8x 3 u n = ar n−1
​

∴ Coefficient of x 3 = 448 a (1 − r n ) a (r n − 1 )
Sn = =
(1 − r ) (r − 1 )
​ ​ ​

6.2. Arithmetic Progression

u n = The position-to-term rule of the sequence
​

Definition: Sequence where successive terms are gained a = First term of the sequence
from adding the same value to each previous term. For n = The n-th term of the sequence
example, the sequence of all successive odd numbers: 1, r = Common ratio between any two successive terms of
3, 5, 7, 9, 11… the sequence
u n = a + (𝑛 − 1)d Sn = sum from 1st term to n-th term.
Sn = 12 n[2a + (n − 1)d] or Sn = n2 (a + l)
​

​ ​ ​ ​

[A finite sum only exists where r > 1 and r < -1]

u n = The n-th term of the sequence
𝑎 = First term of the sequence For cases when ∣r∣ < 1 , sum to infinity:
n = The number of terms, which is the same as the n-
a
value of the last term S∞ =
1−r
​ ​

𝑑 = Common difference between any two successive

terms of the sequence {W05-P01} Question 6:
Sn = Sum from 1st term to n-th term of sequence
​
A small trading company made a profit of 250000 dollars in
𝑙 = The last term of a finite sequence the year 2000 . The company considered two different plans,
plan A and plan B , for increasing its profits. Under plan A,
Example the annual profit would increase each year by 5% of its value
in the preceding year. Under plan B , the annual profit would
Find the 120th term of the arithmetic sequence, which follows
increase each year by a constant amount of D
the following pattern: 2, 4, 6, 8, 10 …
Answer: 1. Find for plan A, the profit for the year 2008
the first term gives us the value for a = 2 2. Find for plan A, the total profit for the 10 years 2000
=2
the common difference is d to 2009 inclusive
= 2 + (120 − 1)2
thus u 120 3. Find for plan B the value of D for which the total profit
= 2 + 238 for the 10 years 2000 to 2009 inclusive would be the
∴ the 120th term of the arithmetic sequence is = 240 same for plan A

Example Solution:
Part (i)
Find the sum of the first 20th term of the arithmetic Increases are exponential ∴ it is a geometric sequence:
progression, with its first term being 7 and its 8th term being 2008 is the 9 th term:
28. ∴ u 9 = 250000 × 1.05 9−1 = 369000 (3s.f.)
​

Answer: Part (ii)

the first term gives us the value for a =7 Use sum of geometric sequence formula:

u 8 = 28 = 7 + (8 − 1)d 250000 (1 − 1.05 10 )

S10 = = 3140000
​

1 − 1.05
​ ​

28 − 7
d=
7 Part (iii)
​

Plan B arithmetic; equate 3140000 with sum formula

d=3

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CAIE AS LEVEL MATHEMATICS

1 So, differentiating will give us (1 + 3x 2 ) × 5 (x + x 3 )

4
3140000 = (10 ) (2 (250000 ) + (10 − 1 ) D)
2
​

D = 14300 7.3. Finding Gradient using

Differentiation
7. Differentiation
For y = f(x), f ′ (x) would give you the gradient of the
dy curve/line at point x on the graph.
When y = xn , dx = nx n−1
To find the normal of a curve at a point, its gradient is the
​

st dy reciprocal of the gradient of the tangent and multiplied by

1 Derivative = dx = f′ (x )
-1.
​

d2 y
2nd Derivative = dx2 = f′′ (x ) ​

When you know the gradient of the tangent or normal to a

Sometimes negative powers may also be presented in a point on a curve, it is easy to find its formula as you can
question, or there might even be x in the denominator. use y = mx + c , and by using the point on the curve,
For these questions, you have to take the x to the you can find the value of c and complete the equation.
numerator and change the power sign
Remember that x1 can be written as x −1 and x1n can be
​ ​

Example
written as x −n and vice versa
It is also important to remember that the differentiation of Find the gradient of the tangent of the curve y = 3x 2 at point
constants gives us 0 x = 2 and the gradient of the normal to that point.
e.g. Answer:
dy
f(x) = 5, then f ′ (x) = 0 dx = 6x
​

gradient = 6(2) = 12
∴ gradient of tangent = 12
7.2. Chain Rule 1
∴ gradient of normal = − 12 (This is found by m1 x m2 = -1)
​

dy dy du
= × 7.4. Stationary Points, Increasing and
dx du dx
​ ​ ​

(f (g (x ))) ′ = f′ (g (x )) × g′ (x ) Decreasing Functions

When f ′ (x)
> 0 , it is increasing
Example When f ′ (x)
< 0 , it is decreasing
5 When f′(x) = 0 , it is a stationary point
Differentiate y = (x + x 3 )
Solution:
Example
Let u = x + x 3 , then find du
dx ​

A graph is plotted for the equation y = x 3 + 3x 2 − 9x + 4 ,

u = x + x3
find the values of x for which the graph is an increasing
du function and values of x for which the graph is a decreasing
= 1 + 3x 2 function
dx
​

Answer:
Now y = u5 Find the derivative first:

dy dy
= 5u 4 = 3x 2 + 6x − 9
du
​
​

dx
Multiply them together The graph is a parabola opening downwards in a U shape,
and we need to find the values of x that give us a positive
dy dy du 4
= × = (1 + 3x 2 ) × 5 (x + x 3 ) value. To do this, we find the roots of the derivative:
dx du dx
​ ​ ​

Another quick way is to: 3x 2 + 6x − 9 = 0

1. Take the derivative of the “inside”
x = 1 and x = −3
2. Then take the derivative of the “outside” dy
Now for the values where dx is positive, knowing that it is a U-
3. Multiply them together
​

In our case: shaped parabola, we know that it is positive for x < −3 and
The inside: x + x3 x > 1.
The outside: u 5 We also know that the graph is negative for any x values
between -3 and 1

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CAIE AS LEVEL MATHEMATICS

( −3 < x < 1) Find the stationary points on the equation y = x 3 + 3x 2 and

identify the maximum and minimum stationary point
Solution:
We first find its first derivative

dy
= 3x 2 + 6x
​

dx
Make it equal to 0 to find the stationary points

3x 2 + 6x = 0

x = −2 and x = 0
Corresponding values of y for the values of x are:

(−2)3 + 3(−2)2 = 4

(0)3 + 3(0)2 = 0
The stationary points are (−2, 4) and (0, 0) , find the second
derivative now
d2 y
dx2 ​ = 6x + 6
d2 y
for x = −2 , dx2 = 6(−2) + 6 = −6 ​

∴ The maximum stationary point is (−2, 4) , as the value is

negative
d2 y
For x = 0 , dx2 = 6(0) + 6 = 6
​

∴ The minimum stationary point is (0, 0) , as the value is

∴ Gradient is increasing for x < −3 and x > 1 , and positive
gradient is decreasing for −3 < x < 1 .
7.6. Connected Rates of Change
7.5. Nature of Stationary Point
dy dy dx dy dy dt
= / or = ×
d2 y dx dt dt dx dt dx
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

Find second derivative dx2 ​

Substitute x -value of stationary point {W05-P01} Question 6:

d2 y The equation of a curve is given by the formula:
If value +ve → min. point, dx2 ​
>0
d2 y
If value –ve → max. point dx2 <0 6
y=
​

5 − 2x
​

1. Calculate the gradient of the curve at the point where

x=1
2. A point with coordinates (x, y) moves along a curve in
such a way that the rate of increase of y has a
constant value of 0.02 units per second. Find the rate
of increase of x when x = 1

Solution:
Part (i)
Differentiate given equation

6 (5 − 2x )−1
dy
= 6 (5 − 2x )−2 × −2 × −1
dx
​

= 12 (5 − 2x )−2
Now we substitute the given x value:
Example
d

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CAIE AS LEVEL MATHEMATICS

dy Find the equation of y in terms of x , which passes through

= 12 (5 − 2 (1 ))−2 2
dx the point (1, 3) , given that dx = 6x
dy
​

dy 4 Solution:
= we need to integrate the derivative to find y in terms of x
dx 3
​ ​

Thus, the gradient is equal to 43 at this point ​

y = ∫ 6x 2 dx
Part (ii)
Rate of increase in time can be written as:
6x 2+1
dx y= +c
2+1
​

dt
​

y = 2x 3 + c
We know the following:
substitute the coordinates the graph passes through to find
dy 4 dy the value of c
= and = 0.02
dx 3 dt
​ ​ ​

3 = 2(1)3 + c
Thus, we can formulate an equation:

dy dy dx c=3−2
= ÷
dx dt dt
​ ​ ​

c=1
Rearranging the formula, we get:
∴y = 2x 3 + 1
dx dy dy
= ÷
dt dt dx 8.2. Area Under a Curve
​ ​ ​

Substitute values into the formula

Area bounded by the curve to the x -axis
dx 4 This is the most common integrals being used
= 0.02 ÷
dt 3 Use dx
​ ​

dx 3 Make y the subject in the equation then input it into

= 0.02 × = 0.015 your integral
dt 4
​ ​

b
∫ y dx
8. Integration a
​

8.1. Introduction
ax n+1
∫ ax n dx = +c
n+1
​ ​

n+1
(ax + b)
∫ (ax + b) dx =
n
+c Area bounded by the curve to the y -axis
a (n + 1 )
​ ​

Use dy
Integration is the reverse process of differentiation Make x the subject of the equation and then input it
The "S" shaped symbol is used to mean the integral of, into the integral
and dx is written at the end of the terms to be integrated, b
meaning "with respect to x ". This is the same "dx" that ∫ x dy ​

dy
appears in dx . ​
a

Indefinite Integrals: Integrals without limits of integration

(the numbers by the integral sign), don’t forget to include
+c
Definite Integrals: Integrals with limits of integration, no
need of putting +c
Use the coordinates of a point on the curve to find c when
integrating a derivative to find the equation of the curve. Example
Example

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CAIE AS LEVEL MATHEMATICS

4
Find the value of ∫ (3x 3 − 4x 2 + 2x + 5) dx
2
Answer:
Find the integral of each term to give us:
(Note: it is important to remember that constants like 5 in this
case can also be written as 5x 0 )

4 4
3x 3+1 4x 2+1 2x 1+1 5x 0+1
∫ (3x 3 − 4x 2 + 2x + 5), dx = [ − + ] Question 11:
+{S19-P01}
3+1 2+1 1+1 0+1 2
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

4
3x 4 4x 3 2x 2
=[ − + + 5x ]
4 3 2
​ ​ ​ ​

Now substitute the limits and subtract those values

The diagram shows part of the curve:
3(4)4 4(4)3 2(4)2 3(2)4 4(2)3 2(2)2
=[ − + + 5(4)] − [ − + y = +4x + 1] +
5(2) 9
and the minimum point M .
4x+1
4 3 2 4 3 2
​ ​
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

256 32 1. Find expressions for dy

dx and ∫ y dx
= [192 − + 16 + 20 ] − [12 − + 4 + 10 ]
​

3 3
​ ​

2. Find the coordinates of M

3. The shaded region is bounded by the curve, the y -axis,
428 46 and the line through M parallel to the x -axis. Find,
=[ ]−[ ]
3 3 showing all necessary working, the area of the shaded
​ ​

region.
382
=
3 Solution:
​

4 i. Differentiate the equation:

∴ ∫ (3x 3 − 4x 2 + 2x + 5) dx = 382
3 dy 9
( 4x + 1 + )
d
​

2
=
dx dx 4x + 1
​ ​ ​ ​

8.3. Area Between Two Curves Use the Chain Rule:

The area between two curves with respect to x d

((4x + 1 ) 2 + 9 (4x + 1 )− 2 )
1 1 ​ ​

Just like finding the area under a curve, this time you dx
​

subtract the first curve by the second curve

dy 2 18
Use dx = − 3
dx 4x + 1 (4x + 1 ) 2
​ ​ ​

Make sure both equations have y as the subject

​

b b b Integrate the equation:

∫ y1 − y2 dx ​ ​ ​ or ∫ y1 dx − ∫ y2 dx
​ ​ ​ ​

9
∫ y dx = ∫
a a a
4x + 1 + dx
4x + 1
​ ​

Apply the reverse chain rule:

= ∫ (4x + 1 ) 2 + 9 (4x + 1 )− 2 dx
1 1
​ ​

Area between two curves with respect to y Don’t forget to include +c

Make x the subject in both equations, then integrate 3
(4x + 1 ) 2 9
∫ y dx =
​

its difference + 4x + 1 +c
6 2
​ ​ ​ ​

Use dy
b b b ii. Since M is the minimum point, find its coordinates by using
∫ x 1 − x 2 dy quador
​ ​ ​ ∫ x 1 dy − ∫ x 2 dy ​ ​ ​ ​
dy
=0
a a a dx ​

2 18
− 3 = 0
4x + 1
​ ​

(4x + 1 ) 2
​
​

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CAIE AS LEVEL MATHEMATICS

Combine the fractions:

8x − 16
3 ​ =0
(4x + 1 ) 2 ​

⇒ 8x − 16 = 0

⇒x=2

Putting the x -value back into the equation of the curve will
give us the following:

9 ‎
4 (2 ) + 1 + =6
4 (2 ) + 1
​ ​

With respect to y
∴M (2, 6 ) Use dy
Make x the subject of the equation of the curve and
iii. The line passing through M is parallel to the x -axis, which input πx 2 in the integral
means its equation is simply:
b
y=6 ∫ πx 2 dy ​

a
We know that: 1. This is an area between two curves 2. It
ranges from x = 0 to x = 2 which means our integral will
be:
2
9
∫ 4x + 1 + − 6 dx
4x + 1
​ ​ ​

0 ​

Which simplifies to:

3 2

[ 4x + 1 − 6x ]
(4x + 1 ) 2 9 ​

+
6 2
​ ​ ​ ​

Compute its value

3 2

[ 4x + 1 − 6x ] =
(4x + 1 ) 2 9 ​

4 8.5. The Volume of Revolution Between

+
6 2 3
​ ​ ​ ​ ​

0 2 Curves
4
∴ The area is With respect to x
3
​

Just like a normal Volume of Revolution, this time, we

Note: You can integrate the two equations separately and
subtract two volumes from each other
then subtract the area; you will still get the same answer Use dx
Make sure that y is the subject of the equations of the
8.4. Volume of Revolution two curves
b b b
With respect to x
π ∫ y12 − y22 dx or ∫ πy12 dx − ∫ πy22 dx
Use dx
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

a a a
Make y the subject of the equation of the curve then
2
input πy in the integral
b
∫ πy2 dx
‎
​

With respect to y
Use dy
Make x the subject of the equations of the two curves

b b b

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CAIE AS LEVEL MATHEMATICS

b b b
π ∫ x 21 − x 22 dy
​ ​ ​ or ∫ πx 21 dy − ∫ πx 22 dy
​ ​ ​ ​

a a a

{W18-P01} Question 10:

1
The diagram shows part of the curve y = 2 (3x − 1 )− 3 ​

2
and the lines x = 3 and x = 3 . The curve and the line x =
​

2
3 intersect at the Point A.
​

Find, showing all necessary working, the volume obtained

when the shaded region is rotated 360 ∘ about the x -axis
Solution:
Using the formula for Volume of Revolution:
b
∫ πy2 dx ​

We will get:
3 2
∫ π (2 (3x − 1 ) ) dx
− 13 ​

2
3 ​

3
=∫ π (4 (3x − 1 ) ) dx
− 23 ​

2
3 ​

Integrate it, and apply the limits to the product of integration:

8.6. Improper Integrals

It is when one or both the limits of a definite integral are:
Positive or negative infinity
Undefined on the graph
e.g.
2
∫ 1
​

x dx
​

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CAIE AS LEVEL MATHEMATICS

∞ 1

∫ 1 The value of 2x 2 when limit approaches 2 would be

​

x dx
​

1
4 2(2) = 2 2 2 ​

To calculate this kind of questions, you would have to 1

The value of 2x 2 when the limit approaches a or zero would
​

consider what would happen when the limits reach near 1

be would be 2(a) 2 = 0 , as a is a very small number close to
​

the actual value (like how it would be if it reaches close to

0
infinity, meaning a very high number, or how low the value
Subtracting these gives us the value of 2 2−0
would be if the limit is 0 and how you should think of
​

2
putting a very small value near zero for it) ∴∫ 1
=2 2
x dx
e.g. if you think about it, for x1 if the limit was 0, then we
​ ​ ​

0
​

know that the value of it would be ∞ as the denominator is

so small; in the same case, if the limit would be close to ∞, Example
we know that the denominator is way too high and thus he ∞
actual value would be close to 0 ∫ 1
Find the value of ​

4 x dx
​

2
​

Example Solution:
∞ 1
2 x− 2
∫
​

1
Find the value of ∫ x dx
dx
4
​ ​
​

0
2
Solution:
∞
We know this is an improper integral as the expression is 1

=[ ]
x − 2 +1 ​

undefined at the limit 0, so instead of 0 let’s take another

4(− 12 + 1)
​ ​

variable a, which is a value very close to 0

​

2
∞
=[ ]
2 x ​

= ∫ x − 2 dx
1
2 2
​ ​

a As the value of x reaches infinity, the value of

2 x
2 would be close to infinity too, so, at the limit ∞, the value
​

− 12 +1
=[ 1 ]
x ​
​

should also be ∞ as the limit reaches 2 ; here we can just

−2 + 1
​ ​

x
substitute the value 2 into 2 to give us 22 now when we
​

a
​
​

​ ​

2
2 subtract both values we get ∞ − 2 ,
= [2x ]
​

1 ​

2 ∞
​

0 1
∴ ∫ ​

4 x
dx ​

​
=∞
2
1

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CAIE AS LEVEL
Mathematics

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