Experiment No: 1 Estimation of center of pressure on a submerged body

Name of Experiment: Estimation of center of pressure on a

submerged body

1. Objective

• To determine the hydrostatic force due to water acting on a partially or fully submerged
surface;
• To determine, both experimentally and theoretically, the center of pressure.

2. Introduction

Hydrostatic forces are the resultant force caused by the pressure loading of a liquid acting on
submerged surfaces. Calculation of the hydrostatic force and the location of the center of pressure
are fundamental subjects in fluid mechanics. The center of pressure is a point on the immersed
surface at which the resultant hydrostatic pressure force acts.
In this experiment, the hydrostatic force and center of pressure acting on a vertical surface will be
determined by increasing the water depth in the apparatus water tank and by reaching an equilibrium
condition between the moments acting on the balance arm of the test apparatus. The forces which
create these moments are the weight applied to the balance arm and the hydrostatic force on the
vertical surface.

3. Apparatus

Equipment required to carry out this experiment is the following:

• Armfield F1-12 Hydrostatic Pressure Apparatus,
• A jug, and
• Rulers, for measuring the actual dimensions of the quadrant.
The equipment is comprised of a rectangular transparent water tank, a fabricated quadrant, a balance
arm, an adjustable counter-balance weight, and a water-level measuring device (Figure 1.1).
The water tank has a drain valve at one end and three adjustable screwed-in feet on its base for
leveling the apparatus. The quadrant is mounted on a balance arm that pivots on knife edges. The
knife edges coincide with the center of the arc of the quadrant; therefore, the only hydrostatic force
acting on the vertical surface of the quadrant creates moment about the pivot point. This moment
can be counterbalanced by adding weight to the weight hanger, which is located at the left end of
the balance arm, at a fixed distance from the pivot. Since the line of actions of hydrostatic forces
applied on the curved surfaces passes through the pivot point, the forces have no effect on the
moment. The hydrostatic force and its line of action (center of pressure) can be determined for
different water depths, with the quadrant’s vertical face either partially or fully submerged.
A level indicator attached to the side of the tank shows when the balance arm is horizontal. Water
is admitted to the top of the tank by a flexible tube and may be drained through a cock in the side
of the tank. The water level is indicated on a scale on the side of the quadrant.

Indian Institute of Technology, 1 Department of Civil Engineering

Kharagpur
Experiment No: 1 Estimation of center of pressure on a submerged body

Figure 3.1 Experimental Setup

4. Theory

In this experiment, when the quadrant is immersed by adding water to the tank, the hydrostatic force
applied to the vertical surface of the quadrant can be determined by considering the following [1]:

• The hydrostatic force at any point on the curved surfaces is normal to the surface and
resolves through the pivot point because it is located at the origin of the radii. Hydrostatic
forces on the upper and lower curved surfaces, therefore, have no net effect – no torque to
affect the equilibrium of the assembly because the forces pass through the pivot.
• The forces on the sides of the quadrant are horizontal and cancel each other out (equal and
opposite).
• The hydrostatic force on the vertical submerged face is counteracted by the balance
weight. The resultant hydrostatic force on the face can, therefore, be calculated from the
value of the balance weight and the depth of the water.
• The system is in equilibrium if the moments generated about the pivot points by the
hydrostatic force and added weight (=mg) are equal, i.e.:

𝑚𝑔 × 𝐿 = 𝐹 × 𝑦 (1)
here:
m : mass on the weight hanger,
L : length of the balance arm
F : Hydrostatic force, and
y : distance between the pivot and the center of pressure
Then, calculated hydrostatic force and center of pressure on the vertical face of the quadrant can be
compared with the experimental results.

Indian Institute of Technology, 2 Department of Civil Engineering

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Experiment No: 1 Estimation of center of pressure on a submerged body

4.1 Hydrostatic Force

The magnitude of the resultant hydrostatic force (F) applied to an immersed surface is given by:
𝐹 = 𝑃𝐶 𝐴 = 𝜌𝑔𝑦𝑐 𝐴 (2)

where:
𝑃𝐶 : pressure at centroid of the immersed surface,
A: area of the immersed surface,
𝑦𝑐 : centroid of the immersed surface measured from the water surface,
𝜌: density of fluid, and
g : acceleration due to gravity.

The hydrostatic force acting on the vertical face of the quadrant can be calculated as:
• Partially immersed vertical plane Figure 4.1:
1
𝐹 = 𝜌𝑔𝐵𝑑 2 (3a)
2

Figure 4.1 Partially submerged quadrant (c: centroid, p: center of pressure)

• Fully immersed vertical plane Figure 4.2:

𝐷
𝐹 = 𝜌𝑔𝐵𝐷(𝑑 − ) (3b)
2
B : width of the quadrant face.
d : depth of water from the base of the quadrant.
D : height of the quadrant face.

Indian Institute of Technology, 3 Department of Civil Engineering

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Experiment No: 1 Estimation of center of pressure on a submerged body

Figure 4.2 Fully submerged quadrant (c: centroid, p: center of pressure)

4.2 Theoretical Determination of Center of Pressure

The center of pressure is calculated as:

𝐼𝑥
𝑦𝑝 = (4)
𝐴 𝑦𝑐

𝐼𝑥 is the 2nd moment of area of immersed body about an axis in the free surface. By use of the
parallel axes theorem:

𝐼𝑥 = 𝐼𝑐 + 𝐴𝑦𝑐2 (5)

Where 𝑦𝑐 is the depth of the centroid of the immersed surface, and 𝐼𝑐 is the 2nd moment of area of
immersed body about the centroidal axis. 𝐼𝑥 is calculated as:
• Partially immersed vertical plane:
𝐵𝑑 3 𝑑 2 𝐵𝑑 3
𝐼𝑥 = + 𝐵𝑑 ( ) = (6a)
12 2 3
• Fully immersed vertical plane:

𝐷2 𝐷 2
𝐼𝑥 = 𝐵𝐷 [ − (𝑑 − ) ] (6b)
12 2

The depth of the center of pressure below the pivot point is given by:
𝑦 = 𝑦𝑝 + 𝐻 − 𝑑 (7)
in which H is the vertical distance between the pivot and the base of the quadrant.

Substitution of Equation (6a and 6b) and into (4) and then into (7) yields the theoretical results, as

Indian Institute of Technology, 4 Department of Civil Engineering

Kharagpur
Experiment No: 1 Estimation of center of pressure on a submerged body

follows:
• Partially immersed vertical plane Figure 4.1:
𝑑 2𝑑
𝑦=𝐻− and 𝑦𝑝 = (8a)
3 3
• Fully immersed vertical rectangular plane Figure 4.2 :
𝐷2 𝐷 2
+(𝑑− )
12 2
𝑦 = 𝑦𝑝 + 𝐻 − d and 𝑦= 𝐷 (8b)
𝑑−
2
4.3 Experimental Determination of Center of Pressure

For equilibrium of the experimental apparatus, moments about the pivot are given by
Equation (1). By substitution of the derived hydrostatic force, F from Equation (3a and b), we
have:
• Partially immersed vertical plane Figure 4.1:
𝑚𝑔𝑙 2𝑚𝑙
𝑦= = (9a)
𝐹 𝜌𝐵𝑑 2

• Fully immersed vertical rectangular plane Figure 4.2 :

𝑚𝑙
𝑦= 𝐷 (9b)
𝜌𝐵𝐷(𝑑− )
2

5. Experimental Procedure

Begin the experiment by measuring the dimensions of the quadrant vertical end face (B and D)
and the distances (H and L), and then perform the experiment by taking the following steps:
1. Wipe the quadrant with a wet rag to remove surface tension and prevent air bubbles from
forming.
2. Place the apparatus on a level surface, and adjust the screwed-in feet until the built-in
circular spirit level indicates that the base is horizontal. (The bubble should appear in the
center of the spirit level.)
3. Position the balance arm on the knife edges and check that the arm swings freely.
4. Place the weight hanger on the end of the balance arm and level the arm, using the counter
weight, so that the balance arm is horizontal.
5. Add weight to the weight hanger.
6. Add water to the tank and allow time for the water to settle.
7. Close the drain valve at the end of the tank, then slowly add water until the hydrostatic
force on the end surface of the quadrant is balanced. This can be judged by aligning the
base of the balance arm with the top or bottom of the central marking on the balance rest.
8. Record the water height, which displayed on the side of the quadrant in mm. If the
quadrant is partially submerged, record the reading for partially submerged.
9. Repeat the steps, adding weight each time, until the quadrant is fully submerged, record
the readings for fully submerged condition.

Indian Institute of Technology, 5 Department of Civil Engineering

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Experiment No: 1 Estimation of center of pressure on a submerged body

6. Applications.
The location and magnitude of water pressure force acting on water-control structures, such as
dams, levees, and gates, are very important to their structural design. Hydrostatic force and its
line of action is also required for the design of many parts of hydraulic equipment

7. Observation and Result Table

Record the following dimensions:

• Height of quadrant endface, D (m) = 0.10 m

• Width of submerged, B (m)= 0.075 m
• Length of balance arm, L (m)= 0.275 m
• Distance from base of quadrant to pivot, H (m)= 0.2 m

All mass and water depth readings should be recorded in the Table:

• For Partially Submerged Condition

Sr Mass Depth of Hydrostatic Theoretical Depth Experimental

No. M Immersion Force of Center of depth of
(kg) d F Pressure center of
(m) (N) (m) pressure
(m)

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Experiment No: 1 Estimation of center of pressure on a submerged body

• For Full Submerged Condition

Sr Mass Depth of Hydrostatic Theoretical Depth Experimental

No. M Immersion Force of Center of depth of
(kg) d F Pressure center of
(m) (N) (m) pressure
(m)

8. Sample Calculation

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Experiment No: 1 Estimation of center of pressure on a submerged body

9. Conclusion

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Experiment No:02 Verification of Bernoulli’s equation

Name of Experiment: Verification of Bernoulli’s equation

1. Objective
Verification of Bernoulli’s energy equation.

2. Method
A tapered pipe is used and piezometric head along the length of pipe and discharge are measured to verify the
Bernoulli’s equation.

3. Equipment
Bernoulli’s apparatus (refer to Fig. 1 & 2), stop watch, scale and measuring tank.

Fig. 1 Bernoulli’s experimental apparatus

Fig. 2 Schematic of Bernoulli’s experiment.

1
Experiment No:02 Verification of Bernoulli’s equation

4. Theory
For steady incompressible flow Bernoulli’s equation along a streamline is written as

p V2
+ + z = constant
 2g
where
p = pressure; V = velocity, and z = height from datum.

Purpose of this experiment is to verify this expression. In the special apparatus the pipe is tapered with the
cross section decreasing in the direction of flow first and then increasing in the part of its length.
Hydraulic Grade Line

 p  p 
The line which shows the sum of pressure head   and the potential head z.  i.e.,  + z   is called the
    
Hydraulic Grade Line.
Energy Grade Line
 p V 2 
The line obtained by plotting the sum of pressure, elevation and velocity heads  i.e.,  + z +   along the
  2g  
pipe is called the Energy Grade Line.

5. Experimental Procedure
1. Measure cross section of pipe at inlet point, throat (mid-section and outlet point). From this
determine the cross section areas at each piezometer tapping.
2. Start the water supply .The head under which the flow occurs can be regulated by a valve at B.
Adjust the flow so that velocity is small.
3. Observe the piezometers to see if steady state is established. When steady state is reached, record
all the piezometer levels and water levels in tanks A and B.
4. Collect water in measuring tank over a time t measuring initial and final levels ( hi and h f ).

5. Increase the flow rate and repeat from step 3 onwards 5 - 6 times.

TECHNICAL DATA
Diameter of cross sections a)…………………….
b)…………………….
c)…………………….
d)……………………..
e)……………………..
2
Experiment No:02 Verification of Bernoulli’s equation
f)………………………
SAMPLE CALCULATIONS
Reading number …………
Rate of flow Q = …………

Velocity at point V = …………

p
= …………

p
+z = …………


p V2
+ +z = …………
 2g
OBSERVATIONS
Observation Table 1

Experiment hi hf t Q H

1
2
3
4
5

6
7

H = head of flow

3
Experiment No:07 Verification of Bernoulli’s energy equation
Observation Table 2
PIEZOMETER 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
DISTANCE FROM
REFERENCE
CROSS SECTION
AREA
V

p V2
+
1  2g

p V2
+ +z
 2g

p V2
+
2  2g

p V2
+ +z
 2g

p V2
+
3  2g

p V2
+ +z
 2g

4
Experiment No:07 Verification of Bernoulli’s energy equation
ASSIGNMENT
1. Plot HGL and EGL for case I and describe the nature of graph.

2. Plot HGL and EGL for case II and describe the nature of graph.

3. Plot HGL and EGL for case III and describe the nature of graph.

5
Experiment No:07 Verification of Bernoulli’s energy equation

DISCUSSIONS

6
Experiment No: 8 Determination of coefficient of discharge (Cd) of a V-notch

EXPERIMENT: - 8

DETERMINATION OF COEFFICIENT OF DISCHARGE (Cd) OF A V-NOTCH

THEORY

Sharp crested V-notch weir is a common flow measuring device (Figure FM1.1).

Figure 1. A typical application of V-notch in field

Figure 2. Laboratory Setup

A triangular (V) notch allows the water to flow over it under a head H. to calculate the rate of flow Q for a
notch angle, θ, the expression given below is used (Figure FM1.2)

Figure FM1.2. V-Notch parameters

1
Experiment No: 8 Determination of coefficient of discharge (Cd) of a V-notch

8 𝜃𝜃
𝑄𝑄𝑡𝑡 = 2𝑔𝑔 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝐻𝐻 5/2 … … … … … … (1)
15 � 2

Where, Qt is the theoretical value of flow rate when velocity of approach is negligible. The actual discharge
Qa may be given as

8 𝜃𝜃
𝑄𝑄𝑎𝑎 = 𝐶𝐶 2𝑔𝑔 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝐻𝐻 5/2 … … … … … … (2)
15 𝑑𝑑 � 2

Where, Cd is the coefficient of discharge

In practice a particular notch is calibrated for exponent n to head H which may not exactly be equal to 5/2,
that is, 2.5. The general expression is written as:
𝑄𝑄 = 𝐶𝐶𝐻𝐻 𝑛𝑛 … … … … … … (3)

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate constants C and n for the given V notch.

APPARATUS

Stop watch, Water level indicator gage, scale, measuring tank.

PROCEDURE

1. Open the valve to start the water supply.

2. Record the reading H0 on indicator gage when the water level reaches the notch crest.

3. Increase the flow rate. When the indicator gage reading over the three-five minutes interval
remains constant the steady state is established. Record the reading H.

4. Measure the flow rate by collecting water for a time interval t in the collecting tank.

5. Repeat from step3 onwards till maximum head over notch is reached.

DATA SHEET

Notch angle = 90º

Measuring Tank: Length = 586mm

Width = 386mm
Area (A) = _________

2
Experiment No: 8 Determination of coefficient of discharge (Cd) of a V-notch
Head over notch = H − H0 = H
′

Where, H0 = Initial reading (water level up to crest), H′ = Final reading

SAMPLE CALCULATIONS

Reading no.= ………………

𝐻𝐻 = H′ − H0 =______________ , 𝑄𝑄𝑡𝑡ℎ =________________

𝑉𝑉 =_______________, 𝑡𝑡 =______________, 𝑄𝑄𝑎𝑎 = _____________

Graph: Also 𝑄𝑄 = 𝐶𝐶𝐻𝐻 𝑛𝑛 or, 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑄𝑄 = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝐶𝐶 + 𝑛𝑛 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝐻𝐻

i.e., 𝑌𝑌 = 𝐾𝐾 + 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛

8 𝜃𝜃
𝐾𝐾 = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙(𝐶𝐶) = log � 𝐶𝐶𝑑𝑑 �2𝑔𝑔 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 �
15 2

OBSERVATION TABLE

H 𝐐𝐐𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭 𝐐𝐐𝐚𝐚 = 𝐕𝐕⁄𝐭𝐭 Cd

𝐇𝐇′ 𝐇𝐇𝟎𝟎 V T (𝐐𝐐𝐚𝐚 ⁄𝐐𝐐𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭 )
Sl. no (𝐇𝐇′ − 𝐇𝐇𝟎𝟎 )
(cm) (cm) (cm3/s) (ml) (sec) (cm3/s)
(cm)
1

3
Experiment No: 8 Determination of coefficient of discharge (Cd) of a V-notch

ASSIGNMENT

1. Plot Q Vs H on a log-log paper and determine Cd and n graphically.

DISCUSSION

4
Experiment No: 04 Estimation of orifice coefficients

Name of the Experiment: Estimation of orifice coefficients

1. OBJECTIVE

• To determine the Co-efficient of contraction, velocity and discharge for flow through a small
orifice.

2. APPARATUS

• Constant head inlet tank, Circular orifice

• Hook gauge, scale , and Stop watch

Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of experimental setup

3. THEORY

The orifice outflow velocity can be calculated by applying Bernoulli’s equation (for a steady,
incompressible, frictionless flow) to a large reservoir with an opening (orifice) on its side (Fig. 2):

Theoretical velocity Vt =  2gH  (1)

Theoretical discharge Qt = a 0  2gH  (2)

Where, a0 is the cross sectional area of the orifice and H is the height of fluid above the orifice.

Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur 1 Department of Civil Engineering

Experiment No: 04 Estimation of orifice coefficients

Now, due to contraction of the jet at vena contracta the area of flow at vena contracta is ( a c ) is

minimum i.e., much less than a 0 and the velocity of jet is also less than the theoretical value due to

friction and is calculated as:

Actual Velocity Va = Cv 2 gH (3)

Co-efficient of contraction Cc = a c / a 0 (4)

Co-efficient of velocity Cv = Va / Vt (5)

Co-efficient of discharge Cd = Qa / Q t = CcCv (6)

The actual discharge through the orifice may be calculated as

Qa = Cd a 0  2 gH (7)

Fig. 2 Flow through a small orifice

Typical value of Cd range from 0.6 to 0.65, i.e. the actual flow through a sharp edge is approximately
60% of the theoretical value. The value of the coefficient of discharge may be determined by measuring
the quantity of water discharged over a period of time whilst the head is maintained at a constant level.
Trajectory Method
The coefficient of velocity, Cv, and coefficient of discharge, Cd, are determined experimentally as
follows:
Taking the origin of co-ordinates at the vena-contracta and applying the laws of motion in the
horizontal and vertical planes then ignoring any effect of air resistance on the jet.

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Experiment No: 04 Estimation of orifice coefficients

In the horizontal direction

x = vt (8)

In vertical direction
y = ½ gt 2 (9)

Solving simultaneously by eleminating t, V = x / t but t = (2y / g )

1/2

Hence v = ( gx 2 / 2 y ) but v = Cv ( 2 gH )
1/2 12

Cv = ( x 2 / 4yH )
1/2
Therefore, (10)

To calculate Cd, actual discharge is measured over a time in the measuring tank.

Once Cd and Cv are known Cc can be calculated. Also, the jet diameter at vena contracta can be
measured directly.

4. PROCEDURE

1. Note down the diameter of the orifice.

2. Start water supply to tank.

3. Allow the steady state of flow as indicated by constant value of head H in tank with centre line
of orifice taken as datum.

4. Record H.

5. Measure the diameter of jet at vena contracta.

6. Take several readings for dimensions x and y along the trajectory of jet (at least 4 points).

7. Collect the water in measuring tank over a time interval t to obtain flow rate Q.

8. Repeat the step 3 to 7 at least five times.

Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur 3 Department of Civil Engineering

Experiment No: 04 Estimation of orifice coefficients

5. TECHNICAL DATA
Orifice shape:
Orifice dimensions:
Orifice Area ( a0 ) = ……………………………..
Orifice tank:
Diameter = …………………………….
Area = …………………………….

6. OBSERVATION TABLE 1
Run No. H hi hf h=hi-hf t x y dc

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Experiment No: 04 Estimation of orifice coefficients

7. OBSERVATION TABLE 2

Run No. Qa Qt Cv Cd Cc

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Experiment No: 04 Estimation of orifice coefficients

8. ASSIGNMENT
1. Plot y against x and calculate Cv .

2. Plot H against Q to show whether Cd is constant over the range of the experiment. Estimate Cc .

3. Derive Equation 1. Refer Fig. 2.

4. Define Vena-contracta.

5. Define Orifice constants. What are the types of orifice plate used in orifice flow meter?

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Experiment No: 04 Estimation of orifice coefficients

9. SAMPLE CALCULATIONS

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Experiment No: 04 Estimation of orifice coefficients

10. Conclusion

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Experiment No:05 Estimation of coefficient of discharge of a Venturimeter

Name of Experiment: Estimation of coefficient of discharge of a

Venturimeter

1. Objective

The objective of this experiment is to calibrate a Venturimeter by determining its coefficient of

discharge by applying Bernoulli’s principle

2. Introduction

In this experiment, discharge coefficient value of a Venturimeter is determined for using the device for
flow rate measurement. Measuring the flow rate is an important aspect in all industries and there are
several ways to measure the flow of fluids in pipes. Venturimeter is a widely popular device used for
measuring the rate of flow.

3. Theory

A venturimeter is a device which is used for measuring the rate of flow of fluid through a pipe. The
basic principle on which a venturimeter works is that by reducing the cross-sectional area of the flow
passage, a pressure difference is created and the measurement of the pressure difference enables the
determination of the discharge through the pipe. As shown in figure 3.1
Venturimeter consists of
(1) an inlet section followed by a convergent cone,
(2) a cylindrical throat,
(3) a gradually divergent cone.
The inlet section of the venturimeter is of the same diameter as that of the pipe which is followed by a
convergent cone. The convergent cone is a short pipe which tapers from the original size of the pipe to
that of the throat of the venturimeter. The throat of the venturimeter is a short parallel-sided tube having
its cross-sectional area smaller than that of the pipe. The divergent cone of the venturimeter is a
gradually diverging pipe with its cross-sectional area increasing from that of the throat to the original
size of the pipe. At the inlet section and the throat i.e., sections 1 and 2 of the venturimeter, pressure
taps are provided through pressure rings as shown in Figure 3.1
The convergent cone of a venturimeter has a total included angle of 21° ± 1° and its length parallel to
the axis is approximately equal to 2.7 (D – d), where D is the diameter of the inlet section and d is the
diameter of the throat. The divergent cone has a total included angle lying between 5° to 15°, (preferably
about 6°).

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Experiment No:05 Estimation of coefficient of discharge of a Venturimeter

Figure 3.1 Venturimeter

The Venturimeter is a device for measuring discharge in a pipe. It consists of a rapidly converging
section (denoted as point 2 in Figure 3.1) which increases the velocity of flow and hence reduces the
pressure. It then returns to the original dimensions of the pipe by a gently diverging the diffuser. By
measuring the pressure differences, the discharge coefficient can be calculated. This is a particularly
accurate method of flow measurement as energy loss is very small.

Figure 3.2 Venturimeter

Referring to the above Venturi tube diagram, the Bernoulli equation can be applied to points 1 and 2.
Following the analysis, the equations for flow rate can be derived for volumetric flow rate:

𝐴1 𝐴2 √2𝑔ℎ
𝑄𝑡ℎ =
√𝐴12 − 𝐴22
where:
𝑄𝑡ℎ theoretical volumetric flow rate (m3/s)
𝐴1 cross sectional area at 1 (mm2)
𝐴2 cross sectional area at 2 (mm2)
ℎ difference of pressure heads at sections 1 and 2
The discharge coefficient is defined as the ratio of actual volume flow rate to theoretical volume flow
rate:
Coefficient of discharge, Cd = Qactual/Qtheoretical
The discharge coefficient is less than unity due to the losses caused by the wall shear stress, the losses
in contraction and the losses during expansion.
𝑄𝑎𝑐𝑡 = 𝐶𝑑 𝑄𝑡ℎ
𝐴1 𝐴2 √2𝑔ℎ
𝑄𝑎𝑐𝑡 = 𝐶𝑑
√𝐴21 − 𝐴22

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Experiment No:05 Estimation of coefficient of discharge of a Venturimeter

4. Apparatus

The flow measurement experiment apparatus comprises a Venturi nozzle (9), an orifice plate, a
measuring nozzle and a Pitot tube (8) for flow measurement and a rotameter (3). The flow rate can be
regulated using the gate valve (2). The pressure losses at the measuring elements can be recorded using
pressure connections with rapid action couplings. The connections are connected to a six-tube
manometer (6), which is fitted with a ventilation valve. The six-tube manometer is used in order to
determine the pressure distribution in the Venturi nozzle or the orifice plate flow meter and measuring
nozzle.

Figure 4.1 Apparatus

The tube manometer panel (Figure 6) has 6 glass cylinders (11) with milimeter (mm) scale for
measuring the water column (WC). The unit mm WC is used here (10mmWC ≙ 1mbar). The measuring
range is 390 mm WC. All the tubes are connected to one another at the upper end and ventilated by a
shared ventilation valve (12). The measuring connections (10) are at the lower end. Differential pressure
measurements are carried out with the ventilation valve closed (12, 13), while relative gauge pressure
measurements with the ventilation valve open (12). Standard pressure unit is Pascal (Pa), where 1Pa =
1N/m2= 10-5bar = 0.01mbar.

Figure 4.2 Illustration of multi-tube manometer

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Experiment No:05 Estimation of coefficient of discharge of a Venturimeter

Equating the pressure at the level (pressure at the same level in a continuous body of static fluid is
equal),
For the left hand side:

𝑃1 = 𝑃𝐴 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ1
For the right hand side:
𝑃2 = 𝑃𝐴 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ2
Pressure difference, ∆𝑃
∆𝑃 = 𝑃1 − 𝑃2 = 𝑃𝐴 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ1 − 𝑃𝐴 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ2
∆𝑃 = 𝑃1 − 𝑃2 = 𝜌𝑔(ℎ2 − ℎ2 )
Rotameter in this apparatus consists of a vertical conical measuring section, through which the liquid
flows from bottom to top. A specially shaped float moves freely in the liquid flow and is carried along
by the flow due to its flow resistance. This results in equilibrium between the weight of the float on the
one hand and its drag and lifting force on the other. The float adjusts to a particular height in the
measuring tube depending on the flow volume. Because of the operating principle, a reliable measuring
range on a rotameter never begins at zero, but at 5-10% of the final measuring value. The measured
flow rate value is always read at the upper edge of the float. The maximum flow measured by the
rotameter is 1,600 L/h.

Figure 4.3 Rotameter

Figure 4.4 Hydraulic Bench

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Kharagpur
Experiment No:05 Estimation of coefficient of discharge of a Venturimeter

1. Sump Tank
2. Sliding Valve
3. Remote sight gauge
4. Volumetric measuring tank with channel
5. Water supply connection for accessories without pump
6. Diverting cap
7. Connecting piece of pump
8. Switch box
9. Flow control valve
10. Overflow pipe
11. Water supply connection for accessories with pump
12. Submersible motor driven pump
13. Drain cock

5. Experimental Procedure
1. Make sure manometer tubes are connected to Venturimeter.
2. Close inlet valve and control valve.
3. Switch on the main switch.
4. Switch on the pump.
6. Now open the inlet valve slowly, also open the control valve slowly until maximum level
(until water in the manometer overflow).
i. Open the black valve (anticlockwise) on top of the manometer to release all bubble
in the system;
ii. Close the black valve.
5. Now close the control valve.
6. Switch off the pump and control the water level.
7. Now slowly open the white valve until maximum level of 30-40 mm.
8. Now switch on the pump again.
9. Open the control valve slowly until level of water reach maximum (390 mm) and manometer
H at minimum level. Take all the reading (Multi-tube Manometer/ Rotameter).
7. Actual Q flowrate calculation
10. Collect the water in a tank and at the same time, take the time taken for the maximum volume
filled/collected or close the basin tank valve, take the time measured for example, 5 Liter.
11. Now take 4 different flow rate, Q (Range above 200 L/min is the reference flow to all
component).
12. Now close the control valve and pump switch again.

8. Applications
Venturimeter is commonly used to measure the flow rate.

9. Observation and Result Table

• A1=
• A2=

Indian Institute of Technology, 5 Department of Civil Engineering

Kharagpur
Experiment No:05 Estimation of coefficient of discharge of a Venturimeter

Actual
Pressure Pressure Pressure Theoretical
Volume Time Discharge Coefficient
Sr. head head Drop Discharge
v T Q of Discharge
No ℎ1 ℎ2 ℎ Q
(l) (s) (l/s) Cd
(mm) (mm) (mm) (l/s)

10. Sample Calculation

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Kharagpur
Experiment No:05 Estimation of coefficient of discharge of a Venturimeter

11. Conclusion

Indian Institute of Technology, 7 Department of Civil Engineering

Kharagpur
Experiment No: 06 Study of Impact of Free Water Jets

Name of Experiment: Study of Impact of Free Water Jets.

1. Objective
The objective of this experiment is to measure the force exerted by a fluid jet impinging upon a
deflector (flat or curved surface) and to compare the results with the theoretical values.

2. Introduction
Water jet from a small opening (termed as nozzle), with a high velocity, when exerted on a surface
of plate will produce force that gives power to move a system. The principle of jet impact is the
basis for the understanding of liquid flow in turbines. This principle is used in designing impulse
turbines. In these turbines part of the fluid energy is transformed into kinetic energy in a nozzle (or
a set of nozzles) which issues a jet of fluid at high speed. The jet strikes the moving blades, mounted
on the turbine wheel, producing the force required to drive it.

3. Theory
A jet of fluid when impinging upon a flat or a curved surface generates a force due to change of
momentum of the fluid according to Newton’s second law of motion. For example, when water of
a velocity is forced out from a jet nozzle with diameter d (in this case nozzle diameter = 10mm) on
a plate, the rate of change of momentum produced and its magnitude is the same with the force
exerted on the surface of the plate to support the water jet.
Force = Rate of momentum change of water jet
= (mass of fluid/time) x change of velocity
The force (F) generated by a jet of water as it strikes depends on the shape of the plate surface, e.g.
flat plate or a curved (hemispherical or conical) surface.
Figure 4.1 to 3.4 show a jet of fluid issuing from a nozzle of diameter‘d’, and moving vertically
upward with velocity v and strikes a stationary surface of various shapes. The jet is deflected by the
vane through an angle θ and the fluid leaves the vane with velocity v’
Fth = Theoretical force exerted on the plate (Newton)
a = Cross-sectional area of nozzle (m2)
ρ = Density of water (kg/m3)
θ = Angle of water flow after impact on the plate surface
W = Velocity of water jet before impact on the plate surface
Q = Discharge

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Experiment No: 06 Study of Impact of Free Water Jets

For Flat Surface

α = 90o, therefore cos α = 0

Fth = Q. ρ. (W1 – W2) if W2 =0 then

Fth = Q. ρ. W1 α

Figure 3.1. Flat Surface

For Semi-Circular Surface

α = 180o, therefore cos α = -1

Fth = Q. ρ. (W1 – W2) if W2 = -W1 then

Fth = 2 Q. ρ. W1

Figure 3.2. Semi-circular surface

For Oblique Surface

Fth = Q. ρ. W1. Cos α with α = 450 then

Fth = Q. ρ. W1. Cos2 α

Figure 0.3. Oblique surface

For conical Surface

Fth = Q. ρ. (W1 – W2x)

W2 = -W1 Cos α with α = 450 W2x =W2 Cos α
Fth = Q. ρ. W1. (1+ Cos2 α)

Figure 0.4. Conical surface

Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur 2 Department of Civil Engineering

Experiment No: 06 Study of Impact of Free Water Jets

4. Apparatus
The apparatus consists of an upward discharging jet surrounded by a clear Plexiglas tube provided
with levelling screws. The plate located directly over the jet is mounted on a stainless steel
spindle, which passes through the top plate of the apparatus. A weight pan is mounted on the
upper end of this spindle Water is supplied from the lab faucet (supply valve) to the inlet of the
apparatus via a hose. Water flowing through the nozzle strikes the flat plate and deflects from the
flat plate and falls to the base of the clear Plexiglas tube where it exit and drain in the sink.

Figure 4.1

Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur 3 Department of Civil Engineering

Experiment No: 06 Study of Impact of Free Water Jets

Figure 4.2
1. Sump Tank
2. Sliding Valve
3. Remote sight gauge
4. Volumetric measuring tank with channel
5. Water supply connection for accessories without pump
6. Diverting cap
7. Connecting piece of pump
8. Switch box
9. Flow control valve
10. Overflow pipe
11. Water supply connection for accessories with pump
12. Submersible motor driven pump
13. Drain cock

Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur 4 Department of Civil Engineering

Experiment No: 06 Study of Impact of Free Water Jets

5. Experimental Procedure
5.1 Preparing the Experiment
1. Open the sliding valve of the HM 150 (see Figure 5.1)
2. Assemble the deflector.
3. Loosen the 3 screws (a) on the cover (b) and remove cover together with lever mechanism.
4. Fit the appropriate deflector and tighten the lock nut (c) on the rod
5. Screw cover back onto tank.

Figure 5.1 Figure 5.2

6. Performing the Experiment

1. Use the adjusting screw to set the pointer to zero (zero notch). When doing so, do not
place any loading weights on the lever mechanism.
2. Switch on the pump
3. Open the valve of the HM 150 and adjust the discharge as per the requirement until the pointer
is on non-zero again condition
4. Close the valve of the HM 150.
5. Apply the desired loading weight (1N, 2N, 5N) till the pointer comes on zero again
6. Determine the volumetric flow. This involves recording time t required to fill up the

Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur 5 Department of Civil Engineering

Experiment No: 06 Study of Impact of Free Water Jets

volumetric measuring tank from 5 to 10 litres or for any liters.

7. Switch off the pump.
8. Open the sliding valve.
9. When the experiment is completed, close the control valve (clockwise). Switch off.
10. Change the deflector and follow 1 to 9 step above for next experiment.

Figure 6.1

7. Data
Nozzle Diameter: 10mm

8. Applications
• Water jet cutting.
• Jet impact is used to generate electricity. Impact of jet is used to rotate the turbine in the generator.

Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur 6 Department of Civil Engineering

Experiment No: 06 Study of Impact of Free Water Jets

9. Observation and Result Table

For Flat Surface
Flow Jet Calculated Efficiency
SR Volume Weight Force Time Rate velocity Force η
No. (l) (N) (s) Q W1 Fth (%)
(l/s) (m/s) (N)

For Semi-Circular Surface

Flow Jet Calculated Efficiency
SR Volume Weight Force Time Rate velocity Force η
No. (l) (N) (s) Q W1 Fth (%)
(l/s) (m/s) (N)

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Experiment No: 06 Study of Impact of Free Water Jets

For Oblique Surface

Flow Jet Calculated Efficiency
SR Volume Weight Force Time Rate velocity Force η
No. (l) (N) (s) Q W1 Fth (%)
(l/s) (m/s) (N)

For Conical Surface

Flow Jet Calculated Efficiency
SR Volume Weight Force Time Rate velocity Force η
No. (l) (N) (s) Q W1 Fth (%)
(l/s) (m/s) (N)

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Experiment No: 06 Study of Impact of Free Water Jets

10. Sample Calculation

11. Conclusion

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Experiment No: 06 Study of Impact of Free Water Jets

12. Graphs

(a) Plot theoretical vs. measured forces for each vane.

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Experiment No: 7 Hydraulic jump in a Rectangular Channel

Name of Experiment: Hydraulic jump in a Rectangular Channel

1. Objective

• To observe the flow patterns before the jump and after the jump.
• Quantify the energy lost due to a hydraulic jump.

2. Theory

Hydraulic jump in open channels can be attributed to rapidly varied flow where a significant change
in velocity occurs from super-critical flow to sub-critical flow. This fact may owe to the presence
of some structures obstructing the movement of flow in open channels. Under-shot weir or gate is
the most impressive example for hydraulic jump formation in canals where the flow undergoes high
velocity under gates with upstream small depth and returns back to a higher downstream conjugate
depth away from the gate with lower velocity. Froude number represents the clear impact of non-
uniform flow velocity in open channels where super-critical flow is obtained at Froude number
greater than 1, whereas sub-critical flow is indicated at Froude number less than 1. The main
advantage of hydraulic jump occurrence in canals is energy dissipation downstream spillways
where accumulation of water behind the gate is associated to the high flow velocity which abruptly
declines downstream gate and thus avoiding bed erosion and scour.
A schematic of a hydraulic jump in an open channel with small bed slope is shown below. In
engineering applications, the hydraulic jump frequently appears downstream from spillways or
sluice gates where flow velocities are high. It may be used as an effective dissipater of kinetic
energy, and thus prevent scour of an alluvial river bottom, or can be induced as a mixing device in
water or sewage treatment designs. In design applications, the engineer is concerned primarily with
predicting the occurrence, size, and location of the jump.

Figure 2.1Hydrualic Jump

A hydraulic jump is formed when liquid at high velocity discharges into a zone of lower velocity,
creating a rather abrupt rise in depth. The rapidly varying water surface is typically accompanied
by violent turbulence, eddying, air entrainment, and surface undulations. The high velocity flow is
known as supercritical, and occurs at depths below critical depth, whereas the low velocity flow is
subcritical, and occurs at depths greater than critical depth. The critical depth 𝑦𝑐 , is the depth
associated with the point of minimum energy in the associated control volume and is an unstable

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Experiment No: 7 Hydraulic jump in a Rectangular Channel

depth that occurs within the jump. A parameter that further can be used to characterize critical flow
is the Froude number, Fr, expressed as
𝑉
𝐹𝑟 = (1)
√𝑔𝐷

where V is the flow velocity, g is the gravitational acceleration, and D is the hydraulic depth, defined
as a ratio of flow area to top width at a given location. For a channel of rectangular cross section,
with discharge, Q, and constant width, b, the hydraulic depth is equivalent to depth of flow, y, and
equation (1) can be rewritten as
𝑞 𝑉
𝐹𝑟 = (2)
𝑦 √𝑔𝐷
𝑄
where 𝑞 = , the flowrate per unit width of the channel. Critical flow in open channels occurs
𝑏
when the Froude number equals unity. The Froude number further characterizes subcritical and
supercritical flow as follows:
➢ Fr > 1 Supercritical Flow
• Disturbances travel downstream.
• Upstream water levels are unaffected by downstream controls .
➢ Fr < 1 Subcritical Flow
• Disturbances travel upstream and downstream.
• Upstream water levels are affected by downstream controls.
An equation relating the upstream and downstream depths of a hydraulic jump can be derived from
the momentum equation, assuming a uniform velocity profile across the flow area, negligible
boundary friction, and a small channel slope. This hydraulic jump equation can be expressed as
𝑦1
𝑦2 =
2
(√1 + 8𝐹𝑟2 − 1) (3)
𝑦2
Equation (2) demonstrates that >1 only when Fr1 > 1 and Fr2 < 1, thus proving the necessity of
𝑦1
supercritical flow for the formation of a hydraulic jump. Another way to visualize this necessity is
by using specific force, Fs, defined as
𝑞2 𝑦2
𝐹𝑠 = + (4)
𝑔𝑦 2
𝑞2
where the term is the momentum of the flow passing through the channel section per unit time
𝑔𝑦
𝑦2
per unit weight of water, and the term is the force per unit weight of water. It becomes evident
2
from a plot of Fs as a function of depth for a constant flowrate, or a specific force diagram, that the
solution to equation (3) occurs when 𝐹𝑠,1 = 𝐹𝑠,2 . The depths 𝑦1 and 𝑦2 at which 𝐹𝑠,1 and 𝐹𝑠,2 occur
are called Sequent Depths.
A stable hydraulic jump will form only if the three independent variables (𝑦1 , 𝑦2 , 𝐹𝑟1 ) conform to
the relationship given in (3). The upstream depth, 𝑦1 , and the Froude Number, 𝐹𝑟1 , are controlled
by an upstream head gate for a given discharge. The downstream depth is controlled by a
downstream tailgate and not by the hydraulic jump. Denoting the actual measured downstream
depth as 𝑦2 , and the computed sequent depth as 𝑦2 ′, found from (3), the following observations

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Experiment No: 7 Hydraulic jump in a Rectangular Channel

can be made;
• If 𝑦2 = 𝑦2 ′ a stable jump forms;
• If 𝑦2 > 𝑦2 ′ the downstream specific force is greater than that at the upstream end, and the
jump tends to move upstream;
• If 𝑦2 < 𝑦2 ′the downstream specific force is less than that at the upstream end, and the jump
tends to move downstream.
Specific energy, E, in a channel section is defined as the energy per unit weight of water at any
section of the channel measured with respect to the channel bottom.
𝑉2
𝐸 =𝑦+ (5)
2𝑔
For a rectangular channel of constant width and constant discharge, equation (5) becomes
1 𝑞2
𝐸 =𝑦+ (6)
2𝑔 𝑦 2
A plot of E vs. y for a constant magnitude of q is called a specific energy curve. The depth of flow
at which the specific energy is a minimum for a given discharge is the critical depth, 𝑦𝑐 . Applying
equation (6) both at the upstream depth, 𝑦1 , and the downstream depth, 𝑦2 , the energy loss through
the jump may then be evaluated as
∆𝐸 = 𝐸1 − 𝐸2 (7)
The figure below illustrates the relationships between the depths at the upstream and downstream
ends of a jump and their corresponding specific force diagram and specific energy curve.

Figure 2.2 Hydraulic Jump Profile, Specific Force Diagram, and Specific Energy Curve

3. Apparatus

Laboratory experiments are carried out on a rectangular open channel flume 5 m long and a basic hydraulic
bench. It consists of a walled rectangular flume having a sluice gate at the inlet end, a tail gate at the
downstream end and top rails for the moments of pointer gauge. A sluice valve is provided near the outlet
end of supply pipe. Scale is also required.

4. Experimental Procedure

1. Measure the flume width, b, and confirm that the flume is in a horizontal position.
2. Start the flow in the flume by turning on the pump.
3. After the system reaches a steady state, record the discharge.
4. Position the upstream gate, or head gate, so that the upstream water level is near the top of the

Indian Institute of Technology, 3 Department of Civil Engineering

Kharagpur
Experiment No: 7 Hydraulic jump in a Rectangular Channel

flume.
5. Position the tailgate to create a hydraulic jump in the center of the flume.
6. After the jump stabilizes, measure and record the depth at a point immediately upstream of the
jump and a point downstream of the undulating water surface caused by the jump.
7. Repeat steps 4 – 6 for different discharge.

5. Applications.

1. Usually hydraulic jump reverses the flow of water. This phenomenon can be used to mix
chemicals for water purification.
2. Hydraulic jump usually maintains the high water level on the downstream side. This high water
level can be used for irrigation purposes.
3. Hydraulic jump can be used to remove the air from water supply and sewage lines to prevent the
air locking.
4. It prevents the scouring action on the downstream side of the dam structure.
5. Energy dissipater of flowing water on downstream of dam or outlet structures.

6. Observation and Result Table.

• Width of the channel =

Measured Measured
Measured
Volume Time Discharge Upstream Depth Downstream
Sr. of Water Depth of Water ratio
V t Q 𝒚𝟐
No 3
(l) (s) (m /s) y1 y2 𝒚𝟏
(mm) (mm)

Calculated Calculated Calculated

Upstream Downstream ratio
Velocity Velocity Froude Froude Depth of Depth of 𝒚𝟐
Sr.
V1 V2 Number Number Water Water 𝒚𝟏
No
(m/s) (m/s) 𝑭𝒓 𝟏 𝑭𝒓 𝟐
y1 y2
(mm) (mm)

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Experiment No: 7 Hydraulic jump in a Rectangular Channel

Specific Energy Specific Energy Energy Loss Headloss

Sr. No E1 E2 ∆𝑬 HL
(m) (m) (m) (m)

6. Sample Calculation

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Experiment No: 7 Hydraulic jump in a Rectangular Channel

7. Conclusion

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Kharagpur
Experiment No: 7 Hydraulic jump in a Rectangular Channel

8. Graphs

𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑦 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠

• Vs
𝑦1 𝑦1
𝑦2 𝑦2
• (𝑦 ) Vs (𝑦 )
1 measured 1 calculated

Indian Institute of Technology, 7 Department of Civil Engineering

Kharagpur
Experiment No: 08 Determination of Darcy’s friction factor in pipe flow

Name of Experiment: Determination of Darcy’s friction factor in pipe flow.

1. Objective
To investigate the head loss due to friction in a pipe flow and to estimate the friction factor. Both these
variables are to be determined over a range of flow rates and their characteristics identified for both laminar
and turbulent flows.

2. METHOD
To estimate the friction factor for variation in pipe flows, set two flow regimes 1) high flow rate, to achieve
turbulent flow, 2) low flow rate, to achieve laminar flow. For each flow condition, the pressure difference and
flow rate have to be estimated from the manometer reading and volumetric discharge collection method
respectively.

3. Experiment
In order to complete the demonstration, we need the following equipment:

1. Hydraulics Bench which allows us to measure flow by timed volume collection;

2. Pipe friction apparatus;

Fig. 1. Pipe Friction Apparatus

1
Experiment No: 08 Determination of Darcy’s friction factor in pipe flow

3. A stopwatch;

4. A spirit level for setting up the equipment and

5. A measuring cylinder for measuring very low flow rates

4. THEORY

A basic momentum analysis of the fully developed flow in a straight tube of uniform cross section shows that
the head loss is the pressure difference between two points in the tube is due to the effects of viscosity.

The head loss is defined as follows.

𝛥ℎ = (𝑝1 − 𝑝2 )/𝛾 (1)

Where p1, p2 are the pressures at the upstream point and downstream point along the flow through a pipe and
 is the specific weight of the flowing fluid. The head loss is measured directly by a manometer connected to
two pressure tapping at a distance L apart.

In a cylindrical pipe of diameter d, the head loss due to viscous effects is proportional to length L and can be
characterized by the Darcy-Weisbach equation as follows.

h f U 2
= (2)
L 2 gd

Where f is defined as the Darcy-Weisbach friction factor, d is the pipe diameter, g is the acceleration due to
gravity and U is the mean flow velocity which can be estimated using Q = UA (Q is the flow rate; A is the

area of cross section; A =  d 2 4 ).

Variation of Friction Factor

In general for pipe flow, friction factor may be considered to be a function of Reynolds’ number Re and
relative roughness.

In case of a laminar fully flow through pipes, the friction factor, f is found to be function of Reynolds number
(Re).

64
f = (3)
Re

2
Experiment No: 08 Determination of Darcy’s friction factor in pipe flow

Ud
Re = (4)


Where  is the kinematic viscosity of the fluid flowing through the pipe.

For turbulent flow in a smooth pipe, the expression for friction factor (f) is given by

f = 0.316 Re−0.25 (5)

A comprehensive documentation of the experimental and theoretical investigations on the laws of friction in
pipe flows has been presented in the form of a diagram, as shown in Fig. 2, by L.F. Moody to show the
variation of friction factor, f with the pertinent governing parameters, namely, the Reynolds number of flow
and the relative roughness of the pipe. This diagram is known as Moody's Chart which is employed till today
as the best means for predicting the values of friction factor.

Fig. 2. Friction Factor for Pipes: Moody Diagram

5. Experimental Procedure
A. Setting-up for low flow rates (Laminar Flow)

1. Connect the water manometer (4) to the two pressure measuring fittings (3; 12).

3
Experiment No: 08 Determination of Darcy’s friction factor in pipe flow

2. Open the shut-off valve at the drain (2).

3. Close the valve (7) on the bypass.

4. Open the valves (10) and (11) on the head tank.

5. Turn on the laboratory mains water supply and adjust the valve controlling the flow such that a constant
water level is established at the head tank overflow (6). Fine adjustment can then be carried out using
the shut-off valve (10).

6. Regulate the flow using the shut-off valve at the drain until the water manometer shows a constant
pressure difference. This corresponds to the head loss ∆ℎ.

7. Then measure the volumetric flow using a measuring tank and a stopwatch.

8. Continue the experiment by increasing the flow in increments and repeating the head difference and
volumetric flow measurements. Note the measured values.

10
11

Fig. 3. Connecting the watermanometer Fig. 4. Shut-off valves on head tank

B. Setting up for high flow rates (Turbulent Flow)

The head tank is not used for this experiment. A higher flow velocity is required for turbulent flow. The water
is therefore fed directly from the laboratory water supply connection into the pipe section (13) via a bypass
(8).

1. Connect the dial manometer (5) to the two pressure measuring fittings (3 and 12).

2. Open the shut-off valve at the drain (2).

3. Open the valve (7) on the bypass.

4. Close the valves (10) and (11) on the head tank.

4
Experiment No: 08 Determination of Darcy’s friction factor in pipe flow

5. Turn on the pump on the laboratory mains water supply and adjust the valve controlling the flow such
that a constant flow is established.

6. Regulate the flow using the shut-off valve (2) at the drain until the dial manometer shows a constant
pressure difference.

7. Then measure the volumetric flow using a measuring tank and a stopwatch.

8. Continue the experiment by increasing the flow in increments and repeating the pressure difference
and volumetric flow measurements. Note the measured values.

Fig. 5. Bypass and shut-off valves on head tank

Technical Data

The following dimensions from the equipment are used in the calculations. If required these values may be
changed as per the experimental requirement and replaced with your own measurements.

Length of the test pipe (L) =0.400 m

Diameter of the test pipe (d) =0.003 m

Sample Calculations

Laminar Flow
Observation Number:

5
Experiment No: 08 Determination of Darcy’s friction factor in pipe flow

Turbulent Flow
Observation Number:

6
Experiment No: 08 Determination of Darcy’s friction factor in pipe flow
Observation Table 1
Tabulate your results (for laminar flow)

Obs. Head Diff.

hi ho t Q U Re fcal. fth. Flow Type
No. (∆ℎ)

7
Experiment No: 08 Determination of Darcy’s friction factor in pipe flow
Observation Table 2
Tabulate your results (for turbulent flow)

Obs. Head Diff.

t Q U Re fcal. fth. Flow Type
No. (∆ℎ)

8
Experiment No: 08 Determination of Darcy’s friction factor in pipe flow

ASSIGNMENT:

1. Plot log f vs log Re. Identify the laminar and the turbulent flow regimes.

2. Plot log h vs logU .What is the dependence of head loss upon flow rate in the laminar and turbulent
regions of flow?

DISCUSSION

9
Experiment No: 03 Minor Losses in flow through pipes

Name of Experiment: Minor Losses in flow through pipes

1. Objective

The objective of this experiment is to determine the minor losses in flow through pipes.

2. Introduction

In practical setting, fluid flows through different pipe fittings such as sudden contraction, sudden
enlargement valve, elbow or bend, tee section etc. Sudden changes in the flow path result in
secondary flow patterns, denoted as separation region and vena contract (flow area contraction due
to secondary flow). Vortices and eddies occur in these regions, consuming energy and resulting in
an observable pressure drop. Large pressure drops are observed as the fluid is forced through non-
stream1ined passages. These losses through valves and fittings are known as minor losses or fitting
losses. Due to separation of flow, the fluid energy reduces in the downstream of the component
than the upstream.
Frictional losses are avoided here since the lengths of pressure measuring points (tapping points)
are comparatively small.
The losses of energy, or head, in full-flowing conduits can be classified into two components: (1)
energy loss due to the frictional resistance of the conduit walls to flow, and (2) energy loss due to
the pipe fittings and appurtenances (e.g., bends, contractions, and valves). The latter is referred to
as minor, or form, loss and is associated with a change in magnitude and/or direction of the flow
velocity. Generally, the more abrupt the change, the higher the associated energy loss.

3. Theory

To determine the head loss across a pipe appurtenance, consider the energy equation written
between two sections: immediately before (1), and after (2) the pipe appurtenance,

p1 V21 p2 V22
+ + z1 = + + z2 + hl (i)
γ 2g γ 2g
where
z is the elevation of the center line of the pipe relative to an arbitrary datum,
Vis flow velocity, g is the gravitational constant,
p is pressure at the centerline of the pipe,
γ is the specific gravity of the fluid
hl is the head loss between sections 1and 2.
When only a short distance separates sections 1 and 2, hl is a direct measure of minor loss. The
velocities in equation (i) can be evaluated if the flow rate and pipe dimensions are known. If the
pressure at sections 1 and 2 can be measured, the energy equation can then be used to evaluate the
unknown head loss through the pipe.

Indian Institute of Technology, 1 Department of Civil Engineering

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Experiment No: 03 Minor Losses in flow through pipes

3.1 Loss Due to sudden expansion

The loss of head in a sudden expansion is due to the formation of eddies at the corner as shown in
Figure 3.1.
V22 V21 p1 p2
Head loss in sudden expansion = ( − )−( − )
2g 2g γ γ

V22 V21
𝐻𝐿𝐸 = ( − ) − H2
2g 2g

(V2 −V1 )𝟐
𝐻𝐿𝐸 = K E
2g

𝐻𝐿𝐸 = K E (V2 − V1 )𝐧

Figure 3.1 Sudden Expansion

3.2 Loss Due to Elbow

Figure 3.2 Elbow

3.3 Loss Due to Flow Merging in Y-Section

Figure 3.3 Flow Merging in Y-Section

Indian Institute of Technology, 2 Department of Civil Engineering

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Experiment No: 03 Minor Losses in flow through pipes

3.4 Loss Due to Flow Diverging in Y-Section

Figure 3.4 Flow Diverging in Y-Section

Losses in pipe branching:

The head loss due to energy dissipation can be prescribed by the relation
𝑣2
(ℎ𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑐ℎ )𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑘𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙
2𝑔

𝑘𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑘𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑐ℎ + 𝑘𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

𝑘𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑐ℎ = 𝑘𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 − 𝑘𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

(ℎ𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑐ℎ )𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 ∗ 2𝑔 𝑓 ∗ 𝐿
𝑘𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑐ℎ = −
𝑣2 𝐷
Where,

V is the average flow velocity and the kbranch is the resistance coefficient which depends upon
the angle of branching and flow.

Also, f is the friction coefficient obtained from Blasius equation

Blasius equation for turbulent hydro dynamically smooth flow is

0.316
𝑓= 1
(𝑅𝑒)4

3.5 Loss Due to Gate Valve

The head loss due to energy dissipation can be prescribed by the relation
𝑣2
ℎ = 𝑘𝑔𝑣
2𝑔
Kgv varies from 1.0 to 1.5.

Indian Institute of Technology, 3 Department of Civil Engineering

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Experiment No: 03 Minor Losses in flow through pipes

Figure 3.5 Gate Valve

4. Apparatus

Figure 4.1 Layout of Apparatus

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Experiment No: 03 Minor Losses in flow through pipes

1. Annular chambers with pressure tapping nipples

2. Ball cocks for shutting off part sections
3. Back wall
4. Double pressure gauge
5. Inlet (concealed)
6. Tubular steel frame with suction pads
7. Measurement objects – flow measurement
8. Adjustable measuring section
9. Measurement objects – shut-off devices
10. Drain
11. Measuring sections

Figure 4.2 Double pressure gauge

The double pressure gauge is suitable for measuring both differential pressures and gauge
pressures in mm water column (wc).
• The measuring range is 0 mm wc - 1000 mm wc.
• The gauge consists of two glass level tubes backed by a metal mm scale.
• The two level tubes are interconnected at the top and have a joint vent valve
• Differential pressure is measured with the vent valve closed, gauge pressure is
measured with the vent valve open.
• The measurement points are connected to the lower ends of the level tubes

Indian Institute of Technology, 5 Department of Civil Engineering

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Experiment No: 03 Minor Losses in flow through pipes

using rapid-action hose couplings with automatic shut-off.

• A drain valve is provided at the bottom of each level tube.

Figure 4.3 Hydraulic Bench HM 150

1. Sump Tank
2. Sliding Valve
3. Remote sight gauge
4. Volumetric measuring tank with channel
5. Water supply connection for accessories without pump
6. Diverting cap
7. Connecting piece of pump
8. Switch box
9. Flow control valve
10. Overflow pipe
11. Water supply connection for accessories with pump
12. Submersible motor driven pump
13. Drain cock
4.1 Preparation
 Position test set-up on the HM 150 Basic Hydraulics Bench with drainage via
tank.
 Loosen star-type nuts for pressure-gauge attachment on back of the unit.
 Move gauges down a hole. Retighten nuts.
 Make hose connection between HM 150 and unit.
 Open drain of HM 150.
 Switch on pump and slowly open main cock of HM 150.
 Connect pressure gauges to desired measurement points.
 Slowly open ball cock of appropriate measurement section and vent pressure
gauges.

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Experiment No: 03 Minor Losses in flow through pipes

 By simultaneously adjusting vent and drain valve on pressure gauge, set water
level such that both water columns are in the measuring range.

4.2 Operation
4.2.1 Differential pressure measurement

The vent valve is closed for this purpose. An air cushion with a pressure PL forms above the two
water columns. This results in the following for the pressures p1 and p2 to be measured.

p1 = PL + h1    g

p2 = PL + h2    g

Hence the differential pressure is

p = p1 – p2 = PL + h1    g – PL – h2    g

p=h    g

Whereh= h1 – h2
Figure 4.4 Manometer
The zero point for the differential pressure measurement can
be set by way of the pressure PL.
h1 +h2
For a maximum span it is appropriate to set the zero point / mean value to center scale
2
hmax
.
2
h1 +h2 hmax P1 −PL +P2 −PL
= =
2 2 2ρg
P1 −PL +P2 −PL
The pressure of the air cushion is thus PL
2ρg
The pressure is set by means of the vent valve, "Setting zero position".

4.2.2 Absolute pressure measurement

For measuring the absolute pressure, the vent valve is opened and the gauge pressure measured.
The pressure PL corresponds to the atmospheric pressure p0. Allowance must also be made for the
height hm between the measurement point and the zero point of the pressure gauge.

pabs = p + h + h    g
0 m

Indian Institute of Technology, 7 Department of Civil Engineering

Kharagpur
Experiment No: 03 Minor Losses in flow through pipes

Figure 4.5 Atmospheric Pressure

4.2.3 Pressure gauge connection and operation

 Connect pressure gauge to the desired measurement points by way of hoses with rapid-
action couplings featuring automatic shut-off.
 Open ball cock in the drain.
 Switch on pump at HM 150.

4.2.4 Venting
 Close vent valve at top.
 Open both drain valves at bottom.
 Slowly open ball cock in inlet of pipe section to be measured.
 The pipe section and connecting hoses are vented by a powerful jet of water
When there are no further air bubbles in the connecting valves:
 Close pipe-section drain
 Simultaneously close both drain valves at the bottom slowly.
 Make sure that both water columns increase uniformly and that there is no overflow between
the level tubes.

Figure 4.6 Venting

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Experiment No: 03 Minor Losses in flow through pipes

4.2.5 Setting zero position

To obtain the maximum possible span, the zero position of the

pressure gauge should be in the center of the scale.
 Close drain of pipe section.
 Flow is center scale equal to zero.
 Same level in both measuring tubes.
 Carefully set level with vent valve to center scale.

Figure 4.7 Setting Zero

4.2.6 Perform measurement

 Adjust desired flow by way of inflow cock.
 Read off differential pressure as difference in height
between the two water columns.
 Estimate mean value if reading fluctuates. When taking
differential-pressure measurements, it is more important to
achieve reproducible readings than absolute accuracy.

Figure 4.8 Perform Measurement

4.2.7 End measurement

 Close drain of pipe section on completion of

measurement.
 Switch off pump at HM 150.
 Fully open inlet of pipe section.
 Open vent valve and both drain valves.
 Pressure gauge runs empty and pipe section is
depressurized
Figure 4.9 End Measurement

5. Experimental Procedure
1. Commissioning of HM 150
2. Switch on pump.
3. Open flow control valve corresponding to the considered section.

Indian Institute of Technology, 9 Department of Civil Engineering

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Experiment No: 03 Minor Losses in flow through pipes

4. Open flow control valve, priming test section and pipe work.
5. Open clips on water manometer, allowing water to circulate through the system until all the
air is expelled
6. Close pipe clips
7. Achieve maximum flow by full opening of flow control valve. Note levels in manometer
which are connected to upstream and downstream of the considered section and measure
flow rate. Repeat for different control valve position or for different discharge valves.
8. Carry out all above 2 to 7 steps for all sections considered.

6. Applications
In a pipe system with many fittings and valves, the minor losses can be greater than the major
losses. An accurate determination of minor loss enables to design an efficient piping system that
can minimize the head loss and maximize the flow rate.

7. Observation and Result Table

 Sudden Expansion
D1=
D2=

(theoretical)
Differential
Discharge

Head loss
Pressure

Pressure

pressure

Velocity

Velocity
Volume
Sl. No.

Time

(m/s)

(m/s)
(cm)

(cm)

(cm)

(cm)
(l/s)
(s)

V1

V2
(l)

P1

P2
Q

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Experiment No: 03 Minor Losses in flow through pipes

 Elbow
D=

(Theoretical)
Differential

(Measured)
Discharge

Head loss

Head loss
Pressure

Pressure

pressure

Velocity
Volume
Sl. No.

Time

(m/s)
(cm)

(cm)

(cm)

(cm)

(cm)
(l/s)
(s)
(l)

P1

P2
Q

 Flow Merging in Y Section. v

D=
Upstream Upstream Downstream
Time Discharge
Sl. Volume Velocity Pressure Pressure Pressure
T Q
No. (l) (m/s) 𝐡𝟏 𝐡𝟐 𝐡𝟑
(s) (l/s)
(mm) (mm) (mm)

Pressure Pressure
Drop Drop Reynolds
Sl. Friction
(𝐡𝟏 -𝐡𝟑 ) (𝐡𝟐 -𝐡𝟑 ) Number Ka Kd Kavg
No. coefficient
∆𝐡a ∆𝐡d
(mm) (mm)

Indian Institute of Technology, 11 Department of Civil Engineering

Kharagpur
Experiment No: 03 Minor Losses in flow through pipes

 Flow Diverging in Y Section

D=
Tim Upstream Downstream Downstream
Volume Discharge
Sl. e Velocity Pressure Pressure Pressure
Q
No. T (m/s) 𝐡𝟏 𝐡𝟐 𝐡𝟑
(l) (l/s)
(s) (mm) (mm) (mm)

Pressure Pressure
Drop Drop Reynolds
Sl. Friction
(𝐡𝟏 -𝐡𝟑 ) (𝐡𝟏 -𝐡𝟐 ) Number Ka Kd Kavg
No. coefficient
∆𝐡a ∆𝐡d
(mm) (mm)

 Gate Valve
D=

Tim Upstream Downstream

Volume Discharge
Sl. e Velocity Open Pressure Pressure
Q
No. T (m/s) Condition 𝐡𝟏 𝐡𝟐
(l) (l/s)
(s) (mm) (mm)

Pressure Drop
Sl. Reynolds Number
∆𝐡 Friction coefficient K
No.
(mm)

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Experiment No: 03 Minor Losses in flow through pipes

8. Sample Calculation

9. Conclusion

10. Graphs
 Plot Head Loss (combine for Measured and Theoretical loss) Vs Discharge
 Plot Measured Head Loss Vs Discharge, combine for all sections.
 Plot Measured Head Loss Vs Theoretical Measured Head Loss, combine for all sections.

Indian Institute of Technology, 13 Department of Civil Engineering

Kharagpur
Experiment No: 03 Determination of flow properties for free vortex and forced vortex

Name of Experiment: Determination of flow properties for free

vortex and forced vortex

1. Objective

To determine the surface profile of a free and forced vortex flow.

2. Introduction

When a liquid contained in a cylindrical vessel is given the rotation either due to rotation of
vessel about vertical axis or due to tangential velocity of water, surface of water no longer
remains horizontal but it depresses at the center and rises near the walls of the vessel. A
rotating mass of fluid is called vortex and motion of rotating mass of fluid is vortex motion.
Vortices are of two types viz. forced vortex and free vortex.
When no external torque is required to rotate the fluid mass that type of flow is called free
vortex flow.
Examples: Flow through kitchen sink
Forced vortex flow is defined as that type of vortex flow in which some external torque is
required to rotate the fluid mass.
Examples: Rotation of water in a washing machine.

3. Theory

3.1 Free Vortex Flow

In the free vortex the product of V. r is constant. The angular velocity  is therefore governed by
the radius. The height h over the bottom can therefore be calculated as a function of the radius r,
the maximum vortex height hmax and the constant k = V. r as follows:
k2
h = h𝑚𝑎𝑥 −
2 g r2
Whereas,
h = height of free vortex surface from the bottom of the tank at a radius r, m.
hmax = Maximum height of free vortex from tank bottom, m.
k = Constant =V. r, m2/s.
V = Velocity of free vortex at radius r, m/s.
r = Radius of free vortex, m.

Indian Institute of Technology, 1 Department of Civil Engineering

Kharagpur
Experiment No: 03 Determination of flow properties for free vortex and forced vortex

Figure 3.1 Profile of Free Vortex Flow

3.2 Forced Vortex Flow

With forced vortex formation the angular velocity ω can be substituted directly into the equation
for the vortex contour. It is constant over the radius. The height h over the bottom of the vortex
as a function of radius r and angular velocity ω is thus:
ω2 r 2
h=
2g
Whereas,
h = height over the bottom of the vortex, m
r = radius, m
ω = angular velocity, rad/sec
g = acceleration due to gravity = 9.81 m2/s.
The measured heights h is referenced to the center point. The height of the center point is thus
taken to be zero.

Figure 3.2 Profile of Forced Vortex Flow

Indian Institute of Technology, 2 Department of Civil Engineering

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Experiment No: 03 Determination of flow properties for free vortex and forced vortex

4. Apparatus

The apparatus consists of transparent tank, height gauge, height measuring device,
radius measuring device, radial and tangential inlet, etc. The free vortex is generated by
way of discharge from a vessel. Various outlets of differing diameter can be fitted in the
bottom of the vessel. The vortex profile can be determined using a combined device for
measuring radius and height.

The forced vortex is generated by way of an impeller driven by a water jet. The profile of
the forced vortex is recorded with height gauges.

Figure 4.1 Layout of Apparatus

1. Slanted-seat valve for radial discharge regulation
2. Inlet, tangential
3. Tank, transparent
4. Height gauge
5. Height measuring device
6. Radius measuring device
7. Inlet ring
8. In- or outlet, radial
9. Selector ball valve for radial or tangential inlet
10. Aligning aid

Indian Institute of Technology, 3 Department of Civil Engineering

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Experiment No: 03 Determination of flow properties for free vortex and forced vortex

Figure 4.2 Hydraulic Bench HM 150

1. Sump Tank
2. Sliding Valve
3. Remote sight gauge
4. Volumetric measuring tank with channel
5. Water supply connection for accessories without pump
6. Diverting cap
7. Connecting piece of pump
8. Switch box
9. Flow control valve
10. Overflow pipe
11. Water supply connection for accessories with pump
12. Submersible motor driven pump
13. Drain cock
Water is supplied by the hydraulic bench HM 150. The HM 150 permits construction of a closed
water circuit.

Indian Institute of Technology, 4 Department of Civil Engineering

Kharagpur
Experiment No: 03 Determination of flow properties for free vortex and forced vortex

4.1 Setting up
1. Place the experimental unit HM 150.14 onto the hydraulic bench HM 150, so that the
water flows from the water drain into the channel from HM 150.
2. Connect the HM 150 and the experimental unit HM 150.14 via a hose.

Figure 4.3 Setting up of Apparatus.

4.2 Measuring Method

4.2.1 Radius- and Height Measuring Device
1. Insert the combined radius and height measuring device in mount from underneath and
secure using the star-type nut.
2. For measurement, loosen the star-type nut and set a new height.
3. Use the knurled nut on the cross member to move the gauges to the surface of vortex.
Readings are taken at the following points (see Figure 4.4):
Height: Shoulder of retaining rod; this indicates the height of the gauges above the bottom
Radius: Left edge of notch of slider; this indicates the radius

Indian Institute of Technology, 5 Department of Civil Engineering

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Experiment No: 03 Determination of flow properties for free vortex and forced vortex

Figure 4.4 Radius and Height Measuring Device

4.2.2 Height Gauge

1. Pull the combined radius and height measuring device downwards out of the mount and
insert the 10mm gauge in the hole. Secure it with the star-type nut.
2. Insert the 3mm gauges in the holes of the gland bolts and secure them.
3. For the measurement, position the gauges on the surface of vortex.
As all gauges are of equal length, a rule can be used to measure the distance between the top
edge of the mount and the end of the gauge.

Indian Institute of Technology, 6 Department of Civil Engineering

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Experiment No: 03 Determination of flow properties for free vortex and forced vortex

Figure 4.5 Height Gauge

4.2.3 Velocity Determination by Way of Number of Revolutions

The best method of measuring the velocity of the vortex is to allow a small piece of paper or
polystyrene to drop onto the surface. Then use a stop- watch to determine the time taken for the
piece of paper to perform 10 revolutions with the vortex. The radius on which the paper revolves
must also be known.
The angular velocity ω is:
ω = 2πn
where n = Number of revolution.
The velocity V can then be obtained as a function of radius r:
V= ωr
For a forced vortex, a stopwatch can be used to measure the time for the impeller revolutions.
As however the friction between liquid and vessel wall decelerates the vortex, the real vortex
velocity is approx. 20% lower than the impeller velocity.

Indian Institute of Technology, 7 Department of Civil Engineering

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Experiment No: 03 Determination of flow properties for free vortex and forced vortex

Vvortex = 0.8 Vimpeller

5. Experimental Procedure

5.1 Free Vortex

1. Insert the desired drain into the base plate at bottom of the tank.
2. Place the ring onto the base plate. Make sure that the holes face upwards.
3. Position the selector ball valve such that the mark faces vertically upwards.
4. Open the drain of the HM 150.
5. Close the valve of the HM 150.
6. Switch on the pump of the HM 150.
7. Slowly turn the selector ball valve to the right so that water will get into the ring between the tank
and the perforated inner cylinder If the drain is small keep the water in the tank low.
8. The water volume can be exactly regulated with the slanted-seat valve.
9. Observe the vortex formation.
10. Adjust the depth of all 5 3mm gauges position on height gauge and radius gauge until the tip of
the gauge is about touching the vortex profile and record the depth of the gauge on the vertical
scale and the radius on radius measuring device.
Note: The tip of the gauge is off set from the center. Make sure that the tip is touching the vortex
profile.
11. Increase the water supply flow rate to achieve a higher vortex profile and repeat steps 9 and 10
12. Repeat steps 2 to 11 with a different drain.

Figure 5.1 Insert Drain and Inlet Ring Figure 5.2 Top view experimental setup

5.2 Forced Vortex

1. Insert the impeller with the closing plate and the shaft into the base plate.
2. Position the selector ball valve such that the mark faces vertically upwards. the two outlet are
closed.
3. Open the drain of the HM 150.
4. Close the valve of the HM 150.
5. Switch on the pump of the HM 150
6. Adjust the flow control until a reasonable vortex profile is attained.

Indian Institute of Technology, 8 Department of Civil Engineering

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Experiment No: 03 Determination of flow properties for free vortex and forced vortex

7. Measure and record vertical height of the forced vortex profile at all 5 3mm gauge points and
record the speeds or revolution of impeller.
8. Repeat steps 6 and 7 at different vortex profile.

Figure 5.3 Insert impeller Figure 5.4 Top view experimental setup

6. Applications

6.1 Free Vortex

• Flow of liquid through a hole provided at the bottom of the container.
• Flow through kitchen sink.
• Draining the bath tub.
• Flow of liquid around a circular bend in pipe.
• A whirlpool in a river.
• The flow fields due to a tornado.
6.2 Forced Vortex
• Flow of water through the runner of a turbine.
• Flow of liquid through the passage of impeller of centrifugal pumps.
• Rotation of water in a washing machine.

7. Observation and Result Table

7.1 Free Vortex

SR Volume Time Discharge Revolutions Height Radius

No (l) (s) Q (rpm) (m) (m)
(m/s)

Indian Institute of Technology, 9 Department of Civil Engineering

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Experiment No: 03 Determination of flow properties for free vortex and forced vortex

SR Volume Time Discharge Revolutions Height Radius

No (l) (s) Q (rpm) (m) (m)
(m/s)

7.2 Forced Vortex

SR Volume Time Discharge Revolutions Height Radius

No (l) (s) Q (rpm) (m) (m)
(m/s)

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Experiment No: 03 Determination of flow properties for free vortex and forced vortex

8. Sample Calculation

9. Conclusion

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Experiment No: 03 Determination of flow properties for free vortex and forced vortex

10. Graphs
Plot The Vortex Radius Vs Profile Height

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