ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS: UNIT 5

Prescribed Text Books:

Electrical and Electronic Technology 10th Edition:
Edward Hughes

Recommended resources
Name: Grob’s Electric Circuits Basic Fundamentals
Basic Electricity of Electric
Electronics, Circuits
11th Ed
Author: M.E. Schultz Nilsson, James Gussow, Alexander
Milton Charles

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Assessment Type:

Semester Tests
Class Tests
Assignments
Laboratory Exercise
Examination

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SINGLE PHASE ALTERNATING CURRENT SYSTEMS

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 LEARNING OUTCOMES
UNIT 3: Single Phase Alternating Current Systems
Outcomes: Explain alternating current theory
principles. Outline single-phase electrical systems.
➢ Single phase alternating current generation is explained.

➢ Generated sine waves of alternating voltages and currents

are described in respect to the values of sinusoidal
waveforms.

➢ Basic principles of the use of alternating current measuring

equipment are explained and actual measurements are
taken in circuits.

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 LEARNING OUTCOMES

UNIT 3: Single Phase Alternating Current Systems

➢ Phasor diagrams are used to represent alternating voltage

and current.

➢ Phasor diagrams are used to analyse and calculate

alternating voltage and current position in time.

➢ The application of Polar and Rectangular Forms, (the j

Operator) in calculation of Complex Quantities.

➢ AC Voltage Sources and Current Sources to be analysed

and calculated.

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 LEARNING OUTCOMES

UNIT 3: Single Phase Alternating Current Systems

➢ Kirchhoff’s voltage and current laws are used and applied to
solve unknown voltages and currents in an AC circuit containing
two or more voltage sources in different branches (nodal-
analysis; mesh equations).

➢ Different network theorems to solve unknown voltages and

currents in an AC circuit containing two or more voltage sources
in different branches are applied. (Superposition, Thevenin,
Norton, Maximum power transfer, Delta-Wye Transformations).

➢ Basic principles of operation of AC Bridges are explained.

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 LEARNING OUTCOMES

UNIT 3: Single Phase Alternating Current Systems

➢ Various applications of single phase alternating current

systems are analysed and calculated

❖ Different household appliances (Geysers, Stoves) are

discussed and related calculations are done.
❖ Different industrial equipment (Electric Pumps,
Compressors) are discussed and related calculations
are done.
❖ Basic safety principles are explained with the emphasis
on electrical systems.

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 LEARNING OUTCOMES
UNIT 5:ALERNATING CURRENT WITH PASSIVE AND ACTIVE
COMPONENTS IN ELECTRIC CIRCUITS
Outcomes: Analyse and apply passive and active components in
electric circuits using single phase alternating current.
➢ Alternating current circuits with resistance or inductive reactance
or capacitive reactance alone, is applied to complete
calculations.
➢ Combined sine-wave alternating circuits for series reactance and
resistance are applied to complete calculations.
➢ Combined sine-wave alternating circuits for parallel reactance
and resistance are applied to complete calculations.
➢ Phasor diagrams are used to analyse and explain voltage and
current phase shifts
➢ Real power and apparent power are explained and calculated.

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 LEARNING OUTCOMES
UNIT 5:ALERNATING CURRENT WITH PASSIVE AND ACTIVE COMPONENTS
IN ELECTRIC CIRCUITS

➢ Combined sine-wave alternating circuits for Series-

Connected Impedances are applied to complete
calculations.
➢ Combined sine-wave alternating circuits for parallel-
connected Impedances are applied to complete
calculations.
➢ Combined sine-wave alternating circuits for series-parallel-
connected Impedances are applied to complete
calculations.
➢ An AC Voltage Divider is analysed, explained and used in
calculations.

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 LEARNING OUTCOMES
UNIT 5:ALERNATING CURRENT WITH PASSIVE AND ACTIVE COMPONENTS
IN ELECTRIC CIRCUITS

➢ An AC Current Divider is analysed, explained and used in

calculations.
➢ Power Dissipated in a Resistance is calculated.
➢ Power in an Inductance is calculated.
➢ Power in a Capacitance is calculated.
➢ Power in RL and RC Circuits is calculated.
➢ Power Factor is explained and calculated.
➢ AC Wattmeter is analysed and values calculated.

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Generation of an alternating e.m.f.

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 Instantaneous value of generated
e.m.f.
Resolve AL into two
components, AM and AN

Where u is the peripheral

velocity of loop at the
instant shown and
represented by length of
line AL at right angle to the
plane of the loop.

The e.m.f. generated in A is due entirely to the component of the

velocity perpendicular to the magnetic field.

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e.m.f. generated in one side of loop is
where B is the flux density in Tesla and l is the length in
meters of each side A and B
and total e.m.f. generated in loop is

when θ = 90°, Em = 2Blu volts.

When θ = 90°, the plane of the loop is vertical and both sides of the
loop are cutting the magnetic flux at the maximum rate, so that the
generated e.m.f. is then at its maximum value, Em = 2Blu volts

If b is the breadth of the loop in metres, and n the speed of rotation

in revolutions per second, then u is πbn metres per second and

Em = 2Bl × πbn volts=2πBAn volts

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If the loop is replaced by a coil of N turns in series, each turn having
an area of A square metres, maximum value of e.m.f. generated in
coil is
Em = 2πBAnN volts
and instantaneous value of e.m.f. generated in coil is
e = Em sinθ = 2πBAnNsinθ volts
∴ e = 2πBAnNsinθ

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 Periods and cycles

Peak values

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Effect on waveforms by varying frequency

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 Example 1

A coil of 100 turns is rotated at 1500 r/min in a magnetic field

having a uniform density of 0.05 T, the axis of rotation being at
right angles to the direction of the flux. The mean area per turn is
40 cm2. Calculate
(a) the frequency;
(b) the period;
(c) the maximum value of the generated e.m.f.;
(d) the value of the generated e.m.f. when the coil has rotated
through 30° from the position of zero e.m.f.

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Phasor representation of an alternating quantity

Suppose OA represents to scale the maximum value of an

alternating quantity, say, current, i.e. OA = Im.

AB and AC are drawn perpendicular to the horizontal and

vertical axes respectively:
OC = AB = OA sinθ
= Im sinθ
= i, namely the value of the current at that instant
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❑ OA rotates through one revolution or 2π radians in one cycle

❑ If f is the frequency in hertz, then OA rotates through f

revolutions of 2πf radians in 1 s. Hence the angular velocity of
OA is 2πf radians per second and is denoted by the symbol ω
(omega), i.e.

ω = 2πf radians per second

❑ If the time taken by OA to rotate through an angle θ radians is

t seconds, then θ = angular velocity × time =ωt = 2πft radians

❑ Therefore the instantaneous value of the current can be

expressed as:
i = Im sinθ = Im sinωt
∴ i = Im sin2πft

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Graphical representation of sinusoids using phasors

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 Current lagging voltage by φ

If the instantaneous value of the current is represented by

i = Im sinθ
then the instantaneous value of the voltage is represented by
v = Vm sin (θ + φ)

where Im = OA and Vm = OB

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 Phasors
A phasor is a complex number that represents the amplitude and
phase of a sinusoid.

➢phasors provide a simple means of analyzing linear circuits excited

by sinusoidal sources

Complex numbers
A complex number z can be written in rectangular form as:

z = x + jy
where j = − 1; x is the real part of z; y is the imaginary part of z

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 Given x and y, then:
y
r = x + y and  = tan
2 2 −1

x
Given r and , then:

x = r cos  ; y = r sin 

 z = x + jy = r (cos  + j sin  ) = r

From Euler’s identity: e  j = cos   j sin 

 z = x + jy = r (cos  + j sin  ) = re j
Hence z can be represented in three ways:
z = x + jy Rectangula r form
z = r Polar form
z = re j Exponentia l form

Addition and subtraction of complex numbers are better

ELECTRICAL performed in rectangular form.
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Multiplication and division are better done in polar form.
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  z = x + jy = r (cos  + j sin  ) = r

 j
From Euler’s identity: e = cos   j sin 

Given a sinusoid: 𝑣 𝑡 = 𝑉𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)

𝑣 𝑡 = 𝑉𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙) = 𝐼𝑚 𝑉𝑚 𝑒 𝑗(𝜔𝑡+𝜙)

𝑣 𝑡 = 𝐼𝑚 𝑉𝑚 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡 𝑒 𝑗𝜙 = 𝐼𝑚 𝑽𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡

⟹ 𝑽 = 𝑉𝑚 𝑒 𝑗𝜙 = 𝑉𝑚 ∠𝜙°
V is the phasor representation of the sinusoid v(t)
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𝑣 𝑡 = 𝑉𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙) ⟺ 𝑽 = 𝑉𝑚 ∠𝜙°
Time domain representation Phasor domain

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 Addition and subtraction of sinusoidal alternating
quantities

Instantaneous value of OA = OD
Instantaneous value of OB = OE
Instantaneous value of OC = OF

Since AC is parallel and equal to OB,

DF = OE,
OF = OD + DF = OD + OE

the instantaneous value of OC equals the sum of the instantaneous

values of OA and OB.
Therefore OC is termed the phasor sum of OA and OB;
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The instantaneous values of two alternating voltages are represented
respectively by v1 = 60 sinθ volts and v2 = 40 sin(θ − π/3) volts. Derive
an expression for the instantaneous value of:
(a) the sum;
(b) the difference of these voltages.

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𝑉1 = 60𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 60∠0° 𝑉2 = 40𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 − 60 = 40∠ − 60°

∴ 𝑉1 = 60𝑐𝑜𝑠0 + 𝑗60𝑠𝑖𝑛0 = 60 + 𝑗0 𝑉

𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉2 = 40𝑐𝑜𝑠 −60 + 𝑗40𝑠𝑖𝑛 −60 = 20 − 𝑗34.64 𝑉

⟹ 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 = 𝑉12 = 60 + 20 + 𝑗 0 − 34.64 = 80 − 𝑗34.64

−34.64
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 = −23.41° 𝑉12 = 802 + 34.642 = 87.2
80

𝐼𝑛 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑜𝑟 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝑉12 = 87.2∠ − 23.41°

𝐼𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑑𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝑉12 = 87.2𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 − 23.41°

Repeat for (b)
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 Single-phase Series Circuits
Alternating current in a resistive circuit
Max value

R.M.S value

𝐼𝑚
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 =
2

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Alternating current in an inductive circuit

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Since the resistance of the circuit is assumed negligible, the whole of
the applied voltage is equal to the induced e.m.f., therefore
instantaneous value of applied voltage is

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Resistance and inductance in series

Current is taken as reference since

it is common to all the elements of
a series circuit.

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The circuit voltage may then be derived from the following relations:

The angle of phase

difference between V and I
is termed the phase angle
and is represented by Φ.

Z = impedance

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 Voltage and impedance
triangles. (a) Voltage
diagram; (b) impedance
diagram

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Alternating current in a capacitive circuit

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Hence, if I and V are the r.m.s. values

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Resistance and capacitance in series

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The circuit current may then be derived from the following relations:

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 Voltage and
impedance diagrams.
(a) Voltage diagram;
(b) impedance diagram

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 Example 1
A resistance of 7.0 Ω is connected in series with a pure
inductance of 31.8 mH and the circuit is connected to a 100 V, 50
Hz, sinusoidal supply. Calculate:
(a) the circuit current;
(b) the phase angle.

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 Example 2
A pure inductance of 318 mH is connected in series with a pure
resistance of 75 Ω. The circuit is supplied from a 50 Hz sinusoidal
source and the voltage across the 75 Ω resistor is found to be 150 V.
Calculate the supply voltage.

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 Example 3
A capacitor of 8.0 μF takes a current of 1.0 A when the alternating
voltage applied across it is 230 V. Calculate:
(a) the frequency of the applied voltage;
(b) the resistance to be connected in series with the capacitor to
reduce the current in the circuit to 0.5 A at the same frequency;
(c) the phase angle of the resulting circuit.

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 Example 4
A metal-filament lamp, rated at 750 W, 100 V, is to be connected
in series with a capacitor across a 230 V, 50 Hz supply. Calculate:
(a) the capacitance required;
(b) the phase angle between the current and the supply voltage.

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Example 4

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Alternating current in an RLC circuit
To draw the phasor diagram, start with the
quantity that is common to the components of
the circuit.

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 Example 5
A circuit having a resistance of 12 Ω, an inductance of 0.15 H and a
capacitance of 100 μF in series, is connected across a 100 V, 50 Hz
supply. Calculate:
(a) the impedance;
(b) the current;
(c) the voltages across R, L and C;
(d) the phase difference between the current and the supply voltage.

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 Resonance??

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 Memory aid

❑ “ELI the ICE man”

❑ For an inductor (L)

– E (voltage as in EMF) leads current (I)
➢ same as Current Lags the Voltage
❑ For a capacitor (C)
– I (the current) leads E (voltage)
➢ same as Voltage Lags the Current

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Parallel circuits R-L

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Parallel circuits R-C

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 Example 6 Start here
A circuit consists of a 115 Ω resistor in parallel with a 41.5 μF
capacitor and is connected to a 230 V, 50 Hz supply. Calculate:
(a) the branch currents and the supply current;
(b) the circuit phase angle;
(c) the circuit impedance.

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 Example 7

Three branches, possessing a resistance of 50 Ω, an inductance of

0.15 H and a capacitance of 100 μF respectively, are connected in
parallel across a 100 V, 50 Hz supply. Calculate:
(a) the current in each branch;
(b) the supply current;
(c) the phase angle between the supply current and the supply
voltage.

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 Example 8

A parallel network consists of branches A, B and C. If IA = 10∠−60° A,

IB = 5∠−30° A and IC = 10∠90° A, all phase angles, being relative to
the supply voltage, determine the total supply current.

Lagging power factor

𝐼 = 10∠ − 60° + 5∠ − 30° + 10∠90° = 9.4∠ − 7.1° = 9.4 cos −7.1 + 𝑗9.4sin(−7.1)

-1.16 implies lagging power factor 9.33 -1.16

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 Lagging power factor

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 Example 9

A coil of resistance 50 Ω and inductance 0.318 H is connected in

parallel with a circuit comprising a 75 Ω resistor in series with a 159 μF
capacitor. The resulting circuit is connected to a 230 V, 50 Hz a.c.
supply. Calculate:
(a) the supply current;
(b) the circuit impedance, resistance and reactance.

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𝑍1 = 50 + j100 = 112∠63.5°Ω
𝑉 230∠0°
𝐼1 = = = 2.05∠ − 63.5°
𝑍1 112∠63.5°
Check current divider rule!
𝑍2 = 75 − j20 = 77.6∠ − 15°Ω
𝑉 230∠0°
𝐼2 = = = 2.96∠15°
𝑍2 77.6∠ − 15°

𝐼 = 2.05∠ − 63.5° + 2.96∠15° = 3.92∠ − 15.8°𝐴 Reactance

𝑉 230∠0°
𝑍= = = 58.7∠15.8°
𝐼 3.92∠ − 15.8°
𝑍 = 58.7∠15.8° = 58.7𝑐𝑜𝑠15.8 + 𝑗58.7𝑠𝑖𝑛15.8 = 56.5 + 𝑗16

Impedance Resistance
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 Example 10

Three impedances 10∠−30° Ω, 20∠60° Ω and 40∠0° Ω are connected

in parallel as shown below. Calculate their equivalent impedance.

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Example 10

Admittance [S]

Conductance [S]

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Example 10
Susceptance [S]

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 Example 11

Two impedances of 20∠−45° Ω and 30∠30° Ω are connected in series

across a certain supply and the resulting current is found to be 10 A.
If the supply voltage remains unchanged, calculate the supply
current when the impedances are connected in parallel.

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 Example 12
A network is arranged as indicated below, the values being as
shown. Calculate the value of the current in each branch and its
phase relative to the supply voltage. Draw the complete phasor
diagram.

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Example 12

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Example 12

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 Power in AC Circuits
Power in a resistive circuit

When an alternating current flows through a resistor of R ohms, the

average heating effect over a complete cycle is I2R watts.

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Power in a purely inductive circuit

❑ The net energy absorbed by the coil during a complete cycle is

zero; in other words, the average power over a complete cycle is
zero

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Power in a purely capacitive circuit

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 That the inductive and capacitive
circuits do not dissipate power can
be proved by an analysis of the
power wave

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Power in a circuit with resistance and reactance

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= 0 over a complete cycle

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 Inductive 𝑆 = 𝑃 + 𝑗𝑄

Capacitive
𝑆 = 𝑃 − 𝑗𝑄

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 𝑆 ≠ 𝑉𝐼 ≠ 𝑎 + 𝑗𝑏 𝑐 + 𝑗𝑑

𝑆 = 𝑉𝐼 ∗ = 𝑎 + 𝑗𝑏 𝑐 − 𝑗𝑑

𝑆 = 𝑎𝑐 + 𝑏𝑑 + 𝑗 𝑏𝑐 − 𝑎𝑑 = P + jQ

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 Example 12

A coil having a resistance of 6 Ω and an inductance of 0.03 H is

connected across a 50 V, 50 Hz supply. Calculate:
(a) the current;
(b) the phase angle between the current and the applied voltage;
(c) the apparent power;
(d) the active power. 𝑋𝐿 = 2 × 𝜋 × 𝑓 × 𝐿 = 100 × 3.14 × 0.03 = 9.42Ω

𝑍 = 62 + 9.422 = 11.17Ω
9.42
𝜙 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 = 57.51° ∴ 𝑍 = 11.17∠57.51°
6
50∠0°
𝐼= = 4.48∠ − 57.51°A
11.17∠57.51°

𝑆 = 𝑉𝐼 ∗ = 50∠0° × 4.48∠57.51° = 224∠57.51°𝑉𝐴

𝑃 = 𝑉𝐼𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙 = 224 × 0.5372 = 120.33𝑊

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 Power Factor
The ratio of the active power P to the apparent power S is termed
the power factor, i.e.

It has become the practice to say that the power factor is lagging
when the current lags the supply voltage, and leading when the
current leads the supply voltage. This means that the supply voltage is
regarded as the reference quantity.

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 Example 13

A resistance of 10 Ω is connected in series with an inductive

reactance of 5 Ω across a 100 V, 50 Hz power supply. Determine:
(a) the impedance of the load circuit;
(b) the current drawn from the supply;
(c) the power factor;
(d) the real power drawn from the supply;
(e) the reactive power drawn from the supply;
(f ) the apparent power;
(g) the complex power.

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𝐼 = 8.94∠ − 26.56°𝐴

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𝑆 = 8002 + 4002 = 894 𝑉𝐴

−1
400
𝜙 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 = 26.56°
800

S = 894∠26.56°𝐴

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 Example 14

Calculate the size of capacitors in Example 13 that would be

required (a) to correct the power factor to unity and (b) to correct
to a pf of 0.96 lagging.

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(a) To correct the power factor
to unity, 400 VAr capacitive
reactive power is required to
correct for the 400 VAr inductive
reactive power being absorbed
from the supply.

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(b) To correct to 0.96 p.f. lagging, the new phase angle θ will be
cos−1 0.96 = 16.3°

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 Example 15
A single-phase motor operating off a 400 V, 50 Hz supply is developing
10 kW with an efficiency of 84 per cent and a power factor (p.f.) of
0.7 lagging. Calculate:
(a) the input apparent power;
(b) the active and reactive components of the current;
(c) the reactive power (in kilovars).

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𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙 = 0.7 ⟹ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜙 = 0.714

𝐼𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙 = 42.5 × 0.7 = 29.75𝐴

𝐼𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜙 = 42.5 × 0.714 = 30.35𝐴

𝑄 = 𝑉𝐼𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜙 = 17000 × 0.714 = 12.14 𝑘𝑉𝐴𝑟

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 Example 16

Calculate the capacitance required in parallel with the motor of

Example 13 to raise the supply power factor to 0.9 lagging.

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 𝜙1 = 45.57°

𝜙2 = 25.84°

𝑆1 = 17 𝑘𝑉𝐴 𝑄1 = 12.14 𝑘𝑉𝐴𝑟

𝑃= 172 − 12.142 = 11.9𝑘𝑊

𝑄2 = 𝑃𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜙2 = 11.9 × 0.4843 = 5.76 𝑘𝑉𝐴𝑟
Reactive power supplied by capacitor C
𝑄𝐶 = 𝑄1 − 𝑄2 = 12.14 − 5.76 = 6.38 𝑘𝑉𝐴𝑟
𝑉2 𝑉2 1 𝑄𝐶 6.38 × 103
𝑄𝐶 = ∴ 𝑋𝐶 = = ⟹𝐶= = = 127𝜇𝐹
𝑋𝐶 𝑄𝐶 2𝜋𝑓𝐶 2𝜋𝑓𝑉 2 100 × 𝜋 × 4002

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  j
From Euler’s identity: e = cos   j sin 

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Example 2

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ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS
ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS
ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS
ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS
ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS
ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS
ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS