ROCK AND MINERALS

Minerals

Minerals - naturaly formed, generally inorganic, crystalline, solid and has

a definite chemical composition.
building blocks of rocks
Mineralogy - Branch of Geology that deals with the study of Minerals
There are about 3,000 known minerals, of that 20 minerals
make up most rocks.
Physical Properties of Minerals
- can be used to easily identify a mineral.
1. Color 6. Transparency or diaphaneity
2. Streak 7. Magnetism
3. Hardness 8. Tenacity
4. Cleavage and Fracture 9. Luster
5. Crystalline structure 10. Odor
11. Specific Gravity

Physical Properties of Minerals

1. Color - usually the property used to identify minerals easily. It is
the result of the way minerals absorb light.
Some Colors of Quartz:

2. Streak - is the color of the mineral in powder form. For opaque

minerals, if you rub the sample across a streak plate, it will leave a
colored powder. This streak is distinctive for minerals and is used to
identify minerals.
3. Hardness - refers to the measure
of the mineral's resistance to
scratching. Minerals with higher
numbers will scratch minerals below.
To measure the relative hardness of
minerals, the Moh's scale is used.

4. Cleavage and Fractures - used to describe how minerals

break into pieces. Some minerals split along flat surfaces (called
cleavage planes) when struck hard--this is called mineral cleavage
Other minerals break unevenly along rough or curved surfaces--this
is called fracture A few minerals have both cleavage and fracture
(mica)

Cleavage - due to weak bonds in the crystal structure

Halite (NaCl) Halite

Fluorite (CaF,)

Fluorite
5. Crystalline structure - crystal lattice, tells how a mineral's
crystals are arranged. A hand lens is a necessary tool in
checking for crystalline structure.
crystal solid - form regular repeating three dimensional
crystal lattice.
amorphous solid - forms aggregates that have particular
order or arrangement.

6. Transparency or diaphaneity -
in dicates the extent of light
that can pass thro ugh the
mineral.

7. Magnetism - indicates the ability of a mineral to attract or

repel other minerals.
8. Tenacity - level of resistance or reaction of minerals to
stress such as crushing, bending, breaking, or tearing.
9. Luster - refers to the reaction of a mineral to light. It
determines how brilliant or dull the mineral is.
Categories: Metallic or Non-metallic Metallic - luster of metal -
shines like a hard metal Many non-metallic minerals are SHINY
because they are transparent or semi-transparent.

10. Odor - a distinct smell of a mineral that is usually released

from a chemical reaction when subjected to water,heat, air or
friction.
11. Specific Gravity - is a measure of the density of a mineral.
Determines how heavy the mineral is by its weight to water.

Another way of identfying and classifying minerals is according to

their chemical compositon. This classification was first used in 1848
by James Dwight Dana (1813-1895).
1. Silicate class
2. Carbonate class
3. Sulphate class
4. Halide class
5. Oxide class
6. Sulphide class
7. Phosphate class
8. Native element class
1. Silicate Class - largest and most abundant group containing Si and
O with some Al, Mg, Fe, and Ca. (Ex. feldspar, quartz, pyroxene, mica,
garnet. olivine and amphibole
2. Carbonate class - mostly found depositedin marine environments.
3. Sulphate Class - forms in areas with high evaporation rates and
where salty waters slowly evaporate. (Ex. anhydrite, celestine, barite,
gypsum)
4. Halide class - contains natural salts includes fluorite, halite, sylvite
and sal ammoniac components. Usually form in lakes, and sal ammoniac
components.
5. Oxide class - is a diverse class. In science, these minerals are
important as thet carry histories of changes in Earth's magnetic field.
They are formed as precipitates close to Earth's surface or as
oxidation products of minerals during the
process of weathering.
6. Sulphide class - has important metals such as copper, lead and
silver which are considered economically significant.
7. Phosphate class- contains minerals with phosphorus. Considered as
important biological mineral found in teeth and bones in many animals.
8. Native element class - contains metals and intermettalic elements,
semimetals nonmetals or natural alloys and constituents of a few rare
meteorites.

ROCKS - are natural substances consisting of aggregate minerals

clumped together with other materials through natural processes.
Rocks, like some materials, are products of a natural cyclic process.

Properties of Rocks
1. Rocks exhibit different properties. As to color, rocks may be
dark, light, reddish, ggray,brown, yellow o even black.
2. Rocks differ in texture: some are fine, others are rough.
3. Some are glossy in appearance and smooth to touch.
4. Most rocks are hard, others are brittle.

Classification of Rocks
1. Igneous rocks - derived from the Latin word ignis meaning
"fire" are crystallized from magma or molten or partially
molten volcanic materials that came from within Earth.
Magma rises from the asthenosphere or at the base of the
crst through volcanoes or any cracks and fisures on Earth's
surface. When it reaches the sface of Erth. thr molten
volcanic material is called lava. (granite,rholite, diorite,
andesite, basalt, gabbro)

Importance of Igneous Rocks

• contains fossils that are evidences of geologic past
• coal, petroleum and natural gas are major energy source
• iron, aluminum and manganes are used in the
construction industry.

Classification of Rocks
2. Sedimentary rocks - from the root word sediments which means
"remaining particles" are rocks that have formed from the
deposition of different materials on Earth's surface. They come
from preexistinf rocks or pieces of dead organisms that have been
"lithified" or cemented by natural processes.(limestone,
conglomerate, haite, calcite, sandstone, limestone and gypsum)
2 major groups of sedimentary rocks
1. clastic - form from the accumulation and lithification of
sediments derived from the breakdown of pre-existing rocks. They
are further classified according to dominant grain size

2. nonclastic - derived from sediments that precipitated from

concentrated solutions (e.g. seawater) or from the accumulation of
biologic or organic material (e.g. shells, plant material). They are
further classified on the basis of chemical composition.

Classification of Rocks
3. Metamorphic rocks - meta means "change"" and morph
means "form" are rocks derived from gneous or sedimentary
rocks that were exposed to high pressure, high temperature
or a combination of both, deep below te surface of Earth.
Because of this exposure, some of the minerals in these
roocks undergo chemical and physical changes

MINERALS AND ROCKS

(module based)

Minerals and rocks are the essential building blocks of the

geosphere.
Although there are over 3,000 species of minerals, only a few of
them, such as quartz, feldspar, mica, amphibole, pyroxene, olivine
and calcite, occur commonly as rock-forming minerals.Rocks are
classified into three main types, igneous, sedimentary, and
metamorphic, depending upon their mode of formation. Over
geological time, rocks gradually are transformed from one type
to another in what is termed the Rock Cycle. The origin of any
particular rock can be determined by careful examination of its
texture, composition, and internal structure, features that form
the basis of rock identification and classification.

WHAT ARE MINERALS?

Minerals are the fundamental
components of rocks. They are
naturally occurring inorganic
substances with a specific
chemical composition and an
orderly repeating atomic
structure that defines a crystal
structure.Silicate minerals are
the most abundant components
of rocks on the Earth's surface, making up over 90% by mass of
the Earth's crust. The fundamental chemical building block of
silicate minerals is the chemical compound silicon tetroxide, SiO4.
The common non-silicate minerals, which constitute less than 10%
of the Earth's crust, include carbonates, oxides, sulphides,
phosphates and salts. A few elements may occur in pure form.
These include gold, silver, copper, bismuth, arsenic, lead, tellurium
and carbon.
There are several different mineral properties which must be
identified and defined.

1. Luster - it is the quality and intensity of reflected light

exhibited by the mineral
a. Metallic - generally opaque and exhibit a resplendent
shine similar to a polished metal
b. Non-metallic - vitreous (glassy), adamantine (brilliant/
diamond-like), resinous, silky, pearly, dull (earthy), greasy, among
others.
2. Hardness - it is a measure of the resistance of a mineral (not
specifically surface) to abrasion.
a. Introduce students to the use of a hardness scale
designed by German geologist/mineralogist Friedrich Mohs in
1812 (Mohs Scale of Hardness).
b. The Mohs Scale of Hardness measures the scratch
resistance of various minerals from a scale of 1 to 10, based on
the ability of a harder material/mineral to scratch a softer one.
c. Pros of the Mohs scale:
i. The test is easy.
ii. The test can be done anywhere, anytime, as long as
there is sufficient light to see scratches.
iii. The test is convenient for field geologists with scratch
kits who want to make a rough identification of minerals outside
the lab.
d. Cons of the Mohs scale:
i. The Scale is qualitative, not quantitative.
ii. The test cannot be used to accurately test the hardness
of industrial materials.
3. Crystal Form/Habit - The external
shape of a crystal or groups of
crystals is displayed / observed as
these crystals grow in open spaces.
The form reflects the supposedly
internal structure (of atoms and ions)
of the crystal (mineral). It is the
natural shape of the mineral before
the development of any cleavage or
fracture. Examples include prismatic,
tabular, bladed, platy, reniform and
equant. A mineral that do not have a crystal structure is described
as amorphous.
4. Color and streak
a. A lot of minerals can exhibit same or similar colors. Individual
minerals can also display a variety of colors resulting from
impurities and also from some geologic processes like weathering.
b. Examples of coloring: quartz can be pink (rose quartz), purple
(amethyst), orange (citrine), white (colorless quartz) etc.
c. Streak, on the other hand, is the mineral's color in powdered
form. It is inherent in almost every mineral, and is a more
diagnostic property compared to color. Note that the color of a
mineral can be different from its streak.
d. Examples of streak: pyrite (FeS2) exhibits gold color but has a
black or dark gray streak.
e. The crystal's form also defines the relative growth of the
crystal in three dimensions, which include the crystal's length, width
and height.
5. Cleavage - the property of some minerals to break along specific
planes of weakness to form smooth, flat surfaces
 a. These planes exist because the bonding of atoms making up the
mineral happens to be weak in those areas.
b. When minerals break evenly in more than one direction,
cleavage is described by the number of cleavage directions, the
angles) at which they meet, and the quality of cleavage (e.g.
cleavage in 2 directions at 90°).
c. Cleavage is different from habit; the two are distinct,
unrelated properties. Although both are dictated by crystal
structure, crystal habit forms as the mineral is growing, relying on
how the individual atoms in the crystal come together.
Cleavage, meanwhile, is the weak plane that developed after the
crystal is formed.
6. Specific Gravity - the ratio of the density of the mineral and the
density of water
a. This parameter indicates how many times more the mineral
weighs compared to an equal amount of water (SG 1).
b. For example, a bucket of silver (SG 10) would weigh ten times
more than a bucket of water.
7. Others - magnetism, odor, taste, tenacity, reaction to acid, etc.
For example, magnetite is strongly magnetic; sulfur has distinctive
smell; halite is salty; calcite fizzes with acid as with dolomite but in
powdered form; etc.
Table 2. The most stable and least ambiguous basis for classification of
minerals is based on their chemical compositions.
1. Silicates - minerals containing the two most abundant elements in
the Earth's crust, namely, silicon and oxygen.
a. When linked together, these two elements form the silicon oxygen
tetrahedron - the fundamental building block of silicate minerals.
b. Over 90% of rock-forming minerals belong to this group.
2. Oxides - minerals composed of oxygen anion (02-) combined with
one or more metal ions
3. Sulfates - minerals containing sulfur and oxygen in the form of the
(SO4) - anion
4. Sulfides - minerals containing sulfur and a metal; some sulfides are
sources of economically important metals such as copper, lead, and
zinc.
5. Carbonates - minerals containing the carbonate (CO3)2- anion
combined with other elements
6. Native Elements - minerals that form as individual elements
a. Metals and Intermetals - minerals with high thermal and
electrical conductivity, typically with metallic luster, low hardness (gold,
lead)
b. Semi-metals - minerals that are more fragile than metals and
have lower conductivity (arsenic, bismuth)
c. Nonmetals - nonconductive (sulfur, diamond)
7. Halides - minerals containing halogen elements combined with one or
more metals
Note:
1. Rock-forming minerals make up large masses of rocks, such as igneous,
sedimentary, or metamorphic rocks. Rock forming minerals are essential for the
classification of rocks, whereas accessory minerals can be ignored in this
endeavor.
2. Almost 85% of the atoms in the earth's crust are oxygen and silicon.
Therefore, the most common and abundant rock-forming minerals are silicates.
Some carbonates are also abundant. The most common rock forming minerals
are tabulated on the right.

Common Rock-forming Minerals

Quartz
• Quartz (Figure 2), which is usually called silica, is one
of the most common minerals in the Earth's crust.
• Quartz is made up of silicon dioxide(SiO2)
•.Pure quartz is colourless, although the presence of impurities may
give a range of colours, such as violet, pink and orange.
• Quartz is the raw material for making glass
Plagioclase feldspar
• Plagioclase feldspar (Figure 3) is a sodium- or calcium-
rich feldspar. The chemical composition ranges from sodium
aluminium silicate,NaAlSi3O8 to calcium aluminium silicate,
CaAl2Si2O3.
• Plagioclase feldspar crystals usually occur as stubby prisms.
• Plagioclase feldspar is generally white to grey and has a
vitreous lustre.
• Plagioclase feldspar is an important industrial mineral used in ceramics.
Alkali Feldspar
• Alkali feldspar (Figure 4) is another member of the
family of feldspar minerals.
• Alkali feldspar (Potassium aluminium
silicate(K,Na) AlSi3O8) are rich in alkali metal ions.
• Alkali feldspar crystals usually occur as stubby prisms.
• Alkali feldspar is commonly pink to white.
• Alkali feldspar is used as raw material to make porcelain.
Micas
• Micas are a family of silicate minerals.
Micas are made up of varying amounts of
potassium, magnesium, iron, as well as
aluminium, silicon and water.
• Micas form flat, book-like crystals that
split into individual sheets, separating into
smooth flakes along the cleavage planes.
• They are common minerals in intrusive igneous rocks, and can also be
found in sedimentary and metamorphic rocks.
• Biotite is a dark, black or brown mica; muscovite is a light-coloured or
clear mica.
Amphiboles
• Amphiboles are a family of silicate minerals.
• Amphibole minerals generally contain iron,
magnesium, calcium and aluminium as well as silicon,
oxygen, and water.
• Amphiboles form prismatic or needle-like crystals.
• Amphibole is a component of many igneous and
metamorphic rocks.
• Hornblende (Figure 7) is a common member of the
amphibole group of rock-forming minerals.
Pyroxene
• Pyroxenes (Figure 8) are a family of
silicate minerals.
• Pyroxene minerals generally contain magnesium,
iron, calcium and aluminium as well as silicon and
oxygen.
• Pyroxenes form short or columnar
prismatic crystals.
• Pyroxene is a component in many igneous and
metamorphic rocks.
• Pyroxene crystals are commonly faceted as
gemstones. For instance, precious jade jadeite) is a
pyroxene.
Olivine
• Olivine (Figure 9) is a silicate mineral.
• Olivine ((Mg,Fe) zSiO) contains iron
and magnesium.
• Olivine is a green, glassy mineral.
• Olivine is common in mafic and ultramafic
rocks, but has not been found in Hong Kong.
• Clear and transparent olivine crystals are
commonly faceted as gemstones.
Calcite
• Calcite (Figure 10) is a carbonate mineral.
• Calcite is made up of calcium carbonate
(CaCO 3).
• Calcite is generally white to clear, and is
easily scratched with knife.
• Calcite is a common sedimentary mineral
that is the major component of calcareous
sedimentary rocks such as
limestone.Metamorphism of limestone pro duces
marble.

What I Have Learned

1. The different characteristics of a mineral are inorganic, naturally
occurring, crystalline, and solid and must have a consistent chemical
composition.
2. The Earth's crust is abundant with silicates. Silicon and oxygen
are the main components of silicates and these are the two most
abundant elements in the Earth's crust.
3. An unknown opaque mineral has a black streak and has a density
of 18g/ cm3.The mineral is more likely to be metallic because it is
opaque and metallic minerals are usually heavy and with dark
streaks.
4. Streak is the color of a mineral in powdered form. It is more
reliable because it is inherent to most minerals. Color is not reliable
because a mineral can be formed with varieties of color, an effect
of impurities and weathering.
5. Habit is the external shape of a crystal that is develope d during
the for mation of the mineral. A cleavage plane is a plane of
weakness that may develop after the crystal for mation.
6. The prismatic habit is simultaneously develope d while the mineral
is growing. During the process, there is no repetitive plane of
weakness being create d which makes the mineral break only by
fracturing. An example of this scenario is quartz.
7. A rock-for ming mineral is a mineral that is common an d abun dant
in the Earth's crust; one making up large masses of rock.

1. It is the quality and intensity of reflected light exhibited by the mineral

Hardness
Luster
Cleavage
Crystal Form/Habit
2. Minerals containing halogen elements combined with one or more metals
Carbonates
Silicates
Oxides
Halides
3. It can involve changes in the physical and chemical properties of rocks in
response to heat, pressure, and chemically active fluids
metamorphism
biochemical
sandstone
clastic
4. Which of the oxides below is present on the surface of a reddish brown rock?
Iron oxide
Aluminum oxide
Calcium oxide
Manganese oxide
5. It is formed through the metamorphism of limestone or dolostone; traces of
fossils/remains are obscured by recrystallization.
hornfels
marbles
quartzite
diamond
Assessment
Neptrate Sheite, papese the letter of the best answer. Write the chosen
letter on a
1. It is deter mine d by a scratch test
a. hardness
c. fracture
b. cleavage
d. streak
2. How a mineral reflects light from its surface
a. color
c. fracture
b. luster
d. streak
3. Color of a mineral in powdere d for m
a. color
c. fracture
b. luster
d. streak
4. Which is the hardest mineral?
a. Calcite
c. Quartz
b. Diamon d
d. talc
5. How is the texture describe d if an igneous rock has large crystals an d
is coarse-graine d?
a. Aphanitic
b. Aliphatic
c. Glassy
d. Phaneritic

WHAT I KNOW ASSESSMENT

1.B 1.C
2.D 2.B
3.A 3.D
4.A 4.B
5.B 5.D