Electrical

5th
Circuits-I
Chapter: Magnetism

6th Chapter: Magnetic Quantities and Variables

 Magnetic Lines of Induction
A space around a magnet or a current carrying conductors can be regarded as the
site of a magnetic field. The basic magnetic field vector B can be represented by
lines of induction, just as the electric field E was represented by lines of force.
The magnetic field vector or magnetic induction B is related to its lines of
induction as follows:

 The lines of induction start from the north pole and

end to the south pole.

 The tangent to a line of induction, also known as a

magnetic field of line, at any point gives the
direction of B at that point.
Fig. 1

 The lines of induction are drawn so that the number of lines per unit cross sectional area is
proportional to the magnitude of the magnetic field vector B . Where the lines are close
together, B is strong and where they are far apart, B is weak. The lines of induction give
a graphical representation of the way B varies throughout a certain region of space.
 Magnetic Force due to a moving charge
If a positive test charge q0 is fired with velocity v through a point P and if
deflection force F acts on the moving charge, a magnetic induction B is present at
point P, where B is the vector that satisfies the relation

F  qo v  B
v , q0 and F being measured quantities.

The magnitude of the magnetic deflecting force F is given by

F  q0vB sin 
A current carrying wire is equivalent to a moving charge. Therefore, the force on
a current carrying wire is given by

d F  i dl  B
 The Lorentz Force
If a charge particle moves through a region where both an electric field
and a magnetic field are present, then the resultant force is given by

F  q0 E  qo v  B
 q0 ( E  v  B )
where, q0 E is the electric force and qo v  B is the magnetic force. This resultant
force is called Lorentz force.

Unit of B
The unit of B is weber/m2

1 webers m2 104 Gauss  1Tesla

 Example
 A uniform field of magnetic induction B points horizontally from south to
north; its magnitude is 1.5 webers/metre2. If a 5.0 MeV proton moves
vertically downward through this field, what force will act on it?

Solution:The kinetic energy of the proton is

K  5 Mev  (5.0 10 6 eV )(1.6 10 19 joule / eV )  8.0 10 13 J
1 2
The velocity of proton can be found from the relation K  mv , or
2
2K 2  8.0  10 13 J
v   27
 3.1  10 7
m / sec .
m 1.7  10 Kg
The force of B on the proton is given by

F  qvB sin 
 (1.6  10 19 coul )( 3.1  107 m / sec)(1.5webers / m 2 ) sin 900
 7.4  10 12 nt.
Magnetic Flux
The total number of magnetic field lines penetrating an area is called the
magnetic flux. The net flux is the average out-drawn normal component of B
times the area of the surface.

 B  (average normal component of B )  Area
The magnetic flux through area dS as shown in Fig.04 is given by
 
dB  BdS cos  B.dS  B.n dS
where,  is the angle between B and the normal
to the area dS and n is the unit vector along this
normal. In general for any surface, we have

B   B.dS
s

where, integral is taken over the entire surface.. Fig. 4

 Gauss’s Law for Magnetism
 Gauss’s law for magnetism states that the net magnetic flux through any closed
surface is zero, i.e.

 B.dS  0
s
where, integral is to be taken for entire surface.
Fig.5 shows a representation of the
magnetic fields of a bar magnet. It shows that
lines of B enter the Gaussian surface inside the
magnet and leave it outside the magnet. The
total inward flux equals the total outward flux
and the net flux B for the surface is zero. Fig. 5

Since magnetic field induction B is continuous, the magnetic flux entering

any region is equal to the flux leaving it. Hence, flux over a closed surface must be
zero. That is, isolated magnetic pole does not exist.
 Biot-Savart Law
It was found experimentally that the magnitude of B resulting from a charge q
moving with velocity v at a distance r away from the charge is
1) directly proportional to q, v and sin , where  is the angle between v and B

2) inversely proportional to r2

Thus we can write qv sin 

B
r2
By inserting a constant 0/4, we have

0 qv sin 
B
4 r 2

In vector notation
 0 v  r
B q( 3 )................ (i )
4 r
 Now, we consider an element of current as a length dl of wire carrying a current I
instead of moving charge. Suppose cross-section of wire is A and  is the charge density.
The charge crossing any cross-section per second =  vA that is equal to current I

or ,  vA  I
If we multiply by dl on both sides, we get
 v Adl  I dl
or , q v  I dl
[ q = Adl = total charge contained in wire of length dl ]

After substituting qv = Idl in equ. (i), we have Fig. 6

 
 0 I dl  r
dB  ( 3 ) .................(ii )
4 r
0 I dl sin 
or , dB 
4 r 2
Equations (i) and (ii) is called Biot-Savart law.
  Applications of Biot-Savart Law
1. Magnetic field due to a long straight wire
Let us take a long straight wire carrying a current i. Let us calculate the magnetic field
induction B at a point P a distance R from a long straight wire.
The magnitude of the contribution d B due to the current element idx of the wire at
point P is given by Biot-Savart law

0 idx sin 
dB 
4 r 2

At point P, d B has the same direction for all

elements and is at right angle to the plane of the
page. The magnitude of d B due to whole wire is
given by
0i x  sin  dx
B   dB   .......... .(i )
4 x   r 2
Fig. 7
Now from Fig. 7, we have
R R
r x R 2 2 and sin  [sin(   )]  
r x2  R2
Putting these values in equation (i), the expression for B becomes
0i x  R dx
B   dB 
4 x  ( x 2  R 2 )( x 2  R 2 )
0i  R dx
  ...... (ii)
4  ( x  R )
2 2 32

To evaluate the integral on R.H.S, putting x = R tan, dx = R sec2  d, =-/2 to +/2
 
 
i 2
d 0i 2 0i
 sec  4R 
 / 2
B 0  cos d  [sin  ] / 2
4R 4R
 
2 2

0i
B This is the expression for magnetic field induction B
2 R due to a long straight wire carrying current i.
 Ampere’s Circuital Law
According to Ampere’s law, magnetic fields are related to the electric
produced in them. It states that the line integral of the magnetic induction B around
any closed path (loop) is equal to 0 times the net steady current i enclosed by the
path.

Mathematically,

 B. dl   i 0

where,  dl being simply circumference of the circle and 0 is the permeability

constant.
  Application of Ampere’s Law
1. Magnetic Field for a Solenoid
 A solenoid is a long wire wound in a close-packed helix and carrying a current i0. The
solenoid field is the vector sum of the fields set up by all the turns that make up the
solenoid. The solenoid has n turns per unit length.

From Ampere’s law, we have

 B.dl   i ...........(i )
0

Fig. 9 : A solenoid of finite length Fig. 10 : A section of an ideal solenoid

Let us consider the rectangular path abcd in the ideal solenoid of Fig. 10. We write

the B.dl as the sum of four integrals, one of each path segment as
b c d a

 B.dl   B.dl   B.dl   B.dl   B.dl

a b c d
b
Now,  B.dl  Bdl cos 0  Bh
c  
a d  
 B. dl B dl cos 90  0,  B. dl B dl cos 90  0
c
b d
and
 B.dl  0,
c
Because B is taken as zero for all external points for an ideal solenoid.

Therefore,
 B.dl  Bh  0  0  0  B h
The net current i that passes through the area bounded by the path of integration is
i  i0 (nh)
Ampere's law then becomes  B.dl  Bh   i nh 0 0

0i0 N
 B  0i0 n  where, N is the total number of turns and
l is the total length of the solenoid.
l
 Magnetic Circuit
 Magnetic circuit may be defined as the route or path which is followed by magnetic flux.
Consider a toroidal iron ring having a magnetic path of l meter, area of cross-section A m2
and a coil of N turns carrying current I wound anywhere as in Fig.12.
We have Ampere’s law that gives the line integral of magnetic field H as

 H .dl  enclosed current

or ,  H .dl  N I Here, H .dl  Hdl as H is everywhere parallel to the path dl
and dl = length of the path = l.
or, H  dl  N I

NI
 H A/m
l
The flux density inside the ring is

0  r NI
B   H  0  r H  wb/m 2
l
Fig.12
 Total flux produced
0  r ANI
B   B.dS  B A 
l
NI
 B  wb
l 0  r A
The numerator ‘NI’ which produces magnetization in the magnetic circuit is
known as magnetomotive force (MMF). Its unit is amp-turn.

The denominator l 0  r A is called the reluctance of the circuit.

MMF
 Flux 
Reluctance
 Definitions Concerning Magnetic Circuit
1) Magnetomotive Force (MMF): It drives or tends to drive magnetic flux
through a magnetic circuit and corresponds to electromotive force (emf) in an electric
circuit. MMF is equal to the work done in joules in carrying a unit magnetic pole once
through the entire magnetic circuit. MMF between two points is measured by the work
done in joules in carrying a unit magnetic pole from one point to another. Its unit is
ampere-turns.

2) Ampere-turns (AT): It is the unit of magnetomotive force and is given by the

product of number of turns of a magnetic circuit and the current in amperes in those
turns.

3) Reluctance: It is the property of a material which opposes the creation of magnetic

flux in it. It measures the opposition offered to the passage of magnetic flux through a
material and is analogous to resistance in an electric circuit. Its unit is AT/Wb.

4) Reluctivity: It is specific reluctance and corresponds to resistivity which is specific

resistance.

5) Permeance: It is reciprocal of reluctance. It is analogous of conductance in electric

circuits.
Comparison between Magnetic Circuit and Electric Circuit
 Electromagnetic Induction
 It is well known that whenever an electric current flows through a
conductor, a magnetic field is immediately brought into existence in
the space surrounding the conductor. It can be said that when electrons
are in motion, they produce a magnetic field.

It is also true that when a magnetic field embracing a conductor moves

relative to the conductor, it produces a flow of electrons in the
conductor. This phenomenon whereby an e.m.f and hence current is
induced in any conductor which is cut across or cut by a magnetic flux
is known as electromagnetic induction.
 Faraday’s Experiments on Electromagnetism

Faraday’s First Experiments:

Faraday’s Second Experiments:

Fig.13
 Faraday’s Laws of Electromagnetic Induction
 Faraday enunciated two important laws:.

• 1st law : It states -

Whenever the magnetic flux linked with a closed circuit changes, an e.m.f
is always induced in it.
OR
Whenever a conductor cuts magnetic flux, an emf is induced in that
conductor.
• Second law : It states -

The induced e.m.f produced in a circuit is equal to the negative rate of

chang of the magnetic flux-linkages. If the rate of change of flux is in
webers/sec, the emf  will be in volts. Mathematically,

dB
 
dt
 • Explanation:
 Suppose a coil has N turns and flux through it changes from an initial value
of 1 webers to the final value of 2 webers in time t seconds. Then, we have
Initial flux-linkages = N1 Final flux-linkages = N2
N2  N1
 induced e.m.f   volt
t
2  1
or ,    N volt
t
d
In differential form or ,    N volt The minus sign is an indication of the
dt direction of the induced e.m.f.

Inductance
An inductor is a device for storing energy in a magnetic field. An inductor is
generally called as inductance. In usual a coil or solenoid is treated as inductor.
The unit of inductance is the Henry.

Webers
Henry 
Ampere
 Self Inductance
 If we consider a coil or circuit alone, there will be linked with coil itself certain flux due
to its own current. It follows that the flux  linked the circuit due to its own current is

I
proportional I. Thus

If we assume that the flux passes through each turn of this coil itself, flux linkages = N,
where N is the number of turns and we may write
N  I or , N   LI
where, L is a constant for a circuit of given shape and size, and is called the self-
inductance of the coil. Self-inductance is defined as the flux linked with the circuit itself
due to change of unit current in it.
The e.m.f. induced in the coil itself is given by
d d dI 
  ( N )   N  L  L
dt dt dt dI dt
dI
If  1, L  
dt
Thus, self-inductance L is the amount of e.m.f. induced between the ends of the coils when
the rate of change of current in it is unity.
 Mutual Inductance
Mutual inductance is the phenomenon in which a change of current in one coil
causes an induced emf in another coil placed near to the first coil. The coil in which current
is changed is called primary coil and the coil in which emf is induced is called secondary
coil.
Consider two coils placed near each other as
shown in figure. When current is passed through the
primary coil, magnetic flux is produced. This magnetic flux
is also linked with the secondary coil. If the current is
changed by varying the resistance in the primary circuit, the
magnetic flux also change. As this changing flux is linked
with the secondary coil, it induces an emf in it. This
phenomenon of inducing emf in a coil by changing current
in another coil is known as mutual inductance.

Mutual inductance is defined as the ratio of emf induced

in the secondary coil due to the rate of change of electric
current in the primary coil.
Fig.14
 Lenz’s Law

 It states that the direction of electromagnetically induced e.m.f. (or

current) in a closed circuit is such that it opposes the very cause that
produces it. To be more specific, this law says that the current induced
is in a direction such that it produces a magnetic flux tending to oppose
the original change of flux.
 Energy stored in Magnetic Field
An inductor is a device for storing energy in a magnetic field. Suppose in a circuit
current is increasing, self inductance will try to decrease this current. Therefore, the work
must be done to overcome the induced emf and to drive the current against it. This work done
is stored up as energy in the system.

Figure 15 shows a circuit with a source of emf connected to a resistance R and

inductance L. From Kirchhoff’s law

di
  iR  L
dt

If we multiply the above equation by i,

we get

di
i  i 2 R  Li ...............(i )
dt
Fig.15
 We can interpret the above equation in terms of work and energy as follows:
1) If a charge dq passes through the source of emf in a time dt, then the work done by
dq
source in time dt is dq. The rate of doing work is   i. Therefore, the left hand
dt
side of above equation i.e. i is the rate at which the source of emf delivers energy to
the circuit.

2) The first term on RHS is the rate at which energy appears as heat in the resistance R.

3) The energy delivered to the circuit but does not appear as heat in the resistor must,
(according to the rule of conservation of energy), be stored in the magnetic field.
Therefore, Li di represents the rate at which the energy is stored in the magnetic field.
dt
Let UB represents the energy stored in the magnetic field, then we have

dU B
 Li
di or , dUB  Li di
dt dt
Integrating yields
i0
1 2
U B   dU B   Li di  Li ................(ii )
0
2
Equ. (ii) represents the total stored magnetic energy in an inductance L carrying a current i.