Unit 1

Cognitive Psychology
Cognitive psychology focuses on the mental
process of acquisition, storage,
transformation, and use of knowledge.
 Unit 1

The Origins of Cognitive Psychology

• Philosophers and other theorists have speculated about human thought
processes for more than twenty-three centuries.
• For example, the Greek philosopher Aristotle(384–322 BC) examined
topics such as perception, memory, and mental imagery.
• He also discussed how humans acquire knowledge through experience and
observation (Barnes, 2004; Sternberg, 1999).
• Aristotle emphasized the importance of empirical evidence obtained by
careful observation and experimentation.
• The topics he studied are consistent with twenty-first-century cognitive
psychology.
 Unit 1

• Wilhelm Wundt. Historians often give credit to Wundt for

creating the new discipline of psychology—a discipline that was
separate from philosophy and physiology.
• He taught about 28,000 students during the course of his lifetime
(Bechtel et al., 1998; Fuchs & Milar, 2003).
• Wundt proposed that psychology should study mental processes,
using a technique called introspection. Ex: Sensations, Images
and Thoughts.
• Introspection, in this case, meant that carefully trained observers
would systematically analyze their own sensations and report
them as objectively as possible (Fuchs & Milar, 2003; Zangwill,
2004b).
 Unit 1

The Emergence of Modern Cognitive Psychology

• Cognitive psychologists generally agree that the birth of cognitive
psychology should be listed as 1956 (Thagard, 2005; Viney & King, 2003).
• During this prolific year, researchers published numerous influential books
and articles on attention, memory, language, concept formation, and
problem solving.
• Many researchers also attended an important symposium at the
Massachusetts Institute of Technology (Miller, 1979).
• By 1960, the methodology, approach, and attitudes had changed
substantially (Mandler, 1985).
• Another important turning point was the publication of Ulric Neisser’s
(1967) book Cognitive Psychology (Leahey, 2003; Palmer, 1999)
 Unit 1

Meaning of Cognitive Psychology

• Cognitive Psychology: has two meanings:
1.Synonym to Cognition: In this sense, cognitive psychology refers to the
study of mental activities and abilities such as perception, memory,
reasoning, and problem-solving. It’s about understanding how people
process and interpret information from their environment.

1.Theoretical Approach: As a theoretical approach, cognitive psychology

emphasizes the importance of mental processes and knowledge. It looks at
how these processes influence human behavior and the judgments they
make about the world and others.
For example, a cognitive explanation of ethnic stereotypes would
emphasize topics such as the influence of these stereotypes on the judgments
we make about people from different ethnic groups (Whitley & Kite, 2006).
 Unit 1

• "All Asians are good at math."

• Explanation: This stereotype suggests that individuals of Asian
descent are naturally talented or excel in mathematical subjects.
• However, this generalization overlooks the fact that mathematical
abilities vary among individuals regardless of their racial or ethnic
background.
• It is important to recognize that people's aptitude for math, or any
other skill, is influenced by various factors such as education, personal
interests, and individual effort, rather than being determined solely by
their ethnic or racial identity.
 Unit 1

Definitions
Ulric Neisser: "Cognitive psychology is the branch of psychology that
studies mental processes including how people think, perceive,
remember, and learn."
Anderson (2005): "Cognitive psychology is the study of mental
processes such as attention, language use, memory, perception, problem
solving, creativity, and thinking."
Sternberg (2017): "Cognitive psychology is the scientific study of the
mind as an information processor. Cognitive psychologists try to build
up cognitive models of the information processing that goes on inside
people's minds, including perception, attention, language, memory,
thinking, and consciousness."
Unit 1
 Unit 1

Nature of Cognitive Psychology

• Cognitive Psychology: Cognition, or mental activity, describes the
acquisition, storage, transformation, and use of knowledge.
•
The nature of cognitive psychology can be understood through its
focus on these aspects:
1.Focus on Mental Processes: Cognitive psychology focuses on
understanding the internal mental processes that underlie behaviour,
such as perception, memory, attention, language, and thinking. These
processes are not directly observable but can be inferred through
behavior and experimental manipulations.
 Unit 1

2. Information Processing Model: Cognitive psychology often adopts an

information processing model, likening the mind to a computer that
processes, stores, and retrieves information.
This model emphasizes the sequential nature of cognitive processes and the
role of attention and memory in processing information.

3. Use of Experimental Methods: Cognitive psychology relies heavily on

experimental methods to study mental processes.
Researchers use controlled experiments to manipulate variables and measure
their effects on cognitive processes, often using tasks that require participants
to perform specific mental operations.
 Unit 1

4. Interdisciplinary Nature: Cognitive psychology is interdisciplinary,

drawing on insights from fields such as computer science, neuroscience,
linguistics, and philosophy.
This interdisciplinary approach helps to understand the mind from
multiple perspectives and integrate findings from different disciplines.
Unit 1
 Unit 1

Scope of Cognitive psychology

cognitive psychology could be understood by understanding its sub
disciplines and the work done in it.
• Social Psychologists: They delve into how we understand and interact
with others, examining the cognitive processes behind social behavior
and relationships.
• Clinical Psychologists: They focus on how cognitive processes relate
to mental health, seeking to understand and treat psychological
disorders.
 Unit 1

• Developmental Psychologists: They investigate how cognitive

abilities evolve and change from infancy through old age, providing
insights into the lifespan development of the mind.
• Neuropsychologists: They bridge the gap between psychology and
neuroscience, studying how brain structures and functions are related
to cognitive processes.
• Organizational Psychologists: They apply cognitive principles to the
workplace, analyzing how memory, decision-making, and other
cognitive processes influence organizational behavior.
 Unit 1

Research Methods in Cognitive Psychology

• Natural
• Controlled
• Clinical Interview
• Case study
• Experimental
 Unit 1
Naturalistic Observation in Cognitive Psychology:
Naturalistic observation is a research method where researchers observe participants'
behavior in real-world settings, without manipulating any variables.
This approach aims to capture how people use their cognitive abilities in their everyday
lives.

Strengths:
Ecological Validity: Naturalistic observation allows researchers to observe behaviours in
their natural context, increasing the generalizability of findings to real-world situations.
Unlike laboratory experiments, participants are not prompted to behave in a specific way.

Rich Data: Observing participants for extended periods can provide rich data about the
complexity and flexibility of cognitive processes. Researchers can witness how these
processes adapt to environmental changes and how they interact with each other.
 Unit 1

Weaknesses:
•Lack of Experimental Control: Researchers cannot manipulate variables to
isolate the causes of observed behaviors. This makes it difficult to establish
causal relationships between factors and behaviours.
•Observer Bias: The observer's presence can influence participants' behavior,
making it difficult to determine if the observed behaviors are truly
representative. Additionally, the observer's own biases and expectations can
influence what they record and how they interpret it.
•Reactivity: Participants may become self-conscious or alter their behaviour
when they know they are being observed. This can lead to inauthentic data.
•Limited Generalizability: The findings from naturalistic observation may
not be generalizable to a broader population, depending on the specific
context and sample chosen for observation.
 Unit 1
Controlled Observation:
A research method where researchers observe participants’ behaviour in a more
standardized setting compared to naturalistic observation. Researchers can
manipulate specific conditions to examine their influence on behaviour.

• Example: In the ATM scenario, researchers might show different instructions

on the ATM screen to different participants and observe how this affects their
interaction with the machine.

Compared to Naturalistic Observation:

• Increased Control: Researchers have more control over the environment and can
manipulate specific variables.
• Targeted Observation: Researchers can focus on specific behaviours by manipulating
conditions.
• Potential for Bias: Standardization might create an artificial environment, potentially
affecting participants' natural behaviour.
 Unit 1
• Clinical Interviews:
A structured conversation where a skilled interviewer asks open-ended
questions to elicit detailed information and follows up with targeted prompts
tailored to the participant's unique responses.
This back-and-forth approach allows the interviewer to delve deeper into the
participant's thoughts, feelings, and experiences compared to introspection,
where participants are left to their own devices.
• Compared to Introspection:
• Deeper Exploration: The interviewer guides the conversation to gain
richer insights into the participant's thoughts and experiences.

• Potential Bias: The interviewer's biases or expectations might influence

the questions asked, the interpretation of responses, and ultimately the
conclusions drawn from the interview.
To mitigate this bias, interviewers should be well-trained and employ
standardized questioning techniques.
 Case Study Unit 1
Unlike experiments that focus on manipulating variables to establish causal relationships, case studies aim to
provide an in-depth examination of a single individual (or sometimes a small group) to understand the intricacies
of a particular cognitive phenomenon.

By delving into the unique experiences and characteristics of the case, researchers can gain valuable insights into
how cognitive processes work in the context of a real-life situation.

•In-depth Exploration: Researchers use a variety of techniques in case studies, like interviews, observations, and
analysis of medical records, to build a comprehensive picture of the individual's cognitive strengths, weaknesses,
and unique experiences.

•Advantages:
•Rare Cases: Case studies are valuable for studying rare cognitive conditions or unique brain injuries. They can
provide rich data that helps researchers understand the underlying mechanisms of these conditions.
•Hypothesis Generation: Detailed case studies can generate new hypotheses about how the brain works, paving
the way for future experiments to test those hypotheses.

•Disadvantages:
•Limited Generalizability: Findings from a single case study might not be applicable to a broader population.
•Confounding Variables: It's challenging to isolate specific causes due to the complex interplay of factors in an
individual's life.
 Unit 1
•Experiments:
•High Control: Researchers manipulate independent variables (factors they believe influence the outcome) and
observe the resulting changes in dependent variables (the measured outcome).
•Random Assignment: Ideally, participants are randomly assigned to different experimental conditions (groups
exposed to different levels of the independent variable) to minimize pre-existing group differences and
strengthen causal inferences.
•Example: Studying memory. Researchers randomly assign participants to two groups. One group receives
instructions to memorize a list of words, while the other group receives instructions to simply read the list.
Later, both groups are tested on their memory for the words. By manipulating the instructions (independent
variable) and observing memory performance (dependent variable), researchers can infer a causal relationship
between instructions and memory.

•Strengths:
•Isolation of Causal Factors: Experiments allow researchers to isolate the specific factors influencing a
phenomenon, leading to stronger causal claims compared to observational methods.
•Weaknesses:
•Artificial Settings: The controlled environment of a lab might not reflect real-world situations, potentially
affecting the generalizability of findings.
•Limited Task Selection: The tasks used in experiments might be too simplistic to capture the complexity
of real-world cognitive processes.