KINETICS OF PARTICLES: WORK AND ENERGY

The analysis of motion of a particle is analyzed using the concept of work and energy in
this section. The equation resulting from the analysis can be useful for solving problems
involving force, velocity and displacement. Note that work is done on a particle only when
the particle undergoes a displacement in the direction of the force. In the figure below the
force (F) causes a particle to move along the path ‘s’ from position r to a new position 𝑟 ′ ,
the displacement is then given by 𝑑𝑟 = 𝑟 ′ − 𝑟. The magnitude of 𝑑𝑟 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑠, the length of
the differential segment along the path. Let the angle between the tail of F 𝑑𝑟 and F be θ,
the work done by force F is a scalar given by

Figure 4.1: Work done by a force

𝑑𝑈 = 𝐹𝑑𝑠 cos 𝜃

Employing dot product notation, the equation above is written as

𝑑𝑈 = 𝐹. 𝑑𝑟
The result for the work done by a force can be interpreted in two ways as
i. The product of force F and the component of displacement 𝑑𝑠 cos 𝜃 in the direction of
the force.
ii. The product of 𝑑𝑠 and the component of force 𝐹 cos 𝜃 in the direction of displacement

The unit of work is the Joule (J) which is the amount of work done by a one Newton force when
it moves through a distance of 1 m in the direction of the force.

Work of a variable force

If a particle acted upon by a force F undergoes a finite displacement along its path from r1 to r2 or
s1 to s2 as shown in the Figure 4.2 (a) The work done by force F can be determined by integration
provided F and θ can be expressed as a function of position, therefore
𝑟 𝑠
𝑈1−2 = ∫𝑟 2 𝐹. 𝑑𝑟 = ∫𝑠 2 𝐹 cos 𝜃 𝑑𝑠 (4.1)
1 1

Sometimes the relationship in the equation above can be obtained by using experimental data to
plot a graph of 𝐹 cos 𝜃 against s. the area under the graph bounded by s1 to s2 represents the total
work done as shown in the Figure 4.2 (b) below.
 Figure 4.2: Work of a variable force

Examples of Work

a. Work done by a constant external force moving in a straight line: If the force Fc has a
constant magnitude and acts at a constant angle θ from its straight line path as shown in Figure
4.3 below. The component of force Fc in the direction of displacement is always Fc cos 𝜃.

Figure 4.3: Work done by a constant external force

The work done by Fc when the particle is displaced from s1 to s2 is determined from as
𝑠
𝑈1−2 = 𝐹𝑐 cos 𝜃 ∫𝑠 1 𝑑𝑠
1

𝑈1−2 = 𝐹𝑐 cos 𝜃(𝑠2 − 𝑠1 ) (4.2)

b. Work of a weight: For a particle having weight W which moves along the path s as
shown below from position s1 to s2.

Figure 4.3: work done by weight

 At an intermediate point the displacement 𝑑𝑟 = 𝑑𝑥𝑖 + 𝑑𝑦𝑗 + 𝑑𝑧𝑘. Since 𝑊 = −𝑊𝑗, we can
therefore write
𝑟2
𝑈1−2 = ∫ 𝐹. 𝑑𝑟 = ∫ (−𝑊𝑗) . (𝑑𝑥𝑖 + 𝑑𝑦𝑗 + 𝑑𝑧𝑘)
𝑟1

𝑦
𝑈1−2 = ∫𝑦 2 −𝑊𝑑𝑦 = −𝑊(𝑦2 − 𝑦1 ) (4.3)
1

𝑈1−2 = −𝑊∆𝑦

c. Work done by a spring force: for an elastic spring which is elongated by a distance 𝑑𝑠 as
shown in the Figure 4.4 below.

Figure 4.4: work done by a spring force

The work done by the force that acts on the particle attached is 𝑑𝑢 = −𝐹𝑠 𝑑𝑠 = −𝑘𝑠𝑑𝑠 the
work done is negative since 𝐹𝑠 acts in the opposite sense to 𝑑𝑠. If the particle displaces from
s1 to s2, the work done by 𝐹𝑠 is therefore
𝑠1 𝑠1
𝑈1−2 = ∫ 𝐹𝑠 𝑑𝑠 = ∫ −𝑘𝑠 𝑑𝑠
𝑠2 𝑠2
1 1
𝑈1−2 = − (2 𝑘𝑠22 − 2 𝑘𝑠12 ) (4.4)

Principle of Work and Energy

For the particle shown in the figure below located on the path defined with respect to the inertial
coordinate system. If the particle has mass m and is subjected to a system of external forces
represented by the resultant 𝐹𝑅 = ∑ 𝐹, the equation of motion for the particle in the tangential
direction is given by ∑ 𝐹𝑡 = 𝑚𝑎𝑡 . Applying the kinematic equation 𝑎𝑡 = 𝑣𝑑𝑣 ⁄𝑑𝑠 and integrating
both sides for initial position and speed of 𝑠 = 𝑠1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣 = 𝑣1 respectively and final position and
speed 𝑠 = 𝑠2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣 = 𝑣2 we have
 Figure 4.5:
𝑠 𝑣
∑ ∫𝑠 2 𝐹𝑡 𝑑𝑠 = ∫𝑣 2 𝑚𝑣𝑑𝑣
1 1

𝑠 1 1
∑ ∫𝑠 2 𝐹𝑡 𝑑𝑠 = 𝑚𝑣22 − 𝑚𝑣12 (4.5)
1 2 2

From the figure above ∑ 𝐹𝑡 = ∑ 𝐹 cos 𝜃, therefore the final result can be written as
1 1
𝑈1−2 = 2 𝑚𝑣22 − 2 𝑚𝑣12 (4.6)

The equation above is known as the principle of work and energy for a particle. The equation can
also be expressed as

𝑈1−2 + 𝑇1 = 𝑇2 (4.7)

Therefore the statement of the equation is “the initial kinetic energy of a particle plus the sum of
all work done on the particle gives the final kinetic energy”.

Examples

1. The spring below is placed between the wall and the 10-kg block. If the block is subjected to
a force of F = 500 N, determine its velocity when s = 0.5 m. When s = 0, the block is at rest
and the spring is uncompressed. The contact surface is smooth.

2. The small cart has a speed vA = 4 m/s as it passes point A. it moves without appreciable
friction and passes over the top hump of the track. Determine the cart speed as it passes
point B. Is the knowledge of the shape of the track necessary?
3. The 0.5 kg collar C starts from rest at A and slides with negligible friction on the fixed rod in
the vertical plane. Determine the velocity v with which the collar strikes end B when acted
upon by the 5 N force, which is constant in direction. Neglect the dimensions of the collar.

Practice Problems

1. Calculate the velocity v of the 50 kg crate when it reaches the bottom of the chute at B if it is
given an initial velocity of 4 m/s down the chute at A. the coefficient of kinetic friction is 0.30.

2. The 2 kg collar shown below is released from rest at A and slides down the inclined fixed rod
in vertical plane. The coefficient of kinetic friction is 0.4. Calculate (a) the velocity (v) of the
collar as it strikes the spring and (b) the maximum deflection x of the spring

3. The 2 Mg car has a velocity of v1 = 100 km/h when the driver sees an obstacle in front of the
car. It takes 0.75 s for him to react and lock the brakes, causing the car to skid. If the car stops
when it has traveled a distance of 175 m, determine the coefficient of kinetic friction between
the tyres and the road.
4. If the motor exerts a force of F = (600 + 2S2) N on the cable, determine the speed of the 100
kg crate when it rises to s = 15 m. The crate is initially at rest on the ground.

5. A small rocket propelled test vehicle with a total mass of 100 kg starts from rest at A and
moves with negligible friction along the track in the vertical plane as shown below. If the
propelling rocket exerts a constant thrust T of 1.5 kN from a to position B where it is shut off,
determine the distance ‘s’ which the vehicle rolls up the incline before stopping. The loss of
mass due to expulsion of gases by the rocket is small and may be neglected.

6. A car is travelling at 60 km/h down a 10 percent grade when the brakes on all four wheels lock.
If the coefficient of kinetic friction between the tyres and road is 0.70, find the distance ‘s’
measured along the road which the car skids before coming to a stop.

Power and Efficiency

The capacity of a machine is measured by the time rate at which the machine id delivering energy
or doing work. The total work or energy output is not a measure of this capacity because a motor
no matter how small can deliver a large amount of energy if given sufficient time. On the other
hand, a large and powerful machine can deliver a large amount of energy over a short period of
time. The capacity of a machine is therefore usually rated in terms of its power.

Power: Power can be defined as the time rate of doing work. Power provides a useful basis for
the determination of the type of motor or machine which is required to do a certain amount of
work in a given time. The power developed by a machine or engine that does an amount of work
dU within an interval of time dt is given by
𝑑𝑈
𝑃= (4.8)
𝑑𝑡

If the work done dU is expressed as 𝑑𝑈 = 𝐹. 𝑑𝑟, then

𝑑𝑈 𝐹.𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑟
𝑃= = = 𝐹. 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝑃 = 𝐹. 𝑣 (4.9)

Efficiency: is the ratio of workdone by a machine to the work done on a machine during the same
time interval, this is referred to as the mechanical efficiency. The efficiency of a machine is always
less than unity because loss of energy is always associated with the operation of any device. For
mechanical devices having moving parts, loss of energy is associated with the negative work done
by friction which is converted into heat and released into the surroundings. Mechanical efficiency
at any instant of time may be represented by the mechanical power as
𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡
𝑒𝑚 = 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡

If energy supplied to the machine occurs during the same time interval at which it is drawn, then
the efficiency may also be expressed in terms of the ratio
𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡
𝑒𝑚 =
𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡

Also, there may be electrical or thermal energy loss in a system apart from that due to mechanical
friction. Therefore we can also define thermal efficiency (𝑒𝑡 ) and electrical efficiency (𝑒𝑒 ).
Therefore, the overall efficiency is defined as

𝑒 = 𝑒𝑚 . 𝑒𝑡 . 𝑒𝑒

Examples

1. The man in the figure below pushes on the 50 kg crate with a force of F = 150 N. Determine
the power supplied by the man when t = 4 s. the coefficient of kinetic friction between the
floor and the crate is 𝜇𝑘 = 0.2. Initially, the crate is at rest
Practice Problem
1. If the contact surface between the 20-kg block and the ground is smooth, determine the
power of force F when t = 4 s. Initially, the block is at rest.

2. At the instant shown, point P on the cable has a velocity vp = 12 m/s, which is increasing at a
rate of ap = 6 m/s2. Determine the power input of motor M at this instant if it operates with an
efficiency e = 0.8. The mass of block A is 50 kg.

3. The man shown below and his bicycle weight 9.1 kg. What power ‘P’ is the man developing
in riding up a 5 percent grade at a constant speed of 24.1 km/hr?
4. A car with a mass of 1500 kg starts from rest at the bottom of a 10 percent grade and acquires
a speed of 50 km/h in a distance of 100 m with a constant acceleration up the grade. What is
the power P delivered to the drive wheels by the engine when the car reaches this speed?
 Kinetics of Particles: Impulse and Momentum

When the equation of motion is integrated with respect to time we obtain the principle of impulse
and momentum. This equation is employed in solving problems force, velocity and time. For a
particle of mass m, the equation of motion can be written as
𝑑𝑣
∑ 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 = 𝑚 (5.1)
𝑑𝑡

Rearranging the equation above and integrating between the limits 𝑣 = 𝑣1 𝑎𝑡 𝑡 = 𝑡1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣 =
𝑣2 𝑎𝑡 𝑡 = 𝑡2
𝑡 𝑣
∑ ∫𝑡 2 𝐹𝑑𝑡 = 𝑚 ∫𝑣 2 𝑑𝑣
1 1

𝑡
∑ ∫𝑡 2 𝐹𝑑𝑡 = 𝑚𝑣2 − 𝑚𝑣1 (5.2)
1

The equation above is referred to as the principle of linear impulse and momentum.

Linear Momentum: each of the two vectors in equation (5.2) in the form 𝐿 = 𝑚𝑣 is referred to
as the particles momentum.

Linear Impulse: the integral 𝐼 = ∫ 𝐹𝑑𝑡 in equation (5.2) is known as the linear impulse. It is a
vector quantity and measures the effect of a force during the time it acts on a particle. If the force
is expressed as a function of time, the impulse can be determined from the direct integration of
this integral. If the force is constant in both magnitude and direction, the impulse is given by
𝑡
𝐼 = ∫𝑡 2 𝐹𝑑𝑡 = 𝐹𝑐 (𝑡2 − 𝑡1 )
1

Principle of Linear Impulse and Momentum

Equation (5.2) can be rewritten as

𝑡
𝑚𝑣1 + ∑ ∫𝑡 2 𝐹𝑑𝑡 = 𝑚𝑣2 (5.3)
1

which can be stated as “the initial momentum of a particle at time t1 plus the sum of all impulses
applied to the particle from t1 t2 is equal to the final momentum of the particle at time t2.” The three
terms in equation (5.3) can be represented on the impulse- momentum diagram as shown in Figure
5.1 below.
 Figure 5.1

When each of the vector in equation (5.3) is resolved into its x,y,z components, we can write the
following three scalar equations of linear impulse and momentum.
𝑡
𝑚(𝑣𝑥 )1 + ∑ ∫𝑡 2 𝐹𝑥 = 𝑚(𝑣𝑥 )2
1

𝑡
𝑚(𝑣𝑦 )1 + ∑ ∫𝑡 2 𝐹𝑦 = 𝑚(𝑣𝑦 )2 (5.4)
1

𝑡
𝑚(𝑣𝑧 )1 + ∑ ∫𝑡 2 𝐹𝑧 = 𝑚(𝑣𝑧 )2
1

Example

The 0.5-kg ball strikes the rough ground and rebounds with the velocities shown. Determine the
magnitude of the impulse the ground exerts on the ball. Assume that the ball does not slip when it
strikes the ground, and neglect the size of the ball and the impulse produced by the weight of the
ball.

Practice Problems

1. If the coefficient of kinetic friction between the 69 kg crate and the ground is µ k = 0.2,
determine the speed of the crate when t = 4 s. The crate starts from rest and is towed by the 46
kg force.
2. The motor exerts a force of 𝐹 = (20𝑡 2 ), N on the cable, where t is in seconds. Determine the
speed of the 25 kg crate when t = 4 s. The coefficients of static and kinetic friction between
the crate and the plane are µs = 0.3 and µk = 0.25, respectively.

3. The 100 kg stone shown in te figure below is originally at rest on the smooth horizontal surface.
If a towing force of 200 N acting at 45° is applied to the stone for 10 s, dtermone the final
velocity and normal force which the surface exerts on the stone during this time interval

Conservation of Linear Momentum

When the sum of external impulses acting on a system of particles is zero equation (5.3) becomes

𝑚𝑣1 = 𝑚𝑣2 (5.5)

Equation (5.5) is known as the conservation of linear momentum equation. It states that the total
linear momentum for a system of particles remains constant during time period t1 to t2

Example
The freight cars A and B have a mass of 20 Mg and 15 Mg, respectively. Determine the velocity
of A after collision if the cars collide and rebound, such that B moves to the right with a speed of
2 m/s. If A and B are in contact for 0.5 s, find the average impulsive force which acts between
them.

Practice Problems

1. A 60 g bullet is fired horizontally with a velocity v1 = 600 m/s into the 3 kg block of soft wood
initially at rest on the horizontal surface. The bullet emerges from the block with the velocity
v2 = 400 m/s, and the block is observed to slide a short distance of 2.70 m before coming to
rest. Determine the coefficient of friction µk between the bock and the supporting surface.
2. The 15 Mg boxcar A is coasting at 1.5 m/s on the horizontal track when it encounters a 12 Mg
tank car B coasting at 0.75 m/s towards it as shown in the figure below. If the cars collide and
couple together, determine (a) the speed of both cars just after coupling, and (b) the average
force between them if the coupling takes place in 0.8 s

3. A 75 g projectile travelling at 600 m/s strikes and becomes embedded in the 50 kg block, which
is initially stationary. Compute the energy lost during the impact. Express your answer as an
absolute value |∆𝐸| and as a percentage n of the original system energy E.

4. The jet fighter plane has a mass of 6450 kg and requires 10 seconds from rest to reach its take
off speed of 250 km/h under the constant jet thrust T = 48kN. Compute the average R of the
combined air and ground resistance during takeoff.