Pharmaceutical Botany with Taxonomy o Forms after the bud begins to expand or a

PH-BPS 112 seed germinates

Ms. Reeva Ann L. Sumulong • Protoderm
o Outermost; gives rise to the epidermis
ADAPTED FROM: POWERPOINT/LECTURE o Procambium – interior of protoderm;
cylinder of strands
COURSE OUTLINE: MIDTERMS
• Ground meristem
1. Tissues and Primary Growth o Produces two tissues composed of
a. Stems parenchyma cells; gives rise to the pith and
b. Leaves cortex
o Pith – cells that are very large and may
break down shortly after they are formed
UNIT 2.3: TISSUES AND PRIMARY leaving a cylindrical hollow area
GROWTH ▪ Contains lignin
▪ Associated with secretory
STEMS structure - stores and secretes
laticifers which secrete or bleed
OVERVIEW/TERMS latex
• Node – area or region of stem where leaf or leaves o Cortex – parenchyma is used in storing food
are attached or sometimes if chloroplasts are present, in
manufacturing it
• Internodes – stem region between nodes
▪ Chloroplasts has chlorophyll which
• Petiole – stalk that serves as an attachment of the is associated with
leaf to the twig photosynthesis
• Axil – angle between a petiole and stem
• Axillary bud – bud located in the axil
o Starting point only
o may become a vegetative shoot or
reproductive shoot
▪ Vegetative shoot – stem or
branches
▪ Reproductive shoot – flowers
• Bud scales – protects the buds
• Bud scale scar – a remembrance; terminal bud
leaves this after a previous season; may only persist
for a number of years/season
o Terminal scar because it doesn’t turn into
something else, unlike axillary bud
o Indication of age of stem or twig
• Terminal bud – little larger than the axillary bud;
do not become separate branches, stays as a bud
alone
• Stipules – paired; often somewhat leaflike,
appendages that may remain throughout the life of
the leaf

• Primordium – meristematic tissues; active cell

division
o Bud
▪ Becomes an axillary bud; veg root
– stem/branches or repro root -
flowers
o Leaf
ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT ▪ Becomes a leaf
• Apical meristem • Narrow band of cells between the primary xylem and
o Found in the tip of each stem primary phloem > retain meristematic nature >
o Increase in length of the stem vascular cambium > secondary tissues > add to the
o Protected by bud scales of the bud and to a girth of the stem instead of its length
certain extent by a leaf primordia • Vascular Cambium – secondary growth, increase
• Primary meristem in girth; found in main meristem of the stem

1 I ESPIRITU BSP 1-2

 o Layer of dividing cells between two parts;
wood (inward), vascular cambium
(between), and bud (outward)
o Tracheids, vessel elements, fibers, or other
components of secondary xylem or sieve
tube members, companion cells, or other
components of the secondary phloem
o Forms vascular tissues:
▪ Inward – xylem; wood - secondary
xylem is formed inside
▪ Outward – phloem; bark -
secondary phloem is formed
outside

PATTERNS OF TISSUES
• Steles – younger and few older stems and roots
o Central cylinder is made up of primary
xylem, primary phloem, and pith
o Protostele
▪ Cannot see where the pith is
located
▪ Simplest form
▪ Consists of a solid core of
conducting tissues in which the
phloem usually surrounds the
xylem
▪ Common in primitive seed plants –
whisk ferns, club mosses
o Siphonosteles
▪ Looks like a donut
▪ Distinguishable pith
▪ Tubular with pith at center
• Cork cambium/Phellogen ▪ Common in ferns
o Seen when epidermis is at maturity o Eusteles
o Woody stems – while they age, lenticels ▪ Present day flowering plants and
(aids gas exchange) are seen behind the conifers
stomata ▪ Primary xylem and primary
▪ When bumps or protrusion is phloem are in discrete vascular
bundles
seen, lenticels are present
▪ Distinguishable pith
o Arises within the cortex or in some
instances develops from the epidermis or
phloem
o Produces box-like cork cells which are
impregnated with suberin
▪ waxy substance that makes the
cell impervious to moisture
o Cork cambium – may also produce
parenchyma-like phelloderm

MONOCOT AND DICOT STEMS

VASCULAR TISSUES
• Monocot
o Pith is not seen
o Vascular bundles embedded throughout the
ground tissue
• Most dicots
o Single ring of vascular bundles embedded
in ground tissue
• Many non-flowering plants and few dicots
o Concentric cylinders of xylem and phloem

2 I ESPIRITU BSP 1-2

DICOT STEM: HERBACEOUS
• Plants that die after going from seed to maturity
within one growing season (annuals)
• Discrete vascular bundles composed of patches of MONOCOT STEM
xylem and phloem • May look like a face
o Vascular bundles – arranges in o Vessel element – xylem
rings/cylinder which separate the cortex o Eyebrow-like structure – boundary of xylem
from the pith and phloem
o Epidermis – outer wall • Each bundle, regardless of specific location is
o Pith – center oriented so that:
o Xylem – closer to the center of the stem
o Phloem – is closer to the surface
• In a typical monocot – bundle’s system contains 2
large vessels with several small vessels between
them
• Parenchyma tissue between the vascular bundle is
not separated into cortex and pith

DICOT STEM: WOODY

• Green lining – vascular cambium
• Xylem – inward of vascular cambium
• Phloem – outward from vascular cambium
• Annual rings – tells you the age of the plant
• Found in perennials with woody stems
o Perennials - present in all seasons of the
year
• At maturity – vascular bundles join together to form SPECIALIZED STEMS
continuous rings around the interior of stem
• Develop a lateral system of nutrient transport in TERMS
which vessels called rays horizontally from the Stems could also function in different ways
phloem to the pith, carrying nutrients to the pith for • Rhizomes
storage or to the phloem for dispersal o Horizontal stems that grow below ground
near the surface of the soil
o Scale-like leaves and axillary buds at each
nodes
o Main function: Store food for renewing
growth of the shoot after periods of stress
o Ex. ginger
• Runners and Stolons
o Runners
▪ horizontal stems that differ from
rhizomes in that they grow above
ground, generally along the
surface
▪ have long internodes

3 I ESPIRITU BSP 1-2

 o Stolons ▪ Surface-to-volume ratio -
▪ similar to runners but are indication of critical trade of
produced beneath the surface of between the maximization of
the ground growth and the minimization of
▪ Unidirectional growth - tend to water loss
grow in different directions ▪ Low means the plant is able to
▪ Not usually horizontally
store large amounts of water, at
o Ex. Bermuda grass, spider plant
the same time has can minimal
Rhizomes Runners Stolon surface area which minimizes
transpirational water loss
Horizontal Horizontal Unidirectional; o Main function: store large amounts of water
stems stems Not horizontal
o Ex. cactus
Grow below Grow above Beneath the
ground ground surface of the
ground

• Tubers
o Swollen regions of stems that store food for
subsequent growth
o Ex. potato
• Bulbs
o Large buds surrounded by numerous fleshy
leaves, with small stem at the lower end
o Ex. onions, lily, hyacinth, tulip
• Corms
o Resembles bulbs that differ from them in
being composed almost entirely of stem
tissue
o Except for the few papery scalelike leaves
sparsely covering the outside
o Ex. gladiolus, crocus

Bulbs Corms
Large buds Resembles
bulbs, but
composed of
stem tissue
Numerous Few papery
fleshy leaves scalelike leaves
Thorns and Succulent stems

• Cladophylls
o Flat, leaf-like stems modified for
photosynthesis
o Ex. orchids
• Tendrils and twinning shoots
o Coil around objects and help support the
plants
Searcher shoots and Cladophylls
o Main function: support system of plants
o Ex. Virginia creeper LEAVES
• Searcher shoots
o Stems with long internodes that mode in OVERVIEW
circles through the air • Most diverse of all plant organs
o Increase probability of contact with a • Come in different shapes and forms:
supportive o tubular, needle-like, feathery, cupped,
o Main function: support sticky, fragrant, smooth, or waxy
o Ex. honeysuckle
• Thorns PARTS
o Modified stems that protect plants from • Leaf buttress or leaf primordium
grazing animals o Earliest stage of leaf development
o Main function: defense mechanism of o Contains only 100 – 300 cells
plants ▪ Formed by cellular divisions – one
o Ex. bougainvillea to three cell layers which are
• Succulent stems found below the overlying
o Low surface-to volume ratio protoderm

4 I ESPIRITU BSP 1-2

 • Apical peg o Blade is divided in various ways into
o Symmetrical cone result of continued leaflets
cellular divisions and cellular expansion o Has a single axillary bud at its base with
▪ Forms the leaf’s midrib the leaflets having no such buds
o Similar to subapical regions of stems • Pinnate
• Adaxial meristem o Compound leaves
o Thickens the leaf o Leaves form in pairs along a central, stalk-
▪ Forms two leaf zones: like rachis
▪ Upper leaf zone – contains the • Palmate
marginal meristem which forms o Compound leaves
the flattened blade and stalk-like o Attach at the same point – how fingers
petiole (attaches leaf to stem) attached to the palm
▪ Lower leaf zone – forms the leaf
base

ARRANGEMENT
Phyllotaxy – arrangement of leaves on a stem; independent
or regardless of leaf shape
• Spiral or alternate
• Petiole o One leaf per node
o Stalk of leaves at maturity • Whorled
o Composed of collenchyma and o Three or more (as many as twenty-five)
sclerenchyma leaves per node
• Blade or lamina • Opposite
o Has a network of veins (vascular bundles) o Two leaves per node
• Stipules
o Pair of leaf-like scale-like or thorn-like
appendages attaches to petiole

Shoot apical meristem – plays a crucial role in formation of

patterns in terms of leaf arrangement
• Distichous
o Leaved form two parallel ranks along the
stem
o Leaf of second node is just opposite to the
first node; they don’t meet or di sila
magkatapat
• Decussate
o Opposite leaves
o Pairs of leaves at successive nodes that
form right angles to their adjacent leaves
• Peltate
o Petioles attach to the middle of the blade
• Sessile
o Born directly from stems or peduncle
CLASSIFICATIONS o Not attached to stalk
• Perfoliate
CLASSIFICATIONS o Sessile leaves that surround and are
• Simple pierced by the stems
o Single blade Peduncle – stalk that carries a flower or fruit; main stalk in
• Compound inflorescence (of a flower)

5 I ESPIRITU BSP 1-2

 INTERNAL STRUCTURES Internal Structure of Leaves
TERMS
• Epidermis
o Outermost part of internal structure
o Compact, transparent, and usually not
photosynthetic
o Secrete sticky substances
o Lower portion can be distinguish from
upper with the presence of the stomata
▪ Except for water lilies which
contains stomata in the upper
portion of the epidermis
▪ Stomata – tiny pores for gas Internal Structure of Stomata
exchanges, regulates evaporation
or transpiration (whole process) • Ground tissue
o Upper portion does not chloroplast o Also called mesophyll – sclerenchyma,
▪ Function is to protect delegate storage parenchyma, and chlorenchyma
tissues o Horizontally oriented leaves
• Vascular tissues ▪ Have more stomata on the
o Xylem and phloem form in strands called protective lower side than the
veins exposed upper side (contacts wt
▪ Xylem – upper part of vein environment)
▪ Phloem – lower part of vein ▪ Mesophyll – where
o Veins – supported by layer of parenchyma photosynthesis takes place
cells called bundle sheath o Palisade mesophyll – one or more layers of
o Transverse leaf columnar chlorenchyma cells (large
▪ When cut, should have three amount of chlorophyll)
regions – epidermis, mesophyll, ▪ Chlorenchyma cells occur in
and veins columns or are columnar
▪ For light absorption and carbon
fixation portion of photosynthesis
▪ Chlorenchyma cells produce
sugars; receive water and
minerals from vascular tissues of
leaves
▪ Contains more than 80% of leafs
chloroplasts
o Spongy mesophyll – type of photosynthetic
aerenchyma cells (gas exchange portion of
photosynthesis)
▪ Aerenchyma cells – loosely
arranged parenchyma cells; has a
lot of air spaces

6 I ESPIRITU BSP 1-2

 ▪ Plants are expected to conserve
water
▪ Has small thick leaves with well-
developed spongy and palisade
layers
▪ Leaves are covered with
epidermis or thick cuticle; thick
cell walls
▪ Numerous stomata
o Hydrophytes – plants that grow in
habitually wet environment
▪ Opposite of xerophytes
▪ Large thin leaves with poorly
developed spongy and palisade
layers
▪ Covered with thin cuticle; thin cell
walls
▪ Little xylem and supporting tissue
• Lead dimorphism – occurrence of morphologically
distinct leaves on the same plant; influenced by
hormones

o Vertically oriented leaves MODIFIED LEAVES

▪ Difference with horizontal is they
CLASSIFICATIONS
have similar number of stomata
for upper and lower sides • Tendrils
▪ Leaves that intercept light from o Leaves modified for support
all directions o Ex. kalit-kalit (three leaf cayratia), sweet
▪ Chlorenchyma cells that are pea, and trumpet flowers
arranged differently – similar
looking (uniform mesophyll cells)
▪ Lack palisade and spongy layers

• Stipules
o Small, leaflike structures at the base of the
petiole
o Ex. sweet pea (photosynthesis), oat and
beech (protect the buds)

• Spines
o Leaves modified for protection
o Ex. cactus

Monocot plants – do not have mesophyll; don’t have palisade

• Bud scales
and spongy
o Tough, overlapping, waterproof leaves
ENVIRONMENT CONTROL OF LEAF VARIATION that protects the buds from frost,
desiccations, and pathogens
• Light – daylength, light intensity
• Moisture
o Mesophytes – plant that grow best in
moisture but not wet environment
o Xerophytes – plants that grow in habitats
characterized by seasonal or persistent
drought

7 I ESPIRITU BSP 1-2

• Window leaves
o Shaped-like tiny ice cream cones and grow
mostly underground
o Small, transparent “window” tip protruding
above soil level
o Shields the plant; only leaves are the only
ones shown
o Found in very dry environment
▪ undergoes underground • Leaves modified for reproduction
photosynthesis o Succulent plants
o Produce tiny plants that become new
individuals when they shed from the
parent leaves

• Bracts
o Floral leaves that form at the base of a
flower or flower stalk
• Cotyledons
o Ex. poinsettia, birds of paradise
o Embryonic leaves
o For storing energy used for germination

• Storage leaves
o Fleshy, concentric leaves modified to store
food • Prophylls
o First leaves to form on axillary buds and
they protect the axillary buds

• Flowerpot
o Packed tightly into a flowerpot-like
structure that catches falling water and
debris
o Epiphytes
▪ Plants that grow on other objects DEFENSE MECHANISMS
rather than the soil • Photosensitizers
o Plants that poison their attackers
• Plants that change the life cycles of their attackers
o Ecdysteroids and juvenile hormones –
regulate insect development
▪ When plants produce the
hormones and insects eat the
plants, life cycle is altered
• Insect-trapping leaves
• Plants that make themselves less digestive
o Modified for attracting, trapping, and
digesting animals • Plants that shift their resources
o Usually has sticky surfaces

8 I ESPIRITU BSP 1-2

ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE
• Food, spices, and drinks
• Fuel
• Drugs
• Others
o Carnauba wax as shoe polisher, dental
floss
o Ingredient of medicated soaps and creams

9 I ESPIRITU BSP 1-2