Faculty of Engineering

and Environment

The Unbearable Lightness of

Being… Cement
Dr Giovanni L Pesce

Office: WJ408; ext.: 3065

email: [email protected]

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KA4022 – Design and Materials
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Concrete’ main ingredients

Aggregate

Concrete

Cement Water

4
Cement
Use, manufacturing process, sustainability, alternatives

5
What is “cement”?

6
When we talk about
‘cement’
‘Portlandwe often
cement’
refer to…

7
Most common cement
98% of total concrete production is made using “CEM I – Portland Cement”
(in the past called: “Ordinary Portland Cement” or OPC) 1

Proportion of
Category Description Proportion of Other Constituents
Cement Clinker
Portland cement
CEM I 95-100% 0-5%
Blended cements (sub-divided depending on the
CEM II material used, e.g. ‘Portland fly ash cement’, ‘Porltand 65-94% 6-35%
slag cement’, ‘Portland limestone cement’, etc.
Blastfurnace cement (incorporating Ground
CEM III Granulated Blastfurnace Slag or GGBS) 5-64% 36-95%
Pozzolanic cement (incorporating natural or synthetic
CEM IV pozzolanic material, e.g. volcanic ash) 56-89% 11-55%
Composite cement (incorporating both GGBS and
10-50% GGBS
CEM V pozzolanic material) 20-64%
18-50% Pozzolanic material
BS EN 197-1:2011 - Cement. Composition, specifications and conformity criteria for common cements

1 https://www.worldcement.com/special-reports/05112018/the-path-to-progress/ 8
What is ‘Portland cement’?
• Portland cement is:

• an artificial material made from limestone and clay materials (e.g. shale)
• a key component of concrete in which it acts as a binder (i.e. glue) keeping sand
grains and gravel particles together

Cement ≠Concrete

(What is concrete? 9’10”; https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UOHURuAf5iY)

9
A (very) short history of cement and concrete
• Portland cement was patented in 1824 by Joseph Aspidin, a bricklayer living
in the Hunslet district of Leeds, Yorkshire (although a more comparable
material to modern CEM I was that produced by Isaac Charles Johnson in
1850.)

• At the beginning it was used in buildings around the UK, despite the initial
cost of energy required

• However, it was only when, in 1854, William Wilkinson (a builder from

Newcastle) patented a method of constructing concrete slab floors
reinforced either with a network of flat iron rods or with second-hand wire
ropes, than concrete rapidly overtook other materials particularly for
construction of infrastructure and larger buildings.
10
Current use of cement
• Cement plays a key, but often unnoticed, role in our lives.
• Cement is mainly used as a binder in concrete
• It is used in all types of construction, including housing, roads, schools,
hospitals, dams and ports, as well as for decorative applications (for patios,
floors, staircases, driveways, pool decks) and items like tables, sculptures or
bookcases.
• Concrete is a versatile and reliable construction material with a wide range
of applications.

CEMBUREAU
(https://lowcarboneconomy.cembureau.eu/where-is-cement-used/#:~:text=Cement%20is%20mainly%20used%20as,like%20tables%2C%20sculptures%20or%20bookcases.)

11
Image from:
https://snappygoat.com/s/?q=bestof%3Afootprints+soles+track+silhouette+imprint+walking+symbol+step+f
ootstep+icon+mark+impression+trace+outline#da9a5b352cfc1c79b56be9ccb3185452098384f0,0,10.
Portland cement and CO2 emissions

Cement manufacturing is
the third largest cause of
man-made CO2 emissions2,
responsible for roughly 6-8%
of global CO2 emissions1

1 https://www.worldcement.com/special-reports/05112018/the-path-to-progress/
2 http://www.climatetechwiki.org/technology/energy-saving-cement
(https://www.chemistryworld.com/features/the-concrete-conundrum/3004823.article)
Portland cement and CO2 emissions

Image from: https://www.reminetwork.com/articles/the-buzz-on-embodied-carbon/ 14

Portland cement and CO2 emissions
120

100

80

60

40

20

0
Glass Metals Plastic Concrete Bricks Wood
Amount (Mt)

https://www.ukgbc.org/resource-use/
Portland cement and CO2 emissions

…the third largest cause of man-made CO2

emissions, responsible for roughly 6-8% of global
CO2 emissions
Cement production
A (bit more) detailed analysis of cement un-sustainability

17
Cement: how it is made

(How we make cement at Hope Construction Materials; https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4fx0YdHPHgs; 8’:25”)

 Sourcing of the raw materials:
1 • limestone
• clay

Image from: https://essayforum.com/writing/cement-concrete-different-raw-materials-73202/

Milling and mixing of the two
2 raw materials

Heating of the raw mix

3 (~1450°C; clinker)

Clinker grinding and mixing

4 with gypsum

5 Cement
 Sourcing of the raw materials:
1 • limestone
• clay

Image from: https://essayforum.com/writing/cement-concrete-different-raw-materials-73202/

•By Extraction
the strictestand
Limestone definition,
and cement
processing
clay can beof
production
found
raw is non-sustainable,
materials
almost everywhere
cause important
in the
because
world uses
environmental non-renewable
therefore, cement
impact can be
resources.
produced
including:Thisalmost
rises some questions
everywhere
on:
• Because
• Changes of thetobasic
landscape
1. access to the resources (i.e.
• Noise
ingredients
although and theare
materials well known
required at
• Dust
chemistry, cement
many places properties
in the anthroposphere,
their occurrence is driven by genetic
• the
are Vibration
same from
factors);
everywhere
blasting and
• is
this
2. Degradation
a very important
Environmental of groundwater
impact associated
with mining,
characteristic
and surfaceprocessing,
ofwater
cementand use of
extracted material;
• Social aspects of resource utilization
• Economic importance of mining
activities
1) Sourcing the raw materials

British Geological Survey, 2014. Cement. Mineral Planning Factsheet. [on-line] Available at: https://www.bgs.ac.uk/downloads/start.cfm?id=135 [Accessed November 2018]
• Raw materials are usually extracted from quarries adjacent to
production sites to avoid high cost of transporting large
tonnages of low-cost raw materials

• Raw materials must be available in sufficient quantities to

justify the large capital investments needed to open a new
plant (>£250 millions)

• In 2014, there were 5 producers in the UK:

• Lafarge Tarmac (36% market share)
• Hanson Cement (27%)
• CEMEX UK Cement (21%)
• Hope Construction Materials (12%)
• Aventas Group (5%)

• Most of cement manufacturers in the UK are also large

producers of aggregate
Impact on the environment

British Geological Survey, 2014. Cement. Mineral Planning Factsheet. [on-line] Available at: https://www.bgs.ac.uk/downloads/start.cfm?id=135 [Accessed November 2018]
% Area of
Outstanding
% National
Natural Beauty
Park
(National Scenic
Areas, in Scotland)
Chalk 5 25
Jurassic Limestone 4 25
Carboniferous
27 13
Limestone
Proportion of limestone and chalk resources covered by national parks and
AONB/NSA in the UK
Impact on the environment

(screenshot from the video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4fx0YdHPHgs; 0’:32”) 23

 Image from: https://essayforum.com/writing/cement-concrete-different-raw-materials-73202/
Milling and mixing of the two
2 raw materials

• Firing is responsible for 74% of

total energy consumption in
cement production

• Grinding and milling is another

energy intensive process (5.8%)

(Cement accounts for 83% of total

energy use in the production of
non-metallic minerals)
 Cement production has a high carbon footprint. This is
because CO2 is produced by:

• the combustion of fuel in the kiln (about 335 kg

Image from: https://essayforum.com/writing/cement-concrete-different-raw-materials-73202/

CO2 per tonne of cement);

• the limestone decomposition inside the kiln.

Starting from about 900°C the limestone (CaCO3)
decompose to form CaO and CO2, the latter is
released in the atmosphere as a gas.
The emissions related to limestone
decomposition are about 525 kg CO2 per tonne of
clinker and account for about 3.5% of
CO2 emissions worldwide and for 57% of the
total CO2 emissions from cement production1.
In other words, more than half of the
CO2 emissions associated with cement are a
result of the chemical reactions necessary for
converting raw materials and not a result of the
energy required to produce these reactions.

• use of electricity (about 50 kg CO2 per tonne of

cement)

Heating of the raw mix

3 (~1450°C; clinker)

1 http://www.climatetechwiki.org/technology/energy-saving-cement
Why such high temperature?
Temperature Initial material Reaction product Description

100°C - - Evaporation of free water

2SiO2·Al2O3·2H2O Dehydration and decomposition

450-550°C 2SiO2 + Al2O3 + 2H2O
(Clay) of clay
Beginning formation of di-
600-800°C 2CaCO3 + SiO2 2CaO·SiO2 + 2CO2
calcium silicate or Belite (C2S)
C
Decomposition of CaCO3
+ CaCO3 CaO + CO2
(formation of CaO)
C2S 800-900°C
Formation of di-calcium silicate
2CaO + SiO2 2CaO·SiO2
(C2S)
Beginning formation of tri-
C3A 1000-1100°C 3CaO + Al2O3 3CaO·Al2O3
calcium aluminate (C3A)

Beginning formation of C4AF.

C4AF 1100-1200°C 3CaO·Al2O3 + CaO·Fe2O3 4CaO·Al2O3·Fe2O3 Beginning formation of a liquid
phase

Formation of tri-calcium silicate

C3S 1250-1450°C 2CaO·SiO2 + CaO 3CaO·SiO2
(C3S). More liquid phase formed

C = CaO (Calcium oxide) C2S = 2CaO·SiO2 (di-calcium silicate)

C3S = 3CaO·SiO2 (tri-calcium silicate) C3A = 3CaO·Al2O3 (tri-calcium aluminate)
C4AF = 4CaO·Al2O3·Fe2O3 (Calcium aluminoferrite)
A summary of what we have learned so far…

• The temperature needed for the production of Portland cement cannot be

reduced (because of the chemistry of the reactions)
• The heating of the limestone/clay mix at high temperature is the main
energy consuming process
• Large amount of electricity is used for milling and grinding the raw
materials and the finished cement.
• The CO2 production is due to 3 main causes:
• Fuel combustion in the kiln (~40%)
• Decomposition of limestone in the kiln (~50%)
• Energy production (~10% for grinding and transportation)

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The ‘economy’ of cement production
Still a good business?

28
Recent history of cement production in the UK
• Late 1970s and early 1980s: the UK was a
significant exporter (>1Mt/y)

• From 1987 exports declined due to

increasing competition in overseas
markets. Since then the UK has become a
net importer of clinker and Portland cement

• Total UK consumption of cement in 2012 was

9.3 million tonnes of which 86% was
supplied by the UK industry and the
remainder was imported

• Value of UK sales of Portland cement in 2011

was £656 million

• 2500 people directly employed and further

15000 supported indirectly

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British Geological Survey, 2014. Cement. Mineral Planning Factsheet. [on-line] Available at: https://www.bgs.ac.uk/downloads/start.cfm?id=135 [Accessed November 2018]
Cement production in the UK

Production and apparent consumption of cement. UK 1980-2001, GB 2002-2012. 30

(from: n.a. (2014). Cement. Mineral Planning Factsheet. British Geological Survey. On-line. Available at: https://www.bgs.ac.uk/downloads/start.cfm?id=1353)
Production of the raw materials in the UK
The cement industry in GB in 2004 consumed: The cement industry in GB in 2012 consumed:

• 14.6 million tonnes of limestone and chalk • 9.3 million tonnes of limestone and chalk
• 2.2 million tonnes of mudstone • 1.4 million tonnes of mudstone
• 0.6 million tonnes of gypsum/anhydrite • 0.3 million tonnes of gypsum/anhydrite
• Silica sand, pulverised fly ash much smaller • Silica sand, pulverised fly ash much smaller
quantity of and iron oxides quantity of and iron oxides

Production of limestone and chalk for cement manufacture in Great Britain 1991-2012. 31
British Geological Survey, 2014. Cement. Mineral Planning Factsheet. [on-line] Available at: https://www.bgs.ac.uk/downloads/start.cfm?id=135 [Accessed November 2018]
Global cement production

Major countries in worldwide

cement production from 2012 to
2017 (in million metric tons)

[from: https://www.statista.com/statistics/267364/world-
cement-production-by-country/]
World Portland cement production (2012)

33
Imbabi M.S., Carrigan C., McKenna S., 2012. Trends and developments in green cement and concrete technology. International Journal of Sustainable Built Environment, 1(2), 194-216
Cement use in China 2011-2013

N.A. 2015. Cement and pig consumption reveal China's huge changes. BBC News [online]
Available at: https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-china-33802777 [accessed on 15th November 2018) 34
Making cement more ‘sustainable’
Improve energy efficiency and reduce CO2 emissions

35
Energy efficiency and CO2 reduction

Improving energy
efficiency and
reducing of
CO2 emissions

Changing in the Adjusting the

manufacturing and chemical composition
production processes of cement

Sources: Anon. (n.d.). Energy Efficiency and Saving in the Cement Industry. ClimateTechWiki, [on-line] Available at: <http://www.climatetechwiki.org/technology/energy-saving-cement> [Accessed November 2018] 36
Improve energy efficiency in cement production
Improving energy • The firing of raw materials
efficiency and accounts for 74% of the
reducing of energy consumption in
CO2 emissions global cement industries.
Since the thermal efficiency
Adjusting the
through the use of this
Changing in the
chemical conventional technology of
manufacturing and
composition of pyro-processing is slightly
production processes
cement higher than 30% on average,
there could be considerable
scope for improvements.
Changing energy • Grinding and milling account
management for 5.8% of cement energy
consumption. These
operations have an energy
efficiency ranging from 6 to
Investing in new 25% and also offer a large
equipment and/or opportunity for energy
upgrades saving.

Sources: Anon. (n.d.). Energy Efficiency and Saving in the Cement Industry. ClimateTechWiki, [on-line] Available at: <http://www.climatetechwiki.org/technology/energy-saving-cement> [Accessed November 2018]
Improve energy efficiency in cement production
• European cement production techniques are amongst the most energy efficient in the
world (in the EU cement industry the energy bill represents about 40% of total
production costs).

• Since the 1970s, in Europe the energy required for producing cement has fallen by about
30% and the scope for further improvements has became rather small (larger energy
cost savings are still possible in other parts of the world).

• In cement manufacturing, cost-effective efficiency gains in the order of 10% to 20% are
possible using commercially available technologies.

• Cross-cutting technologies for motor and steam systems would yield efficiency
improvements in all industries, with typical energy savings in the range of 15% to 30%.
The payback period can be as short as two years, and in the best cases, the financial
savings over the operating life of improved systems can run as high as 30% to 50%.

38
Sources: Anon. (n.d.). Energy Efficiency and Saving in the Cement Industry. ClimateTechWiki, [on-line] Available at: <http://www.climatetechwiki.org/technology/energy-saving-cement> [Accessed November 2018]
Reducing CO2 emissions in cement production
Improving energy • Changes in the chemical
efficiency and formulation of cement have been
reducing of demonstrated to save energy and
CO2 emissions reduce CO2emissions

Adjusting the
Changing in the
chemical • However, their widespread
manufacturing and
composition of adoption has thus far been
production processes hampered by the fact that
cement
developing a new industrial
standards is complex and
requires time.
Changing energy • The cement industry is a highly
management capital intensive and competitive
sector with long economic lifetimes
of existing facilities so that
changes in the existing capital
stock cannot easily be made.
Investing in new
equipment and/or
upgrades

39
Sources: Anon. (n.d.). Energy Efficiency and Saving in the Cement Industry. ClimateTechWiki, [on-line] Available at: <http://www.climatetechwiki.org/technology/energy-saving-cement> [Accessed November 2018]
40
Reducing CO2 emissions of Portland cement
Substitute fossil fuels with waste or biomass:

• Cement kilns are well suited for waste-combustion

• Used tyres, wood, plastics, chemicals and other types of waste are co-combusted in
cement kilns in large quantities.
• Plants in various EU countries have reached average substitution rates of from 35% to
>70%. Some individual plants have even achieved 100% substitution using
appropriate waste materials.
• However, very high substitution rates can only be accomplished if a tailored pre-
treatment and surveillance system is in place.

Sources: Anon. (n.d.). Energy Efficiency and Saving in the Cement Industry. ClimateTechWiki, [on-line] Available at: <http://www.climatetechwiki.org/technology/energy-saving-cement> [Accessed November 2018]
Allwood J.M., Cullen J.M. 2012. Sustainable Materials Without The Hot Air. UIT:Cambridge, England
Other cements

Proportion of
Category Description Proportion of Other Constituents
Cement Clinker
Portland cement
CEM I 95-100% 0-5%
Blended cements (sub-divided depending on the
CEM II material used, e.g. ‘Portland fly ash cement’, ‘Porltand 65-94% 6-35%
slag cement’, ‘Portland limestone cement’, etc.
Blastfurnace cement (incorporating Ground
CEM III Granulated Blastfurnace Slag or GGBS) 5-64% 36-95%
Pozzolanic cement (incorporating natural or synthetic
CEM IV pozzolanic material, e.g. volcanic ash) 56-89% 11-55%
Composite cement (incorporating both GGBS and
10-50% GGBS
CEM V pozzolanic material) 20-64%
18-50% Pozzolanic material
BS EN 197-1:2011 - Cement. Composition, specifications and conformity criteria for common cements
Blended cements (e.g. CEM II)

(Ecocem - the green cement; https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GE7yyu_MiZQ; 2’:35”)

Blended cements (e.g. CEM II)

• Their use varies widely from country to country. It is high in continental Europe, but low
in the United States and in the United Kingdom

• In the United States and in China, other clinker substitutes are added directly at the
concrete-making stage

• Blended cements offer a major opportunity for energy conservation and emission
reductions, however their use would in many cases require revisions to construction
standards, codes and practices

Sources: Anon. (n.d.). Energy Efficiency and Saving in the Cement Industry. ClimateTechWiki, [on-line] Available at: <http://www.climatetechwiki.org/technology/energy-saving-cement> [Accessed November 2018]
Alternative cements
Some of the more interesting novel cement types are:

• Alkali-activated cements (including geopolymers; e.g. Zeobond/e-crete, Blue World Crete/Geo-Blue

Crete, banah/banahCEM)

• Calcium Aluminate Cement

• Calcium Sulphur Aluminate-belite cements (e.g. Aether)

• 'ecocement' based on municipal solid waste incinerator ash (MSWIA)

• magnesium oxide-based cements derived from carbonates or from silicates (e.g. Eco-cement,
Calix/Novacem)

• …
Source: MPA, 2013. Novel cements: low energy, low carbon cements. Cement Factsheet 12, [online] Available at:
45
https://cement.mineralproducts.org/documents/FS_12_Novel_cements_low_energy_low_carbon_cements.pdf [Accessed November 2018]
However…

For the long run, cement lacks a

viable carbon-free alternative.

Sources: Anon. (n.d.). Energy Efficiency and Saving in the Cement Industry. ClimateTechWiki, [on-line] Available at: <http://www.climatetechwiki.org/technology/energy-saving-cement> [Accessed November 2018]
Conclusions
The good and the bad of Portland cement…

47
Portland cement
• The good:
• it is an extremely valuable material in our societies
• can be produced anywhere in the World with exactly the same characteristics
• it is the basic ingredient of a widely used material (concrete) that can be casted in
moulds and take any shape the designers want
• it sets in few days (40% of strength in 3 days, 90% in 14 days) and since then it is
“hassle-free”
• It can be used for large volumes of concrete as well as for small mixes such as
grouting mortars
• It has been extensively tested and validated (standards)

48
Portland cement
• The bad:
• Is responsible for roughly 6-8% of global CO2 emissions (is the third largest cause of
man-made CO2 emissions)
• Its production has a relevant environmental impact (use of non-renewable resources)
• Its production is energy intensive (accounts for 83% of total energy use in the
production of non-metallic minerals)
References used
• British Geological Survey, 2005. Cement Raw Material. [on-line]. Available at:
https://www.bgs.ac.uk/downloads/start.cfm?id=1408 [Accessed November 2018]
• British Geological Survey, 2014. Cement. Mineral Planning Factsheet. [on-line] Available at:
https://www.bgs.ac.uk/downloads/start.cfm?id=135 [Accessed November 2018]
• Anon. (n.d.). Energy Efficiency and Saving in the Cement Industry. ClimateTechWiki, [on-line] Available at:
<http://www.climatetechwiki.org/technology/energy-saving-cement> [Accessed November 2018]
• MPA, 2013. Novel cements: low energy, low carbon cements. Cement Factsheet 12, [online] Available at:
https://cement.mineralproducts.org/documents/FS_12_Novel_cements_low_energy_low_carbon_cement
s.pdf [Accessed November 2018]
• Allwood J.M., Cullen J.M. 2012. Sustainable Materials Without The Hot Air. UIT:Cambridge, England
• Anon. 2015. Cement and pig consumption reveal China's huge changes. BBC News, [online] Available at:
https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-china-33802777 [Accessed November 2018)
• Imbabi M.S., Carrigan C., McKenna S., 2012. Trends and developments in green cement and concrete
technology. International Journal of Sustainable Built Environment. 1(2), 194-216

50
Glossary
• Ground Granulated Blast-furnace Slag (GGBS):
Is a fine powder obtained by quenching molten iron slag (a by-product of iron and steel-
making) from a blast furnace in water or steam, to produce a glassy, granular product that is
then dried and ground into a fine powder. Its chemical composition varies considerably
depending on the composition of the raw materials in the iron production process
• Fly ash (FA)
Is a fine powder that is a by-product of burning pulverized coal in electric generation power
plants. Fly ash is considered a pozzolanic material, a substance containing aluminous and
siliceous material that can react in the presence of an alkaline water solution.
• Pozzolanic materials (or pozzolans)
This is a broad class of siliceous or siliceous and aluminous materials which, in themselves,
possess little or no cementitious value but which will, in finely divided form and in the presence
of an alkaline water solution, react chemically at ordinary temperature to form compounds
possessing cementitious properties

51
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