Module I

Magnetic Circuits: Introduction, Series-parallel magnetic circuits, Analysis of Linear and Nonlinear
magnetic circuits, Energy storage, A.C. excitation, Eddy currents and Hysteresis losses.
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Consider the figure drawn here below:

These structures represent magnetic circuits all having magnetic material of different shape and a coil of N
number of turns of electric conductor (insulated wire) wound over it.

 The structure is called as core.

 The coil is called as exciting coil.

According to magnetic effect of electric current, if a current (I) is present in the coil then a magnetic flux (φ)
will be produced within the core. The strength of the flux depends on the product of number of turns (N) of
the coil and the current (I) it carries. The product of N & I is termed as magneto motive force (m.m.f.) which
is the cause of the flux. The magnitude of flux depends on permeability of the material used for core and the
dimensional parameter of the structure.
Thus like e.m.f., current and resistance forming an electric circuit here, m.m.f, flux and dimension and
permeability of the core makes a magnetic circuit.

Basic Laws used for modeling of a magnetic circuit –

Biot-Savart law: We know that any current carrying conductor produces a magnetic field. A
magnetic field is characterized either by 𝐻⃗, the magnetic field intensity or by 𝐵⃗, the magnetic flux density
vector. These two vectors are connected by a rather simple relation: 𝐵⃗ = 𝜇 × 𝜇 𝐻⃗ where 𝜇 = 4𝜋 ×
10 𝐻/𝑚 is called the absolute permeability of free space and µr, a dimensionless quantity called the
relative permeability of a medium (or a material).
Biot-Savart law is of fundamental in nature and tells us how to calculate dB or H at a given point with
position vector r, due to an elemental current idl and is given by:
× ⃗× ⃗
𝑑𝐵⃗ =

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If the shape and dimensions of the conductor carrying current is known then field at given point can be
calculated by integrating the RHS of the above equation.
𝜇 𝜇 𝑖𝑑𝑙⃗ × 𝑟⃗
𝐵⃗ =
4𝜋 ℎ 𝑟
where, length indicates that the integration is to be carried out over the length of the conductor.

Ampere’s circuital law

This law states that line integral of the vector 𝐻⃗ along any arbitrary closed path is equal to the current
enclosed by the path. Mathematically:

𝐻⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝑙⃗ = 𝐼

For magnetic circuit problems Ampere’s circuital law is used to calculate field. Consider an infinite straight
conductor carrying current i and we want to calculate field at a point situated at a distance d from the
conductor. Now take the closed path to be a circle of radius d. At any point on the circle the magnitude of
field strength will be constant and direction of the field will be tangential. Thus LHS of the above equation
simply becomes H × 2πd. So field strength is
𝐼
𝐻= 𝐴/𝑚
2𝜋𝑑
Modeling of magnetic circuit
Assumptions:
1. Leakage flux & fringing effect: All the flux produced by the mmf will not be confined to the core.
There will be some flux lines which will complete their paths largely through the air; such flux is
called as leakage flux. Here the leakage flux is neglected and it is assume that all the flux produced
will be confined to the core only.

In the magnetic circuit with air gap the flux lines crossing the air gap from the top surface of the core
to the bottom surface of the core, all the flux lines will not be vertical and confined to the core face
area alone. Some lines of force in fact will reach the bottom surface via bulged out curved paths
outside the face area of the core, thus increasing the cross-section area of the flux path at the air-gap.
These flux are called fringing flux and the phenomenon is called fringing effect. Effect of fringing
will be appreciable if the air gap length is more. Unless otherwise specified, the fringing effect is
neglected. Effect of fringing sometimes taken into account by considering the effective area in air to
be about 10 to 12% higher than the core area.
2. In the practical magnetic circuit the thickness over which the lines of forces are spread are much
smaller compared to the overall dimensions of the core. Under this condition the length of the flux
path corresponding to the mean length of the geometry of the circuit will be taken.
3. The magnetic field intensity H is assumed to be same everywhere in the core.

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The mathematical equation defining magnetic circuit:
Let us now try to derive a relationship between flux produced φ and m.m.f Ni applied for linear case.
Since, φ=B×A
Also, B = µ0 µr H (for linear relation between B & H)

But, 𝐻=

Therefore, 𝜑=𝜇 𝜇 ×𝐴

Arranging the terms, 𝜑=

Now defining Ni = MMF, and S= the above equation can be written as:

𝑁𝑖 𝑀𝑀𝐹
𝜑= =
𝑆 𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
Where, φ = magnetic flux; N = number of turns of the coil; i = current in the coil; l = mean length; A
= cross sectional area of the core; µ0 = absolute permeability; µr = relative permeability of core
material; S = reluctance of the magnetic circuit
This equation resembles the familiar current voltage relationship of an electric circuit:
𝑉 𝑉 𝐸𝑀𝐹
𝑖= = =
𝑅 𝜌𝑙 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝐴
Analysis of series magnetic circuit –
Consider a simple magnetic circuit, shown in figure below
With, a single core material
A = uniform cross sectional area A (m2)
l = mean length of flux path (m)
N = number of turns of conductor coil
I = current in the coil
The analogues electrical circuit is also represented. Polarity of mmf is decided on the basis of the
direction of the flux which is clockwise inside the core in this case. Although in the actual magnetic
circuit there is no physical connection of the winding and the core, in the electrical circuit
representation mmf and reluctance are shown to be connected.

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 Let us now consider another magnetic circuit which is similar to the earlier one but has a small air
gap of length l as shown in figure below and note that it is a series circuit involving two mediums, namely
g
(i) iron and (ii) air. It is a series circuit because same flux (φ) has to flow through the mediums. Hence total
reluctance will be the sum of reluctances of iron and air.
For this circuit basic equations can be developed as follows:
N = number of turns of conductor coil
I = Exciting current in Amp.
li = mean length of flux path through iron
lg = length of the flux path through air gap
A = cross sectional area of core in m2

If the cross sectional area A is constant throughout, flux density B=Aφ will be also constant both in iron and
air path. Since values of permeabilities are different for iron and air, the corresponding values of H too will
be different.

H required for iron, 𝐻 =

H required for air, 𝐻 =

According to Ampere circuital law 𝑁𝐼 = 𝐻 𝑙 + 𝐻 𝑙

Or, 𝑁𝐼 = 𝑙 + 𝑙

Or, 𝑁𝐼 = 𝑙 + 𝑙

Or, 𝑁𝐼 = 𝜑 +𝜑

But, =𝑆

Hence, 𝑁𝐼 = 𝜑𝑆 + 𝜑𝑆

Or, 𝜑=

So, these two reluctances are connected in series. In fact, for series magnetic circuit having different
reluctance segments, total reluctance will be the sum of individual reluctances.

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Analysis of series-parallel magnetic circuit –
Consider the following magnetic circuit. The analogous electrical circuit is drawn also. Vertical links of the
core are called limbs and the horizontal links are called yoke of the magnetic circuit. In the figure PU, QT
and RS are the limbs whereas PQ, QR, UT and TS are the yokes. It is customary to fix up the corner points
P,Q,R etc from the given physical dimensions, joining of which will give you the mean length of the flux
paths.

If the coil carries a current I in the direction shown, flux φ, produced in the first limb will be in the upward
direction. Same φ is constrained to move along the yoke PQ. At point Q, two parallel paths are available to φ
for its onwards journey namely (i) the central limb QT and (ii) the yoke QR. That is the flux φ will be
divided into two components φ1 and φ2 as shown such that φ = φ1 + φ2. φ1 and φ2 once again recombine at
point T and completes the path. Now in the path TUPQ flux φ is same, it is made of same material and has
same cross sectional area A. In the central limb, flux is same (φ1), however it encounters two materials, one
is iron (QM and WT) and the other is a small air gap (MW). The portion of the magnetic circuit which
carries flux φ2 can be represented by a single reluctance. To write down the basic equations let us redraw the
electrical equivalence of the above magnetic circuit below:

Since, the flux is getting divided in to two paths, therefore, these two paths are parallel to each other and the
MMF across these paths will be same.
Since the flux in central limb is same, the central limb has two material (air-gap, and core), this form series
combination.
Thus, this is an example of magnetic circuit having both series and parallel paths.
The various equations which will hold well are written below:
φ = φ 1 + φ2
Or, 𝑁𝐼 = 𝐻𝑙 + 𝐻 𝑙 + 𝐻 𝑙 = 𝑆𝜑 + 𝑆 + 𝑆 𝜑
Also, 𝑆 +𝑆 𝜑 =𝑆 𝜑

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 Or, 𝐻 𝑙 +𝐻 𝑙 =𝐻 𝑙
Or, 𝑁𝐼 = 𝐻𝑙 + 𝐻 𝑙

B-H Characteristics
A magnetic material is identified and characterized by its B – H characteristic. In free space or in air the
relationship between the two is linear and the constant of proportionality is the permeability µ0. If B is
plotted against H, it will be straight a line. However, for most of the materials the relationship is not linear
and is as shown in figure below.
Consider the magnetic circuit shown below in the figure. Varying the current, calculate 𝐻 = and
B= φA for each value of current and tabulate them. Thus we have several pair of H & B values for different
values of currents. Now by choosing H to be the x axis B to be the y axis and plotting the above values one
gets a typical B-H curve as shown in figure below.

Different zones of B-H characteristic

The initial portion of the B-H curve is nearly a straight line and called linear zone. After this zone the curve
gradually starts deviating from a straight line and enters into the nonlinear zone. The slope of the curve
dB/dH starts gradually decreasing after the linear zone. A time comes when there is practically no increase in
B in spite of the fact that H is further increased. The material is then said to be saturated. The rise in the
value of B in the linear zone is much more than in the nonlinear or saturation zone for same ΔH.
Different materials will have different B-H curves and if the characteristics are plotted on same graph paper,
one can readily decides which of them is better than the other. Referring to graph in figure shown below, it
can be concluded that the material-3 is better over the other two as flux produced in material-3 is the highest
for same applied field H.

Approach to solve a magnetic circuit problem will be different for linear and nonlinear cases.

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Energy storage:

In an R-L circuit for which, in building up a current in such a circuit, energy equal to 𝑊 = 𝐿𝐼 is stored in
the inductance. Self-inductance is a property of magnetic circuits and the energy stored in a constant self-
inductance is the energy delivered to the magnetic field of the circuit.

Since, 𝐿 = , Also, 𝑁𝐼 = 𝐻𝑙 or, 𝐼 = , and 𝐵 = 𝜇𝐻

Thus, 𝐼 =

Therefore, 𝑊 = × ×( ) , Or, 𝑊 = ( )𝐵

So, the stored energy in an electromagnetic field i.e. a conductor can be calculated from its dimension and
flux density.

A.C. excitation:
Consider the figure shown below showing a magnetic circuit excited by an AC source.

Unlike DC excitation the ac excitation results in flux having same nature as the excitation current i.e. time
varying. This flux has capability to transfer the energy from one circuit to another without any electrical
connection between the two circuits. According to Faraday’s law of electromagnetic circuit, if an another
coil (secondary turns) is wound on other limb of the magnetic circuit as shown in figure above, then the time-
varying flux established in the core will also get linked to it thus inducing e.m.f. in it. If a electrical load is
connected to the secondary turns then it will draw energy from the primary side of the magnetic circuit. This
action is called as transformer action.
The hysteresis and eddy current losses are resulted due to ac excitation of the magnetic circuit.

Hysteresis Loss:
When a specimen of ferromagnetic material is taken through a cycle of magnetization, the hysteresis loop is
obtained. The salient feature of hysteresis loop is the delayed re-orientation of the domains in response to a
cyclically varying magnetizing force. The process of magnetization and demagnetization of a ferromagnetic
material in a cyclic manner involves storage and release of energy which is not completely reversible. As a
material is magnetized during each half-cycle, it is found that the amount of energy stored in the magnetic
field exceeds that which is released upon demagnetization. The difference between the energy absorbed
when H increases from zero to Hmax and the energy released when H decreases from Hmax to zero represents
the energy which is not returned to the source but is dissipated as heat as the domains are re-aligned in

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response to changing magnetic field intensity. This dissipation of energy is known as hysteresis loss. As H
varies over one complete cycle, the area of the hysteresis loop gives the energy loss per cubic meter of
material, i.e. Energy loss in J/m3 /cycle = Area of hysteresis loop.
In evaluating the performance of electric machines, it is necessary to express hysteresis loss in watts. This
can be done as under:
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠 × 𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑠 𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑝 = = =
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 × 𝐶𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 × 𝐶𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝐶𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 ×
𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑
Or, 𝐻𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑠 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠 = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑠 𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑝 × 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 × 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦
In order to eliminate the need of finding area of hysteresis loop, Steinmitz evolved an empirical formula,
Ph = kh×(volume)×(f)×(Bm)n
Where, Ph = Hysteresis loss in watts
f = frequency in Hz
Bm = maximum flux density, T
n varies from 1.5 to 2.5 depending on the material used. Typical value of n for grain oriented silicon sheet
steel used for electrical machines is 1.6. The constant kh also depends on the material. Some typical values
are: cast steel 0.025; silicon sheet steel 0.001; permalloy 0.0001. For a particular machine, the volume of
material is also constant, so that Ph can be written as
Ph = KhfBmn
Where, Kh = kh×volume
EDDY CURRENT LOSS
A voltage is induced in a conductor when it is situated in a changing magnetic field. To produce strong
magnetic effects, coils of electromagnets are wound on iron cores. Due to the changing magnetic field
voltages are induced in the core and circulating currents are caused to flow. These circulating currents are
called eddy currents. The flow of these currents causes losses — a waste of energy and heating of core.
Figure below illustrates flow of eddy currents.

In dc circuits, eddy current loss is not serious, since an induced voltage is produced only when the circuit is
switched on or off. However, in ac circuits, the flux changes continuously and eddy current loss becomes
appreciable.
It has been found that eddy currents travel cross-wise in the cores. The magnitude of eddy currents can be
reduced to a very small value by increasing the cross-sectional resistance of the iron. The cores are made of
thin sheets called laminations. Each lamination is about 0.5 mm thick and is insulated from the others by a
coating of oxides or varnish or both, so that it offers a high resistance to the flow of eddy currents. The use of
laminated cores reduces the active cross-sectional area by a small amount (about 5-10%) due to thickness of
insulation. Eddy current loss is given by
𝑃 = 𝑘 𝑓 𝐵 𝑡 (𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒)
where Pe = eddy current loss, watts

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 f = frequency, Hz
Bm = maximum flux density, T
t = thickness of laminations
ke = constant depending on material
For a particular machine ke, t2 and volume can be combined into a single constant Ke so that
𝑃 =𝐾𝑓 𝐵
Taken together the hysteresis and eddy current loss is known as core-loss or iron-loss. Since frequency and
maximum flux density are constant, the core-loss in a machine is constant.
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Ref. (1) Electrical & Electronics Technology, By Hughes; (2) NPTEL (IITK Notes)

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