CHAPTER 26

Inverter Grid Connection

for Embedded Generation

Distributed Generation (DG, or embedded generation) is a back-up electric power generating plant at or
near the consumer premises that primarily is used by the energy user to provide emergency power
when grid-connected power is unavailable. Installation of the back-up unit close to the demand centre
avoids the cost of transmitting the power and the associated transmission losses. Back-up generating
units are currently defined as distributed generation to differentiate from the traditional centralized power
generation model. Although the centralized power generation model is economical and a reliable source
of energy production, the lack of significant increase in new build generating capacity or even in
expanding existing ones to meet the needs of current demand, presents a challenge to the electrical
power industry, needing a solution.
The smart grid concept encompasses reliable and efficient electrical energy delivery when harnessing
generation from renewable energy sources; for which power electronics is the enabling technology.

The main tasks of the power electronic converters in embedded renewable energy applications are:
 on the input side (source) - maximum power transfer: power electronics permit control and
tracking of pre-defined power characteristic curves to maximize power extraction from the
resources. Also, in event of faults and sudden load variations, power electronics help to adjust
the power extraction level and protects the energy sources.
 on the grid side (ac output) - active and reactive power control and power quality control: power
converters must control active and reactive powers injection into the grid, ensuring sinusoidal
current is injected into grid, with low harmonic content that meet grid codes and standard, also
with low electromagnetic interference and low leakage and dc currents.

26.1 Distributed generation

A typical DG energy conversion system comprises two main energy converting stages. The first stage is
the prime fuel converting block in which the prime fuel internal energy is converted into mechanical
energy, as in the case of internal combustion engines. The second stage converts the mechanical
energy into electrical power using an electromechanical energy conversion device such as synchronous
alternator or induction generator, which produces ac power.
Another way of converting a prime fuel source into electrical energy is through a chemical or
photosynthesis conversion process. Fuel cells and photovoltaic solar energy converters are examples
that produce dc power. The interfacing unit is essential to convert the produced dc source into a
harmonized constant voltage and frequency ac power source. A dc to ac power electronic inverter
system is used as the interfacing unit. The inverter must produce high quality ac power with a voltage

BWW
Chapter 26 Inverter Grid Connection for Embedded Generation 1106

waveform of limited supply frequency fluctuation and low THD at the point of common coupling (PCC), in
accordance with the appropriate standard. The inverter must be capable of preventing the DG from
islanding (anti-islanding capability) on the hosting grid. Islanding is a condition occurring when a
generator or an inverter and a portion of the grid system separates from the remainder of the large
distribution system and continues to operate in an energized state. Islanding may pose a safety threat or
cause equipment problems; therefore cannot be permitted without system coordination.
The inverter output produced must comply with hosting grid electricity voltage and frequency standards.
A coupling transformer is needed to interface the DG generator with the grid to match the distribution
voltage level at the point of connection. Only when it is safe and synchronised conditions exist is the DG
interconnected with the permission and coordination of the grid operator.
Another configuration normally adopted for supplying power to sensitive electrical load demand is to use
DG in conjunction with an uninterruptable power supply, UPS unit. A UPS system normally incorporates
an energy storage medium such as batteries to enable power supply continuity as well as improve
power quality and reduce the influence of voltage surges, spikes and swells which could cause loss of
production.
Once the interconnection is established, the hosting utility assumes responsibility of DG operation and
contribution, and treats it as part of its generation system.
Current DG/distribution network interconnected system practice is to revert the distribution network to its
original configuration (radial or meshed distribution system) with all interconnected DG units de-
energized whenever an unexpected disturbance occurs in the system. Since most distribution systems
comprise radial feeders, this leads to supply discontinuation for all the down-line customers. In this way
the DG contribution is restricted to the hosting utility demand and conditions.

AC Microturbine Micro-hydro Fuel cell Wind turbine

Micro-grid Generator set (ac) inverter (ac)
architecture (ac) (dc-ac)

Battery storage
inverter
(dc-ac)

load load load

load
PV array
inverter AC Filters
and FACTS
(dc-ac)
compensators
load
Diesel gen-set
PCC (ac)
Point of Common Coupling
Optional
interconnect

PCC

Utility
Electric Power System
EPS

Figure 26.1. AC microgrid architectural structure.

26.1.1 DG possibilities
DG is attractive for the following opportunities:
 DG can be fuelled by locally available renewable and an alternative mix of fuel sources to meet
current energy demand. Renewable sources are wind and solar, while alternative fuels are
those produced from waste products or biomass and can be in gas, liquid or solid form. Greater
independency from importing petroleum fuel can be achieved by incorporating DG that is
powered by various fuel sources;
 DG can support the projected increase in demand, without investment in the expansion of
existing distribution network, by installing the DG close to a new load centre;
 Installing DG within the industrial/commercial premises avoids negotiating land use and the
need for rights-of-way for electric transmission and distribution, thereby minimizing further
capital investment;
1107 Power Electronics

 DG can be used in reducing intermittent and peak supply burdens on utility grids by injecting
power as required by the controller;
 DG has the ability to support the existing energy supply when needed and in a short time (black
start) without incurring capital cost;
 DG penetration in the energy market will create overall competitive pricing of energy. The
current DG generation rate ($/kWh) is competitive with the centralized generation system as
more efficient fuel energy conversion units such as fuel cells and micro turbines are
continuously improved and diversified;
 DG can decrease electric distribution system vulnerability to external threats and hidden
undetected faults that may cause blackout by feeding power to the sensitive infrastructure;
 DG is flexible, being capability of being configured to operate in a stand-by mode, isolated
mode, or sharing the load through integration with the electric grid.

Using DG that is fuelled by various prime alternative fuel sources will reduced fossil fuel consumption
hence reduce CO2 emissions.

DC
Battery storage
smps
Diesel gen-set Micro-grid
(ac-dc) dc architecture
(dc-dc)
load
Wind turbine
(ac-dc) dc
load
Fuel cell
smps Optional
(dc-dc) interconnect
PCC

Micro-hydro EPS
(ac-dc) DC to AC
inversion

Microturbine Utility
Generator set VAr Electric Power System
(ac-dc) PV array compensator
smps
(dc-dc)

Figure 26.2. DC microgrid architectural structure.

Battery storage
smps
Diesel gen-set DC – centralised AC
(ac-dc) Micro-grid architecture
(dc-dc)

DC voltage
Wind turbine bus link
(ac-dc)
ac
Fuel cell ac load
smps load Optional
(dc-dc) interconnect
PCC
Micro-hydro
DC to AC EPS
(ac-dc)
inversion

Microturbine Utility
Generator set VAr Electric Power System
(ac-dc) PV array compensator
smps
(dc-dc)

Figure 26.3. DC - centralised ac microgrid architectural structure.

Chapter 26 Inverter Grid Connection for Embedded Generation 1108

26.1.2 Integration and interconnection requirements

Key elements for the reliability of distributed generation power systems are the performance of the
electrical switchgear, interconnection, controls, and communication features. The main components of
interconnection according to the protection functions they perform are categorized as follows:

Synchronization. Automatic sensing of the voltage and frequency can achieve fast interconnection to the
hosting grid.
Islanding. Islanding protection is a mandatory feature that the hosting grid requires from the DG
operator. Islanding on part of the hosting network could jeopardize maintenance crew safety and cause
malfunction of nearby coordinated protection units. Relays are normally used to provide protection at
both the grid and the DG end of the connection. DG inverters should incorporated built-in features to
disconnect from the hosting grid once anti-islanding conditions are violated.
Voltage and frequency tolerance. For high quality power injection, both the voltage and frequency
margins should not exceed the grid tolerance specification. Both voltage and frequency detection is part
of the anti-islanding protection control.
DC injection level. Under abnormal operating conditions, grid tie inverters could inject low level dc
current into the hosting grid. Similarly, transformer-less grid-tie inverters may inject dc current into the
grid. It is part of the inverter feedback loop to detect the presence of the dc component and adjust the
triggering sequence to the switching devices to remedy the situation. A coupling transformer could be
used to isolate the dc current from flowing to the ac side. A low cost solution is to incorporate a dc
detection device to disconnect the inverter in the case of severe dc level injection.
Grounding. Protective grounding is mainly designed to protect the operator. Grounding could also
contribute to reducing the magnitude of transient over-voltages and lightning protection. Grounding
components must be capable of carrying the maximum available fault current and withstanding a second
strike within a few cycles after the first. Grounding cables must be connected directly to the equipment.
No impedance, circuit breaker or measuring devices, etc., are permitted between the grounding cable
and the equipment.
Metering and monitoring. Monitored parameters can include current, voltage, real and reactive power,
harmonics, oil temperature, vibration, etc. Metered parameters also include power output, which may be
used for billing that requires utility-grade metering accuracy.
Dispatch, communication, and control. These integration and communication components interface the
DG units with the utility. Their functions include:
 regional load management, work order management, and billing services;
 distribution automation;
 feeder switching;
 short circuit analysis; and
 voltage profile calculations and trouble calls management.

DG
protection Protection
relay utility
relay
controller PT disconnect
controller PT
DG EPS
CT

CT CT PCC
Independent
Generator protection

DG/utility disconnect

Power Producer 50 CT PT Utility

Electric Power System
protection
Local load

metering
switchgear

Local load

Equation Chapter (Next) Section 26

Figure 26.4. DG-utility interconnection protection requirements.
1109 Power Electronics

A typical interconnection line schematic with the protection elements between the DG and the hosting
grid is shown in Figure 26.4. Typical minimum DG/utilities interconnection protection relay requirements
are:
 The DG protective switchgear should include an over/under voltage trip function, an over/under
frequency trip function, and a means for disconnecting the DG from the utility when a protective
function initiates a trip;
 The DG and associated protective switchgear must not contribute to the formation of an
unintended island;
 DG switchgear must be equipped with automatic means to prevent DG reconnection with the
utility distribution system unless the distribution system service voltage and frequency is of
specified settings and is stable for a specified time, typically 60s;
 Circuit breakers or other interrupting devices at the PCC must be capable of interrupting the
maximum available fault current.

26.1.3 Grid ride through

The most demanding requisite for wind and solar farms is the low voltage Fault Ride-Through (FRT) or
grid ride through capability. Embedded energy farms connected to high voltage transmission system
must stay connected when a voltage dip occurs in the grid, otherwise, the sudden disconnection of great
amount of wind power may contribute to the voltage dip, with disastrous consequences.
Depending on the application the connecting device may, during and after the dip, brown out or
blackout, be required to remain stable and:
 disconnect temporarily from the grid, but reconnect and continue operation after the dip
 stay operational and not disconnect from the grid
 stay connected and support the grid with reactive power (defined as the reactive current of the
positive sequence of the fundamental)
For embedded generating units such as wind turbines and solar power stations, the required LVRT
behaviour is defined in grid codes issued by the grid operator. Examples of the such grid codes are
shown in figure 26.6. The codes do not distinguish between single phase and three phase faults and the
code also specifies limits or requirements for the short circuit current during the grid fault.

ms

Figure 26.5. Low voltage grid ride through specifications.

26.1.4 Conventional protection

Different aspects of embedded generation protection are:

i. protection of the generation equipment from internal faults

ii. protection of the faulted distribution network from fault currents supplied by the embedded
generation
iii. anti-islanding or loss-of-mains protection
iv. impact of embedded generation on existing distribution system protection
Chapter 26 Inverter Grid Connection for Embedded Generation 1110

i. Protecting the embedded generation from internal faults, assuming transformer coupling,
involves fault current flowing from the distribution network being used to detect the fault, where
techniques used to protect a large electric motor or transformer are adequate. A common problem in
rural areas is ensuring that there will be adequate fault current from the network to ensure operation of
the relays or fuses.
ii. Protection of the faulted distribution network from fault current from the embedded generation is
more difficult. Power electronic converters cannot supply sustained fault current to a three-phase close-
up fault and their sustained contribution to asymmetrical faults is limited. Thus, for some installations it is
necessary to rely on the distribution protection to clear any distribution circuit fault and hence isolate the
embedded generation plant which is then tripped on Over/undervoltage, over/under frequency protection
or loss-of-mains protection. This technique of sequential tripping is unusual but necessary given the
inability of some embedded generation to provide adequate fault current for more conventional
protection schemes.
iii. Loss-of-mains protection is a particular issue where auto-reclose is used on the distribution
circuits. For both technical and administrative reasons, the prolonged operation of a power island fed
from the embedded generation but not connected to the main distribution network is generally
unacceptable. Thus a relay is required which will detect when the embedded generation. and perhaps a
surrounding part of the network, has become islanded and will then trip the generation. This relay must
operate within the dead-time of any auto-reclose scheme if out-of-phase reconnection is to be avoided.
Although a number of techniques are used. including rate-of-change-of-frequency (ROCOF) and voltage
vector shift, these are prone to nuisance tripping if set sensitively to detect islanding rapidly.
The neutral grounding of the interfacing transformer is a related issue because it is considered
unacceptable to operate an ungrounded system and so care is required as to where a neutral connec-
tion is obtained and grounded.
iv. Embedded generation may affect the operation of existing distribution networks by providing
fault current flow which is not expected when the protection was originally designed. The fault contri-
bution from embedded generation can support the network voltage and lead to relays under-reaching.

26.2 Interfacing conversion methods for dc energy sources

A common feature of embedded generation interfacing is voltage translation and stabilisation using the
boost converter concept. The boost converter is used since its input current can be continuous thus
drawing continuous energy, with minimal ripple current from the energy source, whilst tracking the
maximum power point, for maximum source energy extraction efficiency. Alternatively an LC filter can be
used to achieve continuous source current.
Most single stage, electrical energy sources are voltage generating sources, for example the battery
o o
(ΔE = -G /n×F, equation 28.9), the fuel cell (ΔE = -G/n×F, equation 27.14), electrical machines (V =
N×dΦ/dt and E = Bℓ×v), Seebeck thermal electric effect (ΔV = s×ΔT, equation 28.27), etc., while a
notable exception is the photoelectric effect PV cell (or any semiconductor minority carrier device) which
is a current generator (I = G×A, equation 27.23). In practice the PV cell combines the best properties of
a voltage source and a current source, viz., controlled voltage on open circuit and controlled current on
short circuit.
Topologies based on the voltage boost circuit in figure 26.6a are applicable to any voltage generating
source, while the current boost circuit in figure 26.6b is applicable to any current generating source, like
the PV cell. The boosted output voltage and boosted output current transfer function in each case,
respectively, are
Vo 1
 for a switch duty cycle 0    1 Vo  E i (26.1)
Ei 1  
and
Io 1
 for a switch duty cycle 0    1 I o  I i (26.2)
Ii 
Features and design aspects of these boost converters can be found in Chapter 19, sections 19.3 and
19.11 respectively. Other constant and controllable input energy dc-to-dc converters are shown in figure
26.6. The key converter feature is series input inductance and shunt input capacitance for voltage and
current converters respective.
Figure 26.7 (see Chapter 20) show nine converters (cct D, E and F) which offer continuous input and
output current, without series input inductance, cct E, or without series output inductance, cct F. For a
given set of circuit conditions and component values, the lowest input ripple current is offered by
topologies D-a: D6, D-b: D5 and F-b: D3, which are buck, boost and buck-boost topologies respectively.
Topology D5 is an extension of the basic boost converter, whilst D6 and D3 offer significantly lower input
current ripple. The current source output feature of the topologies in figure 26.7 render them ideal for
converter parallel connection to a common the dc link.
1111 Power Electronics

Ii Io Ii Io

L D Ei T L
T + C + D R
Vo Ii C Vo
Ei R

(a) (b)
Voltage Sources Current Sources
constant current input and output constant voltage input and output

Li BUCK
+ + Lo + T L +
Ei 1-TF Vo Ii
C   Ci Do Co R Vo
R Ei Io

Io Io
BOOST
Li + Lo L
TF Vo Ii 1 + D +
Ei C   Ii Ci T Co R Vo
R Ei Io 1

Io Io
+1-TF C BUCK-BOOST
Li Lo + T D
Vo Ii  Vo
Ei   Ii Ci L Co R
+ R Ei Io 1 +

Io Io
+ SEPIC +Lo
Li C TF
+ + Co
Vo Ii  Ii Ci T L
Ei   D R Vo
Lo Co R Ei Io 1

Figure 26.6. DC to dc converters: (a) voltage sourced and (b) current sourced.
 Chapter 26 Inverter Grid Connection for Embedded Generation 1112

1 Voltage BUCK  Current BOOST Voltage BOOST  Current BUCK

fv    Voltage BUCK-BOOST
f i   (a) (b)  Current BOOST-BUCK (c) cct

Ii Io Ii Io Ii Io
converters
sourced
Voltage

L + L D + D cct
T D Co R Vo T Co Vo T L Co Vo A
Ei Ei R Ei + R

voltage Vo Ii Vo Ii 1 Vo Ii 
transfer fv        : A1 fv       : A2 fv       : A3
function, fv(δ) Ei Io Ei Io 1 Ei Io 1

Ii Io Ii Io Ii + Io
converters
sourced
Current

Ei + T Lo Ei D + Lo Ei C Lo cct
Ii C D R Vo Ii C R Vo Ii D R Vo B
T T

switch T ON switch T OFF switch T ON switch T OFF switch T ON switch T OFF

operating

Ii Ii Ii Ii
stages

Ii + C Io Ii + C Io cct
Two

+ + L + L + L
Io C L Io C D Io T C Io T L L
C D C
R R R R R R
eqn
loop equations C×Δvc = ic dt = ton × (Io- Ii) = toff × Ii C×Δvc = ic dt = ton × Io= toff × (Ii - Io) C×Δvc = ic dt = ton × Io= toff × Ii
1
converters

+1-TF C
controlled
Li and Lo

Li Li
sourced

Lo
Voltage

+ Lo Lo
current

+ 1-TF
TF + Li cct
C
C D
R R + R

Ei Io 1 1 Ei Io 1 Ei Io 1 1
current f i       f i     1  f i      
transfer Vo Ii  fv   Vo Ii fv    Vo Ii  fv  
function, fi(δ) : D5
: D6 : C3
complementary 1 - fv(δ) =1 - δ 1 - fv(δ) = 1 - 1/1- δ 1 - fv(δ) = 1 - -δ/1- δ
output Voltage BUCK  Current BOOST Voltage BUCK-BOOST
1 - fv(δ) TD  Current BOOST-BUCK Voltage BOOST  Current BUCK
converters
controlled

Lo
sourced

Lo + Io + C Lo Io Lo Io
Voltage
current

+T + cct
Lo

C D Co R T D Co
+R C + Co R E
Li Li T Li
voltage Vo Ii Vo Ii  Vo Ii 1
transfer fv        : D4 fv       : D2 fv       : C2
function, fv(δ) Ei Io Ei Io 1 Ei Io 1

inverse TD: δ  1/ 1- δ TD: -δ/ 1- δ  -δ/ 1- δ TD: 1/ 1- δ  δ

converters
controlled

Io + + Io
sourced
Voltage

C
current

Li D + + Li Li + cct
Co Co Co
Li

R R R
C T D Ci D F
Lo Lo + L
Io
voltage Vo Ii 1 Vo Ii  Vo Ii
transfer fv       : D3 fv       : D1 fv        : C1
function, fv(δ) Ei Io 1 Ei Io 1 Ei Io

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 26.7. DC to dc converters with continuous input and output current.

Single phase grid connection has a number of drawbacks, which will hamper its efficient and cost
effective exploitation in a domestic environment, which is a low power, low cost application area. The
first problem is dc current injection and isolation. A solution is associated with cost and size of single
phase 50/60Hz transformers. The second single phase ac problem often overlooked is the high second
order harmonic (even harmonics) associated with the effectively rectified ac grid, reflected back to the
energy source. A three-phase grid connected inverter can deliver constant power to the grid, hence can
draw continuous power from the energy source, which is highly desirable for maximum source energy
extraction. On the other hand, the single phase ac grid can only receive power with a large component
at twice the grid frequency. This energy pulsation is feed back to the energy source unless decoupled by
 1113 Power Electronics

large inductance or capacitance on the intermediate dc current or voltage link. An alternative is a front
end continuous input current converter that can track the source maximum power point. Another
temporary storage method is a parallel LC filter tuned to the second harmonic, in series with the dc link.

Fuel cell a
dc to dc dc to dc 50/60Hz
and n
converter converter transformer
reformer b

battery

fuel cell output dc to dc dc link 20kHz PWM LC filter line frequency 115/230V ac
20 to 44Vdc boost converter and dc to ac inverter 1kHz cut-off isolation 50/60Hz
48V battery storage step-up transformer output voltage

1:n:n
DB S1 S3 Lf1 Cf a
LB + Vdc
Cdc
n
+
VFC SB Lf2
b
S2 S4

Figure 26.8. Dc to line frequency power conditioner:

(a) block diagram and (b) circuit topology.

Fuel cell a
dc to dc dc to ac isolated dc to ac
and n
converter converter PWM inverter
reformer b

battery

fuel cell output dc to dc dc link 20kHz isolation dc link filter 20kHz PWM 1kHz cut-off 115/230V ac
20 to 44Vdc boost converter and dc to dc step-up dc to ac inverter LC filter 50/60Hz
48V battery storage converter output voltage

Spp1
DB Lcm Cdc S1 S 3 Lf
LB Vdc + a
Cdc

+
VFC SB Lf b
Spp2 Lcm S2 S 4
1:n Cf
Cf
n

Figure 26.9. DC to line frequency power conditioner with high frequency isolation:
(a) block diagram and (b) circuit topology.
 Chapter 26 Inverter Grid Connection for Embedded Generation 1114

Fuel cell a
dc to dc isolated dc to ac
and n
hf converter PWM inverter
reformer b

battery

fuel cell output 20kHz isolation dc link filter dc link and 20kHz PWM 1kHz cut-off 115/230V ac
20 to 44Vdc dc to dc step-up 48V battery storage 115V/230V ac LC filter 50/60Hz
link filter converter dc to ac inverter output voltage

Spp1 +
Lcm Cdc S1 S3 Lf
+ a
Cdc
VFC D1-4 Vdc

+ Vdc
Lf b
Spp2 Lcm S2 S4
1:n Cf
Cf
n

Figure 26.10. DC to line frequency power conditioner with high frequency isolation and two power
conversion stages: (a) block diagram and (b) circuit topology.
(bi-directional battery chargers not shown)

fuel cell high frequency a

dc to ac output current
or isolated dc to dc b
inverter filter
PV array converter c
transformer

fuel cell or pv dc to dc high frequency 20kHz PWM L output 115/230/415V ac

output boost converter step up transformer dc to ac inverter filter 50/60Hz 3Φ
20 to 44Vdc (Cuk) output voltage

+
S1 S5 S3
+ Cp Cs
La a
Lpv
Lb b
+ 1:n
Vpv Spv S4 S2 S6 Lc c

Figure 26.11. DC to three-phase line frequency power conditioner with high frequency isolation using
two power conversion stages.
1115 Power Electronics

ac utility input SSB

three-phase
load

SSA

hydrogen ac isolation and

storage PEFC dc to ac voltage matching 1:n

H2 fuel cells PWM inverter

Figure 26.12. Modular fuel cell power conversion system supplying a three phase load in parallel with
the grid, via solid state circuit breaker for source isolation and islanding.

non-critical
three-phase
load

ac utility input SSB critical

three-phase
load

SSA

PEFC dc to dc
fuel cells hf converter
hydrogen
storage
H2
PEFC dc to dc dc to ac
fuel cells hf converter PWM inverter

supercapacitor
bidirectional
converter

Figure 26.13. Modular fuel cell power conversion system for grid connection with supply backup for
critical loads.

Micro turbine
generator active ac to dc
converter

heat by-product
for cogeneration

three-phase
Vdc 50/60Hz ac grid
hydrogen dc to three phase a
storage high temperature dc to dc + Cdc ac inverter b
H2 fuel cell converter
c

Figure 26.14. Modular fuel cell power conversion system for three-phase grid connection,
with cogeneration onto a common dc link.
Chapter 26 Inverter Grid Connection for Embedded Generation 1116

26.3 Interfacing conversion methods for ac energy sources

Single phase ac energy sources, such as low frequency sea wave-based generators, present a
significant power electronics challenge. (Even multiphase versions develop pulsating power.) This is
because the generated power is dominated by a second harmonic component (typically ½Hz). Since the
grid code limits injected low frequency power fluctuations, large energy level intermediate energy
storage is essential. It is inefficient, having converted mechanical energy into electrical energy to then
converter that electrical energy into some other intermediate form for storage, only to then convert it
back to an electrical form. Power electronics based intermediate storage methods are dc based, namely
battery, electrolytic capacitor, or super capacitor, with increasing efficiency, although lifetime and
reliability will be two issues.
In any n-phase (n ≥ 3) balanced symmetrical sinusoidal voltage system, in steady state, if the current in
each phase is a duplicate of the associated voltage waveform, then the instantaneous power is constant
throughout each cycle. If the current and voltage are in phase then, not only is the instantaneous power
constant, but maximum power is extracted. Importantly, in a mechanical sense, the instantaneous
electromagnetic power is constant, as is the instantaneous mechanical torque. That is, if the sinusoidal
electrical voltage and current are in phase then maximum power is delivered, and with minimum
resultant mechanical torque ripple induced from the electrical side.

Generators produce voltage sources where the source magnitude is related to the speed (for example,
E = B ℓ ν for a permanent magnet generator) and the shape is determined by the gap mmf space
distribution. A sinusoidal mmf results in a sinusoidal generated voltage. For maximum power extraction
from the generator, the current drawn should be in phase with the generated emf. A winding associated
with a voltage source also suffers with leakage inductance associated with imperfect coupling between
the stator and rotor. This inductance means that the terminal voltage is likely to be phase shifted
(lagging) from the emf source voltage. Any interfacing converter requires rotor/grid position information
to synchronise the current drawn in phase with the generated emf. This implies the interfacing converter
input operate with continuous sinusoidal current, and this continuous current aspect, in conjunction with
unavoidable leakage inductance implies a boost function.

26.3.1 Unity Power Factor Current Control of a Sinusoidal Current Active Boost Rectifier
The generator/drid interfacing bidirectional converter in figure 26.15 consists of six boost/buck
converters configured as three parallel connected bidirectional converters, which allow control of the
generator/grid current magnitude and phase angle. Due to switching frequency limitations, the machine
leakage or grid line inductance may be insufficient thence additional external inductance is added. The
output is a dc voltage source where the minimum output voltage is that which results due to full-wave
rectification through the six bridge diodes. With triplen injection (SVM) the minimum controlled link
voltage is reduce to 0.866 that of the uncontrolled voltage level, provide the resultant system common
mode voltage can be tolerated.. Only the input inductance controls the initial start-up in-rush current
through the diodes, on connection.
To control the dc output voltage of the PWM boost-rectifier, the input line currents must be regulated and
controlled in terms of phase and magnitude. In typical rectifier controllers, the dc bus voltage error is
used to synthesize a line current reference. Specifically, the line current reference is derived through the
multiplication of a term proportional to the bus voltage error by a reference sinusoidal waveform.

SW1 SW2 SW3 Io

N Vs1 L1

+
LOAD

Vs2 L2 i1
Vdc
Vs3 L3 i2

i3

SW4 SW5 SW6

Figure 26.15. Three-phase active rectifier for unity power factor generator/grid operation.
1117 Power Electronics

With the aid of a rotor/grid position/angle transducer, the reference waveform is phase locked to the
generator/grid emf. Since the sinusoidal reference is directly proportional (phase and magnitude) to the
machine/grid generated emf voltage, a unity power factor results. The line current is then controlled by
the converter to track this reference. Current regulation is achieved by the use of hysteresis controllers,
although a constant switching frequency, pwm modulation method is better from a filtering and emc
point of view.

Switch matrix theory can be used to formulate the closed-loop operation of the PWM boost-rectifier. The
output current Io of the matrix converters is a function of the converter transfer function vector T and the
input current vector i, and is given by
Io T  i (26.3)
The converter transfer function vector T is composed of three independent line-to-neutral switching
functions: SW1, SW2, SW3. The switches SW4, SW5, SW6 are corresponding complementarily operated.

T  SW1 SW2 SW3  (26.4)

The input current vector is given by

i T  i 1 i2 i 3  (26.5)
The line-to-neutral switching functions are balanced and are represented solely by their fundamental
components, with modulated magnitude M.
SW1 t   M sin t -  
SW2 t   M sin t - 2 3  -   (26.6)
SW3 t   M sin t  2 3  -  

Therefore, the converter synthesized line-to-neutral voltages can be expressed as

V s 1  ½Vdc M sin t   
V s 2  ½Vdc M sin t - 2 3     (26.7)
V s 3  ½Vdc M sin t  2
3  - 

Equation (26.6) shows the rectifier synthesized voltages. Vdc represents the output dc voltage.

In the time domain, the fundamental components of the three-phase input currents are given by
i 1 (t )  I sin t -  
i 2 (t )  I sin t  2 3  -   (26.8)
i 3 (t )  I sin t  2 3  -  

By combining equations (26.3), (26.6), and (26.8), the output current Io(t) is given by
I o (t )  I sin t -   M sin t -    I sin t  2 3  -   M sin t  2 3  -  
(26.9)
 I sin t  2 3  -   M sin t  2 3  -  
By using a trigonometric identity, Io(t) becomes
I o (t )  3 I  M  cos     (26.10)
2

Because the angle    is constant for any set value of the input power factor, the output dc current,
Io(t), is proportional to the magnitude of the input current, I(t), and so is the output voltage, Vdc. For unity
power factor control, angle φ is equal to zero.

The output voltage, Vdc is

Vdc  R  I o (26.11)
Vdc ref -Vdc   k  I (26.12)

The dc bus error, (Vdc ref - Vdc), is used to set the reference for the input current magnitude. The input
sinusoidal voltage, Va, is multiplied by the dc bus error and becomes a reference for the input current in
phase 1. The reference value for the current in phase 2 is phase-shifted by ⅔π with respect to the
current in phase 1. Since the sum of the three input currents is always zero, the reference for the current
in phase 3 is obtained indirectly from:
i 3 ref t   i 1 ref t   i 2 ref t  (26.13)
Chapter 26 Inverter Grid Connection for Embedded Generation 1118

The input currents, i1(t), i2(t), i3(t) are measured and compared with the reference currents, i1 ref (t), i2 ref
(t), i3 ref (t). The error is fed to a comparator with a prescribed hysteresis band 2ΔI. Switching of the leg of
the rectifier (SW 1 off and SW 4 on) occurs when the current attempts to exceed a set value
corresponding to the desired current iref + ΔI. The reverse switching (SW 1 on and SW 4 off) occurs when
the current attempts to become less than iref - ΔI. The hysteresis controller produces a quality waveform
and is readily implemented. Unfortunately, with this type of control (hysteresis controller) the switching
frequency is not constant but varies at different points of the desired current.

Given the generated voltage is linearly speed dependant, hence always specified, the reference current
is specified at that speed (voltage) to track a maximum power point characteristic.

Although the grid harmonic limits in table 26.1 are grid drawn harmonic limit, they are an indication of
grid injection limits.

Table 26.1: Current Harmonic Limits in IEEE Std. 519-1992

Maximum Harmonic Current Distortion in % of IL

Individual Harmonic Order (Odd Harmonics)
ISC / IL <11 11  h<17 17  h<23 23  h<35 35  h TDD
<20* 4.0 2.0 1.5 0.6 0.3 5.0
20<50 7.0 3.5 2.5 1.0 0.5 8.0
50<100 10.0 4.5 4.0 1.5 0.7 12.0
100<1000 12.0 5.5 5.0 2.0 1.0 15.0
>1000 15.0 7.0 6.0 2.5 1.4 20.0
Even harmonics are limited to 25% of the harmonic limits, TDD refers to Total Demand Distortion and is
based the average maximum demand current at the fundamental frequency, taken at the PCC.
*All power generation equipment is limited to these values of current distortion regardless of ISC, IL.
ISC = Maximum short current at the PCC
IL = Maximum demand load current (fundamental) at the PCC
h = Harmonic number

26.4 Back to grid (B2G) electric vehicle charging

Reversible ac to dc converters afford reversible energy transfer between the grid and an EV battery
bank (Level 1 and Level 2). Power level in excess of 80kW are needed for fast charge, with a dc output
voltage range of 300V to 1000V dc. Basic off-board charger requirements are:
 Reversible, controllable power flow
 Buck boost output voltage function
 Isolation
 Unity power faction sinusoidal ac input current

Multi conversion stages are needed to fulfil these requirements.

At power levels above 80kW, the charging energy source can be a dc voltage. Any applicable dc to dc
converter (DCFC – dc fast charge) need not be reversible.

Reading list