Vol. 18(4), pp.

84-105, October-December, 2023

DOI: 10.5897/IJPS2023.5035
Article Number: 8AD395771345
ISSN: 1992-1950
Copyright ©2023 International Journal of Physical
Author(s) retain the copyright of this article
http://www.academicjournals.org/IJPS
Sciences

Full Length Research Paper

Hydrogeological assessment of groundwater resources

within Isuikwuato and environ South Eastern Nigeria:
Agenda for food agriculture and clean water policies
Joshua Chima CHIZOBA1, Ayatu Ojonugwa USMAN1*, Chukwudi Chris EZEH2,
Ifeanyi Augustine CHINWUKO3, George-Best AZUOKO1, Obinna Chigoziem AKAKURU4 and
Kenneth Obinna IHEME5
1
Department of Applied Geophysics, Alex Ekwueme Federal University, Ndufu-Alike, Ikwo, Ebonyi State, Nigeria.
2
Department of Geology and Mining, Enugu State University of Science and Technology, Enugu, Nigeria.
3
Department of Applied Geophysics, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka, Anambra State, Nigeria.
4
Department of Geology, Federal University of Technology, Owerri, Imo State, Nigeria.
5
Department of Geology and Mineral Resource, University of Ilorin, Kwara State, Nigeria.
Received 29 May, 2023; Accepted 7 August, 2023

Groundwater resources of the Isuikwuato area, south eastern Nigeria, have been evaluated using
integrated geophysical and hydrogeochemical techniques, to determine the quality and usability of the
groundwater for domestic and agricultural purposes. Twenty Vertical Electrical Soundings (VES)
physicochemical analyses were done. Depth to aquiferous unit varies from 38 to 148 m. The
hydrogeochemical characterization shows that anion area, 85% of the total water sample in the area is
Cl- dominant, whereas 10% are HCO3- dominant and 5% of the sample had mixed dominant ionic specie.
In the cation area, 75% of the total water samples had Ca2+ as their dominant ionic specie, while 25% of
the samples had mixed dominant ionic specie. According to the Piper diagram, the region is in the
geochemical zone 1 (Alkalines earth exceeds Akalines). The Durov plot demonstrates that there is ionic
exchange occurring within the groundwater zone with a hydrogeochemical evolution trend of Cl-> HCO3-
+CO32-> Ca2+>Na++K+> SO42-> Mg2+. Principal Component Analysis (PCA) values indicated loadings were
present for 37.42% of the parameters (PP) in PP1, 65.60% of the parameters in PP2 and in PP3, it had
75.23 loadings. The water is suitable for agriculture giving the value of calculated Sodium Adsorption
Ratio (SAR) that ranges from 0.20 – 0.56. This study recommends that the government should leverage
this to availability of clean water and food to the people to enable it to achieve its sustainable
development goals (SDGs).

Key words: Groundwater, hydrogeochemistry, geophysical, aquiferous zone, Isuikwuato.

INTRODUCTION

Water is one of the most important resources on planet subsurface. There is a great relationship between
Earth, although its existence is a mystery to man. geology and the chemistry of groundwater (Aikpokpodion
Groundwater occurs within the subsurface and dissolves et al., 2010; Yuan et al., 2014).
mineral, ores and crude as they percolate inside the Considerable effort may be required in some situations
 Chizobaa et al. 85

to locate suitable borehole sites. In other to achieve this, Physicochemical study the spread, association and
there is a need to understand the subsurface geology, mobility of elements in groundwater to construe and
stratigraphy and the hydrogeology of the area, and apply reconstruct the geochemical processes in the
the necessary geophysical techniques. Boreholes have environment (Chukwu, 2008). Earlier works reveal that
usually been drug with or without earlier information of solutes show the physicochemical background settings of
the underlining geology; this has led to borehole failure a research area, and are predisposed by both human
(Anizoba et al., 2015). Isuikwuato and its surrounding activities and nature (Chetelat et al., 2008; Gopinath et
areas have experienced a significant surge in al., 2016; Zhu et al., 2019).
infrastructural development and population growth. Knowledge of groundwater potential vis-à-vis the
Consequently, there has been a substantial increase in hydro-geophysical and physiochemical investigation in
the demand for potable water for human consumption the area is of fundamental importance since there have
and agricultural use. Therefore, it is imperative to assess been cases of failed boreholes, to reduce well failure,
the quality of groundwater from boreholes in the study thereby increasing precision and result oriented
area to determine its suitability for domestic and groundwater resources management programs in the
agricultural purposes. Given that surface water sources in area. It is anticipated that the result of the research will
the area are insufficient to meet this demand, there is a be useful material on the use of groundwater by both
heightened focus on utilizing groundwater. Groundwater domestic and agricultural proposes. It can also serve as a
is found in saturated zones beneath the land surface. background document for groundwater resources within
Additionally, many unsuccessful boreholes have been and outside the research area.
reported in the Isuikwuato area, and the quality of
functioning boreholes for groundwater supply remains
unknown. The presence of groundwater quality issues in Geology and hydrogeology
the area will have negative implications due to the
growing reliance on groundwater supply by the increasing The research area lies between latitudes 05042'0''N and
population. Therefore, it is of utmost importance to 05050'30''N and longitudes 7023'0''E and 7033'0''E
evaluate the groundwater potential in the area for (Figure 1). The area is underlain by a succession of
domestic and agricultural use (Usman et al., 2022). geologic units which include: The Nsukka Formation, Ajali
Tremendous breakthroughs have been recorded in the Formation, Mamu Formation and Nkporo Formation
use of electrical methods in the exploration of subsurface (Figure 2). The Nsukka Formation which is Danian in age
water (Selemo et al., 1995). Also, the geophysical has Nadu River as a type locality which is about 14 km
method using the Schlumberger technique is an effective north of Nsukka. Lithologically it comprises an
tool for ascertaining the subsurface geologic interchanging sequence of sandstone, dirty shale and
configuration and stratification (Davis and Deweist 1966; thin coal seam intercalated with sand at various layers
Anizoba et al., 2015; Gopinath et al., 2018). Also, the (Chukwu, 2008; Reyment, 1965; Obi et al., 2001). The
geophysical method using the Schlumberger technique is base of the Nsukka formation consists of thick sandstone.
an effective tool for ascertaining the subsurface geologic The Ajali Sandstone is of upper Maastrichtian. Its
configuration and stratification (Anizoba et al., 2015; lithology consists of poorly sorted, friable sandstones
Gopinath et al., 2018). (Obi et al., 2001). Underlining the Ajali sandstone
It is worth noting that the quality of water is a function formation is the Mamu Formation, chronologically, it is
that depends on its usage (Anudu et al., 2008; Egboka, Maastrichtian/Upper Santonian. Lithologically, it
1986). The primary uses of water are mainly for domestic comprises well-defined build-ups of sandstone, mudstone,
activities like; drinking, cooking, bathing and general shale, and sandy shale, with intercalated coal seams.
cleanliness such as washing and for agricultural Additionally, it contains fine-bedded, fine-to-medium
purposes such as irrigation and livestock farming. It is sandstones that are white or yellow (Chukwu, 2008;
necessary to consider the quality and quantity of water Emmanuel and Nurudeen, 2012). Reyment (1965) has
supply to improve the socially, economic and agricultural described the Nkporo Shales as consisting of dark shales
undertakings of man. The geophysical method for and mudstones with subordinate sandstone and
groundwater exploration is a modern tool which obtains limestone.
information about the earth’s electrical resistivities which The high precipitation in the research area offers
help in characterizing the underlining rocks via their water sufficient recharge for the aquifers. The Northeastern part
content holding capacity (Akakuru et al., 2017). of the researched area, which the Nkporo Formation

*Corresponding author. E-mail: [email protected]

Author(s) agree that this article remain permanently open access under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution
License 4.0 International License
86 Int. J. Phys. Sci.

Figure 1. Geologic Map of Nigeria showing the study area.

Figure 2. Location and Geology map of the research area.

 Chizobaa et al. 87

Table 1. The global grid positions and VES locations obtained during the fieldwork using the GPS receiver.

Profile number VES location Latitude Longitude Elevation (m)

VES 1 EziamaNunya 5042.503|N 7024.628|E 110
VES 2 AmacharaAcha 5049.128|N 7030.512|E 81
VES 3 Amaibo 5046.152|N 7029.826|E 116
VES 4 Pharmaceutical Science ABSU 5049.526|N 7023.509|E 170
VES 5 NdiOgu-Eluama 5045.103|N 7025.723|E 201
VES 6 AmabaOvim 5043.723|N 7030.859|E 190
VES 7 UmuamaEluama 5044.594|N 7027.749|E 235
VES 8 Amagu – Uturu 5050.198|N 7024.834|E 172
VES 9 General teaching hospital Isuikwato 5043.972|N 7030.303|E 223
VES 10 Amawo 5046.761|N 7027.109|E 194
VES 11 Umuobiala 5043.204|N 7028.276|E 192
VES 12 OgwahiaUturu 5049.947|N 7025.277|E 114
VES 13 AmaukoUturu 5048.883|N 7026.337|E 127
VES 14 UgwuntaOvim 5044.297|N 7032.347|E 177
VES 15 UmuebereajaEluama 5043.887|N 7027.602|E 176
VES 16 Ndi Oro AmiyiUhu 5045.386|N 7029.491|E 174
VES 17 ObunaebereNkumeEluama 5043.777|N 7026.462|E 177
VES 18 AmokweAmaba 5043.796|N 7031.308|E 210
VES 19 UmuebereNkume 5043.525|N 7026.563|E 157
VES 20 ABSU Junction 5050.000|N 7023.490|E 267

underlined, has smaller groundwater potential. The Ajali Where, ρa = apparent resistivity, G = the geometric factor, R =
Formation towards Ndi-Ogu Eluama, Umuobiala and resistance, V = potential difference.
Umuama is highly permeable, dominated by sand and
has weathered top of higher groundwater availability Collection/physicochemical analyses
when compared to the other Formations here. Also,
shales of the Nsukka Formation provide aquiferous units Ten borehole water samples were collected in different communities
because of the secondary porosity established by the of the researched area. Most boreholes sampled are situated
intrusion deed developing linear fractures and cross- mainly within a sedimentary formation in the district.
Physicochemical analysis was carried out mainly to evaluate the
cutting (Chukwu, 2008). groundwater quality of the area. Two litres of water samples were
collected in clean plastic containers already rinsed with the same
water to be sampled. Two water samples were collected at each
STUDY METHODS location. Preceding the sample collection, the boreholes were
pumped for a minimum of five minutes to guarantee the collection
Resistivity survey of a representative sample. Samples were collected and labeled in
Vertical Electrical Sounding (VES) using Schlumberger configuration plastic polyethylene bottle containers tightly corked. The choice of
is one of the reliable electrical resistivity techniques in hydro- plastic containers is to ensure minimal contamination. The samples
geophysical studies. The Global positioning system (GPS) positions were taken to the laboratory for analysis within 24 h.
and VES locations are shown in Table 1. The determination of the physicochemical properties of the water
Fundamentally, four electrodes (two current electrodes (AB) and samples was carried out by established standard methods. These
two potential electrodes (MN)) and a resistivity meter were placed properties encompassed Temperature, pH, Electrical conductivity,
as shown in Figure 3 during the survey. The survey was done by Total Dissolved Solids (TDS), Total Suspended Solids (TSS), Total
increasing the current electrode spacing which implies increment Solids (TS), Turbidity, Total hardness, Dissolved Oxygen (DO),
and recording the corresponding resistivity values at each depth of Total alkalinity, Cations (Magnesium, calcium, potassium, sodium),
investigation. The apparent resistivity () is computed as guided by Anions (bicarbonate, nitrates, sulphates, chlorides), and Trace
Equations 1 and 2 (Adetola and Igbedi, 2000; Ezeh et al., 2022; metals (manganese, iron).
Omali et al., 2000); Measurements of temperature were conducted using mercury in
a glass thermometer. The conductivity of the samples was
AM = BN (1) determined utilizing a conductivity meter, with the probe being
immersed in the sample container until a consistent reading was
obtained and recorded. The pH value was determined through the
ρa = π Or ρa = GR (2) use of a pH Meter, specifically the PBS–51 model from EL–Hama
instrument. Turbidity, on the other hand, was determined utilizing a
88 Int. J. Phys. Sci.

Figure 3. Diagrammatic representation of Schlumberger array (Chinwuko et al., 2015; 2016).

standardized Hanna H198703 Turbidimeter. As for the Cations VES results

(Ca2+, Mg2+, K+, Na+, Fe2+, and Mn2+), 100 cm3 of the water
sample underwent pre-concentration through vacuum heating until
a reduction to 25cm3 occurred. Determination of these Cations was
The field curves generated by the interpreted VES data
then performed using the Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer are shown in Figures 4 to 7. While the summary of VES
(AAS). The Anions (SO42-, HCO3-, Cl-, and NO3-), on the other data interpretation and geoelectric section were shown in
hand, were determined utilizing the digital titration method. Table 2 and Figures 4 to 7 respectively. Figure 8 shows
the interpreted geoelectric section result interpreted from
the curve.
Statistical background
The results geoelectric sections (Figure 10 and Table
The generated datasets underwent analysis using summary and 2) of the various VES stations in the researched area
descriptive statistics, such as average, range, and standard were created to show the various lithologic layers;
deviation, to compare them against recommended standards for thicknesses within the depths penetrated and
drinking water. Several models, including the Piper diagram, Durov characteristic resistivity values. The profiles were taken
diagram, and Scholler diagram, were employed for the identification along the AA1, BB1, CC1, DD1 and EE1 directions
of hydrogeochemical facies and the determination of the dominant
ions influencing groundwater chemistry in the area. The Piper (Figure 9). The geoelectric section AA1 that passes
diagram, established by Piper (1944), is a renowned method for across the NW-SE direction of the researched area cut
categorizing water samples based on groundwater facies and other cross VES 3, 8, 12, 13 and 14 (Figure 10). The
criteria, illustrating the relative abundance of common ions. interpretative cross-section of AA1 shows three to five
Additionally, the Durov diagram, a hydrogeological visualization geoelectric layers. The first layer has a resistivity value
technique, presents major ion percentages in milli-equivalents
through two trilinear graphs that form additional two-dimensional
ranging from 174 to 718 Ω.m with a thickness that varies
projections. Furthermore, the application of multivariate statistics from 0.6 to 8.9 m and is composed of predominantly top
involved the utilization of the correlation matrix and Principal sandy soil. Underlining the first layer is a shale unit with
Component Analysis, by the research conducted by Akakuru et al. resistivity values that vary from 9.2 to 5310 Ω.m in VES 3
(2023). and sand in other VES locations. The third layer with
resistivity range of 13.1 to 718 Ω.m and a thickness
between 12.8 and 66.1 m.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The base bottom was not reached and has a resistivity
value range of 15.1 to 1980 Ω.m. It was interpreted as
Geophysical results and discussions: Interpretations water shale. The interpretive geoelectric section of BB1
of VES results across the southeast-northwest direction is made up of
ata from VES 6, 9, 10, 16 and 18 (Figure 10). The
Twenty VES sounding was done within the selected geoelectric sections also show four to five geoelectric
communities and computed using the IPI2 WIN software layers. The sections have resistivity values ranging from
package (Bobachev, 2002; Usman et al., 2015). Hence, 133 to 487 Ω.m and are characteristic of topsoil in the
apparent resistivity ( ) (on the Y axis) was plotted southeastern part and weathered shale at VES 16.
against half current electrode spacing (on the X axis). Beneath the topsoil layer towards the southeastern part,
 Chizobaa et al. 89

Figure 4. VES 1, 2, 3 and 4 curves.

Figure 5. VES 5, 6, 7 and 8 curves.

lateritic sand with a relative resistivity range of 17.9 to sand. It is followed by a third layer with a resistivity range
7900 Ω.m was observed under the top soil which does of 76 to 8100 Ω.m and thickness between 22.3 and 96.6
not extend to VES 10 and 14 is characteristic of lateritic m. The next unit with resistivity values ranging from 7.6 to
90 Int. J. Phys. Sci.

Figure 6. VES 9, 10, 11 and 12 curves.

Figure 7. VES 13, 14, 15 and 16 curves.

4140 Ω.m is presumed to be saturated sandstone in VES has a resistivity value ranging from 202 to 5020 Ω.m with
6, 10 and 18, and identified as dry sandstone at VES 9 thickness varying from 0.6 to 2.9 m characteristic of top
and shale at VES 16. The basal unit at VES 9 is the sandy soil. Beneath the topsoil is the lateritic sand, with a
saturated sandstone and shale at VES 16. resistivity range of 920 to 3420 Ω.m. This is underlain by
The geoelectric section across the CC1 profile is made dry sand with a resistivity range between 260 and 28500
up of data from VES 4, 7, 11, 15 and 20. The geoelectric Ω.m and a thickness range of 28.1 to 66.4 m. The basal
section shows four to five geoelectric layers. The topsoil layer whose bottom was not reached in VES 4, 7, 11 and
 Chizobaa et al. 91

Table 2. Summary of geoelectric results.

VES point Layer Resistivity(Ωm) Thickness(m) Depth(m) Inferred lithology

1 137 1.2 1.2 Top soil
2 1840 7.3 8.5 Dry sand
1 3 309 33.9 42.4 Silty sand
4 2000 102 144 Sandstone
5 221 ∞ ∞ Saturated sand

1 276 2.4 2.4 Top silty soil

2 2 13.3 4.4 6.8 Weathered shale
3 15.9 ∞ ∞ Shale

1 314 4 4 Top silty soil

3 2 9.2 20 24 Silty shale
3 13.1 ∞ ∞ Shale

1 1200 0.7 0.7 Top sandy soil

2 3950 17.3 18 Lateritic sand
4
3 7740 53.3 71.3 Dry sand
4 2020 ∞ ∞ Saturated sand

1 1110 3.5 3.5 Top soil

2 23800 7.7 11.2 Dry sand
5 3 16500 23.3 34.5 Hard sand
4 4340 54.3 88.5 Wet sandstone
5 3900 ∞ ∞ Saturated sand

1 196 0.7 0.7 Top soil

2 840 9.9 10.6 Lateritic soil
6
3 340 60.4 71 wet sand
4 1200 ∞ ∞ Saturated sand

1 202 0.6 0.6 Top silty soil

2 970 16.2 16.8 Lateritic sand
7
3 28500 66.4 83.2 Dry sandstine
4 3490 ∞ ∞ Saturated sand

1 400 8.9 8.9 Top soil

2 126 20.4 29.3 wet sand
8
3 106 27.9 57.2 shaly mudstone
4 15.1 ∞ ∞ Shale

1 487 1.4 1.4 Top sandy soil

2 1060 7.7 9.1 wet sand
9 3 165 24.1 33.2 silty sandstine
4 4140 87.4 121 Dry sandsand
5 102 ∞ ∞ saturated sand

1 106 2.8 2.8 Top soil

10 2 7900 21.4 24.4 Dry sand
3 3230 43.4 67.6 wet sand
92 Int. J. Phys. Sci.

Table 2. Cont’d

4 2160 ∞ ∞ Saturated sand

1 265 0.6 0.6 Top soil

2 920 9.4 10 Lateritic soil
11
3 3880 28.1 38.1 Dry sand
4 1840 ∞ ∞ Saturated sand

718 0.8 0.8 Top sandy soil

1
2 5310 2.8 3.6 Sandstone
12
3 53.5 17.8 21.4 Hard sand
4 45.8 29.9 51.3 Weathered shale
5 9.8 ∞ ∞ Shale

1 174 1.4 1.4 Top soil

2 519 5 6.4 Lateritic sand
13
3 10.4 12.8 19.2 shaly mudstone
4 15.7 ∞ ∞ Shale

1 236 0.6 0.6 Top soil

2 1190 4.5 5.1 Dry sand
14
3 718 66.1 71.2 Sandstone
4 1980 ∞ ∞ Shaly sandstone

1 444 2.9 2.9 Top soil

2 1520 12.5 15.4 Lateritic soil
15 3 260 34.9 50.3 Wet sand
4 1170 87.5 138 Hard sand
5 148 ∞ ∞ Saturated sand

1 151 4.7 4.7 Weathered shale

2 17.9 10.1 14.8 Mudy shale
16 3 76 22.3 37.1 shaly mudstone
4 7.6 52.5 89.6 silty shale
5 17.4 ∞ ∞ Shale

1 271 0.7 0.7 Hard ironstone

2 1470 8.4 9.1 Lateritic sand
17 3 191 29.7 38.8 Silty sand
4 1270 47.2 86 wet sand
5 5730 ∞ ∞ Saturated sand

1 133 1.4 1.4 Top soil

2 1020 24.8 26.3 Lateritic soil
18
3 8100 96.6 123 Dry sand
4 2590 ∞ ∞ Saturated sand

1 890 0.7 0.7 Top soil

19 2 1170 17.5 18.2 Stony laterite
3 3840 41.4 59.6 Silty sand
 Chizobaa et al. 93

Table 2. Cont’d

4 2090 88.4 148 wet sand

5 5240 ∞ ∞ Saturated sand

1 5020 1.8 1.8 Top soil

2 3420 21.5 23.3 Lateritic sand
20
3 19300 86.1 109 Dry sand
4 5090 ∞ ∞ Saturated sand

Figure 8. Geoelectric section VES 1-VES 20.

94 Int. J. Phys. Sci.

Figure 9. Accessibility map of the study area showing VES points and various profiles.

Figure 10. Geoelectric correlations of profile CC1 and BB1 cross-section taken along
the northwest- southeast direction of the area of study.
 Chizobaa et al. 95

20 has resistivity values between 1840 to 5090 Ω.m. It Figures 11 and 13 show the distribution of the depth to
was interpreted as water-saturated sandstone which is water-table computed from the VES results. The water
the prospective aquifer unit of interest. Although saturated table depth is higher towards the Southern part of the
sandstone in VES 15 is in the fifth layer. The geoelectric researched area, thus, high prospect for groundwater
section across the DD1 profile is composed of five towards this area. The VES location is shown in Figure 9.
geoelectric layers in the study area. The geoelectric
section is made up of VES 1, 5, 17 and 19. The topsoil
thickness is relatively thin along this profile and ranges Physicochemical results
between 0.7 and 3.5 m while the resistivity values range
between 137 and 1110 Ω.m. The next layer has a The results of the physicochemical analysis are shown in
resistivity value range of 1170 to 23800 Ω.m and a Table 4. Low pH of the water (more acidic) may lead to
thickness range of 7.3 to 17.5 m. The third layer which metal corrosion. The pH values gotten ranged from 3.9 to
varies in resistivity from 191 to 16500 Ω.m with thickness 7.8. 40% of the total samples are within the World Health
values that varies from 23.3 to 41.4 m has a predominant Organization (WHO) permissible limit for potable water,
composition of silty sand. The underlying layer is except a few samples that have pH values below the
interpreted as wet sand with resistivity values ranging WHO neutral value (pH 7) as the acceptable pH for
from 1270 to 4340 Ω.m. The basal layer whose depth drinking water is between 6.50 and 8.50 as shown in
was not reached has a resistivity value between 221 and Table 4 (WHO, 2006). The result was compared
5730 Ω.m. It was interpreted as water-saturated favourably with the report by Akakuru et al. (2022),
sandstone which is the prospective aquifer unit of Anudu et al. (2008). The electrical conductivity (EC) value
interest. Three horizons were delineated in VES 2 from shows the acceptable limit of 500 μS/cm given by the
the EE1 profile. The first layer has a resistivity value of WHO for the entire borehole sample. EC is a pointer of
276 Ω.m and a depth of 2.4 m. This layer is the topsoil. soil saline content and water quality, therefore the
The next layer has a lower resistivity value of 13.3 Ω.m. equitably low values analyzed in some water samples
This layer is interpreted to be weathered shale with a suggest low saline content; therefore, the waters are
thickness of 4.4 m. The last layer is interpreted as shale adequate for domestic and agricultural usage. These
with a low resistivity value of 15.9 Ω.m, though the base values obtained are similar to those reported values by
was not reached. Anudu et al. (2008) and WHO/UNEP/UNESCO/WMO
A profile along BB1 and CC1 was taken across the 1998. Total dissolved solids (TDS) values were in the
NW-SE flank of the study area to determine the range of 25.95 to 56.65 mg/L, it contains inorganic salts
comparative correlation within the researched area using (mainly calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), potassium (K),
geoelectric sections. The correlation of geoelectric sodium (Na), trioxocarbonate (HCO3), chlorine (Cl) and
sections along CC1 was modelled (Figure 10) and it sulphur (S)) and little quantity of organic matter dissolved
reveals that the thickness of laterite within VES 20 is in water. The TDS values are predominately below 500
higher when compared with that of VES 4, 7, 11 and 15. mg/L which falls within the WHO permissible limit for
The water table is shallower at VES 11 and VES 4 with potable water. The sample from borehole 5 had the
depth to water table occurring at 38.1 to 71.3m, while highest TDS while the sample from borehole 8 had the
VES 7, 15 and 20 with depth to water table ranges from least. It was detected that an increase in EC resulted in
83.2 to 138 m are the deepest part. The lithologic facies increasing TDS. These results compare favourably with
are top soil, lateritic sand, dry sand, wet sand and the works of Iheme et al. (2018b) and Udoh et al. (2021).
saturated sand. Hence, the depth auriferous unit is DO, sample 8 has the maximum concentration. The DO
continuous within this area, and the aquifer units in the values range from 7.15 to 7.98 mg/L, and most of the
area are capable of yielding good water for human use. samples DO are below the WHO permissible limit, except
Meanwhile, the correlation along BB1 in the NW-SE for a few samples with DO values slightly above WHO
direction (Figure 10) shows the high thickness of topsoil acceptable limit. Chlorides in drinking water are mostly
at VES 10. The deepest depth to a saturated unit within from natural sources, industrial wastes and sewage.
this region is at VES 18 (Amokwe Amaba), whereas VES Salinity (Cl-) is a major anion in water, and excess of it
6, 9 and 10 have shallower saturated units. The might cause edema (swelling of plant organs or parts).
auriferous layers are unremitting with several lithology The result gotten for chloride ranges from 6.2 to 24.11
changes around the researched area and can produce an mg/L. These ranges of values are below the acceptable
optimum amount of water. value of 200 mg/L by the WHO and by Emmanuel and
Maps of the apparent resistivity and depth were Nurudeen (2012). Also, the factor measured for the
prepared using interpreted VES results. The map of appropriateness of water for livestock farming is total
resistivity variation is shown in Figure 11, while the 2-D dissolved solids. The Australian standards for livestock
and 3-D depth maps are shown in Figures 12 and 13. water (Hamill and Bell, 198l, 2016), we concluded that
Similarly, the 2-D and 3-D water-table depth maps in the water is appropriate for livestock farming with TDS
96 Int. J. Phys. Sci.

Figure 11. Resistivity map of the study area.

Figure 12. The water table depth map.

Figure 13. 3-D Wireframe water table depth map of the study area.
 Chizobaa et al. 97

Table 3. Results of physicochemical characteristics of groundwater in Isuikwuato.

Parameter pH Ec,μS/cm TDS (mg/L) Ca, (mg/L) Mg (mg/L) Cl (mg/L) SO4 (mg/L) NO3 (mg/L) DO (mg/L) K (mg/L) Na (mg/L) Fe (mg/L) HCO3 (mg/L)
BH1 5.1 84.3 54.8 6 0.6 19.85 6.03 4.08 7.86 3.2 4.8 0.01 18
BH2 7.4 59.93 38.95 7.6 0.6 19.85 0.47 3.31 7.2 1.3 2.14 0.01 21
BH3 5.7 81.96 53.27 6 0.6 18.43 3.11 2.23 7.64 2.4 3.75 0.01 17
BH4 7.6 65.15 42.35 8.4 0.6 22.69 0.58 4.42 7.35 1.4 3.02 0.02 21
BH5 5.9 87.12 56.65 5.2 0.6 7 2.01 1.8 7.15 0.1 5.01 0.02 17
BH6 5.4 78.5 51.3 5.6 0.6 7.4 4.27 2.4 7.59 0.5 3.18 0.02 15
BH7 7.8 63.8 41 8.8 0.9 6.2 1.82 6.4 7.42 0.4 3.85 0.03 27
BH8 5.7 39.9 25.95 6 0.6 21.98 0.95 1.1 7.98 1.8 2.2 0.03 14
BH9 3.9 45.3 29.45 3.6 0.3 16.31 1.2 8.4 7.95 2.5 2.3 0.01 11
BH10 7.2 58.6 38.9 8.4 0.9 24.11 0.67 5.6 7.78 1.5 2.9 0.02 26
BH11 5.1 84.3 54.8 6 0.6 19.85 6.03 4.08 7.86 3.2 4.8 0.01 18
BH12 7.4 59.93 38.95 7.6 0.6 19.85 0.47 3.31 7.2 1.3 2.14 0.01 21
BH13 5.7 81.96 53.27 6 0.6 18.43 3.11 2.23 7.64 2.4 3.75 0.01 17
BH14 7.6 65.15 42.35 8.4 0.6 22.69 0.58 4.42 7.35 1.4 3.02 0.02 21
BH15 5.9 87.12 56.65 5.2 0.6 7 2.01 1.8 7.15 0.1 5.01 0.02 17
BH16 5.4 78.5 51.3 5.6 0.6 7.4 4.27 2.4 7.59 0.5 3.18 0.02 15
BH17 3.9 45.3 29.45 3.6 0.3 16.31 1.2 8.4 7.95 2.5 2.3 0.02 11
BH18 7.2 58.6 38.9 8.4 0.9 24.11 0.67 5.6 7.78 1.5 2.9 0.02 26
BH19 5.1 84.3 54.8 6 0.6 19.85 6.03 4.08 7.86 3.2 4.8 0.01 18
BH20 7.4 59.93 38.95 7.6 0.6 19.85 0.47 3.31 7.2 1.3 2.14 0.01 21
Mean 6.12 68.48 44.60 6.50 0.62 16.96 2.30 3.97 7.58 1.63 3.36 0.02 18.60
Min 3.90 39.90 25.95 3.60 0.30 6.20 0.47 1.10 7.15 0.10 2.14 0.01 11.00
Max 7.80 87.12 56.65 8.80 0.90 24.11 6.03 8.40 7.98 3.20 5.01 0.03 27.00

<100 mg/L. Hence, the plot of the borehole Water facies type mixed dominant ionic specie. In the cation area,
samples analytical on the US salinity diagrams 75% of the total water samples had Ca2+ as their
(Richards, 1954) shows that most of the analyzed The piper trilinear plot is one of the most useful dominant ionic specie, while 25% of the samples
samples are within the acceptable field of C1S1, graphical displays in groundwater quality analyses had mixed dominant ionic specie (Figure 15).
under low salinity and low Na hazard (Figure 14). (Piper, 1944). Compared to other current plotting According to the Piper diagram, the region is in
This reaffirms the outstanding nature of the water approaches, it clarifies chemical interactions and the geochemical zone 1 (Alkalines earth exceed
for irrigation purposes irrespective of the soil and improves understanding of the geochemistry of Akalines). Rocks holding chlorides, agricultural
without exchangeable Na danger. Also, it shallow groundwater (Akakuru et al., 2017). runoff, industrial wastewater, oil well waste,
compares favourably with the reports by Paschal Within the anion area, 85% of the total water effluent wastewater from wastewater treatment
et al. (2014), Anudu et al. (2008) and Usman and sample in the area is Cl- dominant, whereas 10% plants, and road salting are a few sources of
Omali (2019). are HCO3- dominant and 5% of the sample had chlorides that can enter surface water. Metals can
98 Int. J. Phys. Sci.

Table 4. Pearson correlation matrix results for the physical and chemical parameters of the groundwater samples.

pH Ec TDS Ca Mg Cl SO4 NO3 DO K Na Fe HCO3

pH 1.00
Ec -0.11 1.00
TDS -0.11 1.00 1.00
Ca 0.94 -0.10 -0.09 1.00
Mg 0.69 0.15 0.16 0.78 1.00
Cl 0.23 -0.39 -0.38 0.39 0.08 1.00
SO4 -0.55 0.71 0.71 -0.37 -0.08 -0.24 1.00
NO3 -0.16 -0.52 -0.52 -0.05 -0.16 0.19 -0.21 1.00
DO -0.64 -0.25 -0.24 -0.39 -0.17 0.31 0.39 0.40 1.00
K -0.48 -0.04 -0.04 -0.25 -0.33 0.61 0.43 0.31 0.71 1.00
Na -0.24 0.86 0.85 -0.18 0.17 -0.37 0.70 -0.28 -0.02 0.08 1.00
Fe 0.22 -0.30 -0.30 0.20 0.36 -0.32 -0.31 0.01 0.00 -0.56 -0.08 1.00
HCO3 0.86 0.01 0.02 0.93 0.88 0.26 -0.29 0.06 -0.36 -0.26 0.01 0.16 1.00

Figure 14. Salinity diagram of the groundwater in the research area.

be corroded by chlorides, and they can also change the Ca (s) + 2H2O (g) -> Ca(OH)2 (aq) + H2 (g)
flavour of food. Consequently, there is a suggested
maximum chloride level for water that is processed for Calcium hydroxide, which dissolves in water as soda, and
use in industry or any other purpose. Freshwater lakes hydrogen gas are the products of this process.
and streams can become contaminated by chlorides. Degradation events are additional crucial calcium
High quantities of chlorides are toxic to fish and aquatic reaction processes. These typically happen when there is
communities. Due to its buffering properties, calcium carbon dioxide. Calcium carbonate is normally insoluble
serves as a pH stabilizer in addition to being a key factor in water. Calcium compounds are impacted by the
in water hardness. A nicer taste is also added to water by formation of carbonic acid when carbon dioxide is
calcium. Elementary calcium reacts with water at room present. The following is the carbon weathering reaction
temperature by the following reaction mechanism, in mechanism:
contrast to magnesium, which is directly above calcium
on the periodic table: H2O+CO2 -> H2CO3 and CaCO3+H2CO3 -> Ca(HCO3)2
 Chizobaa et al. 99

Piper Diagram

Legend

80

%
A BH1

80
%
J BH2

60

%
P BH3

Ca
+C

60
%
J BH4

+M
4
SO
BH5

40

%
O

g
40
P

%
L BH6
B
J
O
O
KJ
B
I BH7
20

%
EJ
P B
K

20
% L
C A
E P BH8
BH7 B BH9
I O O BH10
E BH11
O BH12
E BH13
B BH14

20
%

O BH15
20

%
80% 80% C BH16
Na

3
O
HC
K BH17

40
%
+K
40

SO
60% 60% K BH18
Mg

4
60 J BH19
%
60

%
40% 40% B BH20
80
%
80

20% 20%
BH7 L
C J
A
E
O
K
I PC
BB
J
OJ LEPO
B
KA
E
J O PK
E
I O
KJBP
JB
B
%

%
80

60

40

20

20

40

60

80
%

Ca Cl

Figure 15. Piper Trilinear plot.

and the total reaction mechanism: the Pearson correlation analysis results (Table 4) reveal
a strong correlation between PH and Ca, Mg, SO4, DO, K,
CaCO3 (s) + CO2 (g) + 2H2O (l) -> Ca2+ (aq) + 2 HCO3- HCO3; Ec and SO4, NO3; TDS and SO4, NO3, Na; Ca and
(aq) Mg, HCO3; Mg and HCO3; Cl and K, SO4 and Na; NO3
The product is calcium hydrogen carbonate. and DO; DO and K; K and Fe. This strong correlation
Many academics have utilized Durov diagram to detected from the result proposes the likelihood of similar
characterize the hydrogeochemical composition of sources of enrichment for the parameters. Hence, this
groundwater. Its effectiveness has long been recognized. implies that the indicators emanated from common
The Durov plot in Figure 16 demonstrates how similar the natural or anthropogenic sources. These results compare
Durov is to the Piper diagram. It also demonstrates that favourably with the results of Anizoba et al. (2015);
there is ionic exchange occurring within the groundwater Gopinath et al. (2018) and Yuan et al. (2014).
zone. This research agrees with that of Nigerian
researchers Anudu et al. (2008); Akakuru et al. (2022)
and Piper (1944). Schoeller semi-logarithmic plot Principal component analysis
(Akakuru et al., 2023; Iheme et al., 2018a) in the study
area shows the hydrogeochemical evolution trend of Cl-> The PCA is an essential tool for identifying designs,
HCO3-+CO32-> Ca2+>Na++K+> SO42> Mg2+. The analyzing the variation of networks of connected
dominance of Cl- in the research area could be from man- components, and further isolating the Eigenvalues and
made or natural sources. Ca2+ source could be attributed Eigenvectors (loadings) for head parts from the change
to dissolved rock minerals containing Ca2+, particularly that they are subject to (Yuan et al., 2014). It illustrates
from, dolomite, limestone and gypsum (Cheng et al., the relationship between the factors to pinpoint the most
2016; Akakuru et al., 2017). likely sources of groundwater contamination in the review
area. There were found to be three important principal
components. In the analysis interpretation, every loading
Multivariate statistics that is more than 0.4 (+ or -) is regarded as having been
a substantial contributor (Akakuru et al., 2022). According
The correlation matrix and the Principal Component to Table 5, loadings were present for 37.42% of the
Analysis were utilized for this study. In the present study, parameters in PP1, 65.60% of the parameters in PP2, in
100 Int. J. Phys. Sci.

Durov Diagram
100% SO4 Legend

20

%
20
A BH1

%
J BH2

50

%
P BH3

50
%
J BH4
TDS (mg/L) O BH5

80

H C 0%
L BH6

3
%

O
8
A L C

Cl
JE I BH7

7.2

7.3

7.4

7.5

7.6

7.7

7.8

7.9

8.0
P
E O I P BH8
C a 0% PK
BB
JBJK
O
B BH9
8
%
50 BH7 O BH10
BH8
JB
O
B E BH11
%
20 K
O
IPJ JB
PB
JK
OO I J
O
B J I
B O
K P
L
C L
C L
C O BH12
100% Mg

OP
E P
E P
E
AB
K
JE K A O
B JE O A
JE K
B E BH13
B BH14
%
20 O BH15
% C BH16
50
K BH17
%
80 K K BH18
+
Na J BH19
B BH20
pH

Figure 16. Durov plot.

PP3, it had 75.23 loadings. The findings of this PCA Nurudeen, 2012; Omali et al., 2018a). The findings of
suggest that loadings within the groundwater system may Iheme et al. (2018a, b) and Omali et al. (2018b) in their
have resulted from anthropogenic activities in the area independent groundwater contemplates in South Africa,
that are changing the chemistry of the water. Nigeria, and Tunisia, respectively, are consistent with this
result.

Suitability of the groundwater for irrigation purposes

Percentage sodium (%Na+)
Five irrigation suitability parameters were calculated to
ascertain the fitness of the groundwater sources for The increase in %Na+ is deemed unsuitable for the water
irrigation purposes: system but demonstrates a cation exchange with
magnesium and calcium in the soil (Aikpokpodion et al.,
2010). The waste and porosity of the dirt are reduced by
Sodium Absorption Ration (SAR) this trade. In dry conditions, the dirt is somewhat
extreme, and dampness on the dirt reduces air and water
The salt content of water is crucial for irrigation since it dissemination (Akakuru et al., 2017; Todd, 1980). Alkaline
influences plant growth. In the presence of carbonate and soils are created when sodium chloride is present in the
salt, alkaline soils will develop. Saline soil is created presence of inorganic carbon, and these soils eventually
when salt and chloride are combined (Akakuru et al., turn saline. These types of soil are not suited for plant
2023). Similar to this, sodium is absorbed by clay growth (Anudu et al., 2008). Therefore, a key factor in
surfaces to produce alkaline earth minerals. establishing whether groundwater is suitable for irrigation
By altering the soil's structure, which makes it compact is the sodium content of agricultural products. With a
and impermeable and considerably slows down plant mean of 41.32 and a standard deviation of 10.17, the
growth, this is accomplished (Yuan et al., 2014; Zhu et percent Na+ values (percent) in Table 6 range from 29.55
al., 2019). The various cycles, including ionic trade to 55.17. The boxplot in Figure 18 shows how the percent
responses in soil, must be made clear by SAR. In the Na values in the data are distributed. Since the overall
study, SAR values (meq/L) from groundwater range sample meets the criterion for groundwater quality and is
between 1.49 and 4.16, with a mean of 2.58 and a less than 20, the groundwater in the research region is
standard deviation of 0.90 (Table 6) while Figure 18 is the suitable for irrigation. This result confirms the SAR finding
Boxplot showcasing how the SAR values in the data are that all of the measured groundwater is very suitable for
spread out. It is rated as excellent for irrigation in the irrigation.
research area based on the SAR data (Emmanuel and The outcome is consistent with and comparable to
 Chizobaa et al. 101

Table 5. PCA values.

Components
Parameter Communalities
1 2 3
pH 0.96 0.91 0.33 0.13
Ec 0.98 -0.47 0.86 0.14
TDS 0.97 -0.46 0.86 0.14
Ca 0.96 0.85 0.29 0.39
Mg 0.76 0.63 0.52 0.32
Cl 0.82 0.27 -0.44 0.74
SO4 0.84 -0.76 0.40 0.32
NO3 0.42 0.08 -0.62 0.17
DO 0.64 -0.45 -0.54 0.38
K 0.96 -0.50 -0.43 0.73
Na 0.80 -0.50 0.72 0.16
Fe 0.42 0.42 0.02 -0.49
HCO3 0.94 0.78 0.38 0.42
Eigenvalues 0.79 2.35 3.56
Variance (%) 37.42 28.21 9.60
Cumulative var. (%) 37.42 65.63 75.23

Table 6. Irrigation parameter values for individual samples.

Parameter SAR %Na MH KR SSP

BH1 3.74 54.79 9.09 0.73 54.79
BH2 1.49 29.55 7.32 0.26 29.55
BH3 2.92 48.24 9.09 0.57 48.24
BH4 2.01 32.94 6.67 0.34 32.94
BH5 4.16 46.84 10.34 0.86 46.84
BH6 2.55 37.25 9.68 0.51 37.25
BH7 2.47 30.47 9.28 0.4 30.47
BH8 1.71 37.74 9.09 0.33 37.74
BH9 2.33 55.17 7.69 0.59 55.17
BH10 1.9 32.12 9.68 0.31 32.12
BH11 3.74 54.79 9.09 0.73 54.79
BH12 1.49 29.55 7.32 0.26 29.55
BH13 2.92 48.24 9.09 0.57 48.24
BH14 2.01 32.94 6.67 0.34 32.94
BH15 4.16 46.84 10.34 0.86 46.84
BH16 2.55 37.25 9.68 0.51 37.25
BH17 2.33 55.17 7.69 0.59 55.17
BH18 1.9 32.12 9.68 0.31 32.12
BH19 3.74 54.79 9.09 0.73 54.79
BH20 1.49 29.55 7.32 0.26 29.55
Mean 2.58 41.32 8.69 0.5 41.32
Min 1.49 29.55 6.67 0.26 29.55
Max 4.16 55.17 10.34 0.86 55.17
Stdv 0.9 10.19 1.18 0.2 10.19
102 Int. J. Phys. Sci.

Schoeller Diagram
K
O
J
B
P Legend
0.5
A
E
O
J
B
P
E
IK B
K IK A BH1
O J
O
B BH2
J
O
B J
J
O
B P BH3
A
E
J
P
E
O J
A
P
E
L
C A
E
J J BH4
L
C O O BH5
P E
P
O
0.2 C
L
O L BH6
B
K I B
K IB
J I BH7
O
K P BH8
L
C
P
J
O
B B BH9
A
E
J
O BH10
0.1
E BH11
meq/kg

L
C O BH12
I
O
K E BH13
P
E B BH14
0.05 O BH15
A
L
P
E
O
C
J
B
C BH16
O
I K BH17
K BH18
J BH19
B
K B
K B BH20
0.02
P

K
O
J
B
0.01
J
O
B
SO HCO3 Cl Mg Ca Na + K
4

Figure 17. Schoeller semi-logarithmic plot of the ionic trend in the research area.

Figure 18. Boxplot showing the irrigation parameters.

previous research from China, Italy, Pakistan, and India water system purposes, the risk of magnesium is a key
by Buckley et al. (1995), Chetelat et al. (2008) and Yuan factor. Too much magnesium in the water causes
et al. (2014). pungency, which slows down plant growth and
productivity (Akakuru et al., 2017).
An MH proportion of greater than 50 is deemed
Magnesium hazard unacceptable, hazardous, or inappropriate for use in the
water supply. However, an MH convergence of 50 is
When determining the water reasonableness limit for deemed suitable for a water system (Akakuru et al.,
 Chizobaa et al. 103

2023; Egboka, 1986). The MH values varied from 6.67 to AK-type, KH-type, KHK-type, QQ-type, KQQ-type, KQ-
10.34, according to Table 6, with a mean of 8.69 and a type, HK-type, HKH-type, KHA-type and AKH-type. It is
standard deviation of 1.18, while Figure 18 the Boxplot observed that the AK-type curve predominates the study
shows how the MH values are distributed across the area especially areas overlain by Ajali Formation. The
data. As a result, 100% of the samples had a minimum interpretative cross-section of AA1 shows three to five
age of 50, indicating that they are suitable for use in geoelectric units. The top-most unit is characterized by
water systems. This result is consistent with studies resistivity values ranging from 174 to 718 Ω.m with
conducted by Richards (1954), Udoh et al. (2021), Zhu et thickness that varies from 0.6m to 8.9m and is composed
al. (2019) in China, and Akakuru et al. in Nigeria in 2022. of predominantly top sandy soil. The second unit has
However, it does not align with research conducted in resistivity values that vary from 9.2 to 5310 Ω.m contains
China (Yuan et al., 2014). silty shale in VES 3 and sand in other VES locations. The
third unit with resistivity range of 13.1 to 718 Ω.m and a
thickness between 12.8 and 66.1 m. The base layer
Kelly's ratio bottom was not reached and it has a resistivity value
ranging from 15.1 to 1980 Ω.m. It was interpreted as
Based on its effectiveness in determining the shale. Again, the correlation along BB1 in the NW-SE
appropriateness of groundwater for irrigation, KR has direction (Figure 10) shows the high thickness of topsoil
been a genuine instrument (Akakuru et al., 2017). Any at VES 10. The deepest depth to a saturated unit within
result below one is good for irrigation, whereas any value this region is at VES 18 (Amokwe Amaba), whereas VES
above one indicates that the amount of Na in the 6, 9 and 10 have shallower saturated units. Mostly, the
groundwater is high. With a mean of 0.50 and a standard auriferous zone is continuous with numerous facie
deviation of 0.26, Table 6 reveals that KR values vary changes within the research area and can produce an
from 0.26 to 0.86, while Figure 18 is a boxplot illustrating optimum amount of water.
how the KR values in the data are distributed. The resistivity map of the study area reveals high
Additionally, this outcome demonstrates that the entire resistivity towards the Northwest, Southeast and Southern
sample of groundwater is acceptable for irrigation. The parts of the research area. Also, the 2-D and 3-D water-
outcome supports the conclusions reached by other table depth maps reveal a higher concentration of
irrigation assessment methods, all of which concur that contour lines towards the Southern part of the research
the water is acceptable for irrigation. This finding is in line area. Hence, the water-table depth maps revealed a high
with those of Emmanuel and Nurudeen (2012) in India hydraulic gradient towards the Southern part of the
and Azuoko et al. (2023) in Nigeria. But this result runs researched area. It can be concluded from the research
counter to what Akakuru et al. (2022) found in South that the VES method can be used not only for
Africa. groundwater exploration but also contributes to the
identification of various geologic units. This study has
revealed different subsurface layers, and the nature of
Soluble Sodium Percentage (SSP) groundwater quality in the Isuikwuato area From the
physicochemical analysis, most of the physical and
SSP has been utilized by scholars in the assessment of chemical parameters of the groundwater in the research
the suitability of groundwater for irrigation purposes. It area fall within WHO (2006) guidelines for drinking water
assesses the percentage of soluble sodium in and the analytical data plotted on the Salinity diagram
groundwater. SSP less than 50 is suitable for irrigation, (Baba et al., 2018; Chinwuko et al., 2016; Short and
while above 50 is considered unsuitable. The result from Stauble, 1967) template depicts that all the groundwater
Table 6 shows that SSP values range between 29.55 and samples are within the field of C1S1 (under low salinity
55.17 with a mean of 41.32 and a standard deviation of and low Na hazard), indicating that the samples are
10.19 while Figure 18 is the Boxplot showcasing how the within the excellent class.
SSP values in the data are spread out. The result shows The hydrogeochemical characterization of the study
that 75% of the samples are safe and suitable for area is the anion area, 85% of the total water sample in
irrigation, while 25% are not. SSP aligns with other the area is Cl- dominant, whereas 10% are HCO3-
irrigation assessment tools. This result is in agreement dominant and 5% of the sample had mixed dominant
with the work of Akakuru et al. (2023) done in the Niger ionic specie. In the cation area, 75% of the total water
Delta Nigeria. samples had Ca2+ as their dominant ionic specie, while
25% of the samples had mixed dominant ionic specie.
According to the Piper diagram, the region is in the
Conclusion geochemical zone 1 (Alkalines earth exceeds Akalines).
The Durov plot also demonstrates that there is ionic
The researched area is characterized by curves H-type, exchange occurring within the groundwater zone with a
104 Int. J. Phys. Sci.

hydrogeochemical evolution trend of Cl-> HCO3-+CO32-> data in parts of Anambra State, Nigeria. International Journal of
Innovation and Applied Studies 11(4):832-843.
Ca2+>Na++K+> SO42> Mg2+. This strong correlation
Anudu GK, Obrike SE, Onuba LN (2008). Physicochemical quality of
observed within parameters detected from the result groundwater in Abagana and its environs, Anambra Basin,
proposes the likelihood of similar sources of enrichment southeastern Nigeria. International Journal of Chemical Sciences
for the parameters. PCA values indicated loadings were 1(2):296-301.
Azuoko GB, Nwanekezi-Phil CG, Usman AO (2023). Assessment of
present for 37.42% of the parameters (PP) in PP1, Near Surface Corrosivity and Competence within Alex Ekwueme
65.60% of the parameters in PP2, and in PP3, it had Federal University and Environs, Southeastern Nigeria Using
75.23 loadings. The irrigation suitability of the Electrical Resistivity Method. FUNAI Journal of Science and
groundwater in the area showed that the water is suitable Technology 6(1):58-70.
Baba Y, Omali AO, Usman AO (2018). Geochemical and Geophysical
for agriculture based on SAR, %Na, MH, KR, and SSP
Investigations of Kaolin Deposits of the Maastrichtian Mamu
results. This study, therefore, suggests or recommends Formation, Northern Anambra Basin, Nigeria. International Journal of
that the government should leverage this to the Geophysics and Geochemistry 5(2):45-52.
availability of clean water and food to the people to Bobachev A (2002). IPI2win- a window software of an automatic
interpretation of resistivity sounding data. PhD Thesis, Moscow State
enable it to achieve its food agriculture and clean water
University 55:1-78.
policies in tandem with the sustainable development Buckley NA, Dawson AH, Reith DA (1995). Controlled release in
goals (SDGs). overdose: clinical considerations. Drug Safety 12(1):73-84.
Chetelat B, Liu CQ, Zhao ZQ, Wang QL, Li S, Li J, Wang BL (2008).
Geochemistry of the dissolved load of the Changing Basin Rivers:
Anthropogenic impacts and chemical weathering. Geochemical and
CONFLICT OF INTERESTS Cosmochemical 72(3):4254-4277.
Chukwu GU (2008). Water quality Assessment of Boreholes in Umuahia
The authors have not declared any conflict of interests. South Local Government Area of Abia State. The Pacific Journal of
Science and Technology 9(2):592-594.
Chinwuko AI, Anakwuba EK, Okeke HC, Onyekwelu CU, Usman AO,
Osele CE, Iheme OK (2016). Assessment of Hydrogeophysical and
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Geotechnical Properties in Central Part of Anambra State, Nigeria.
International Journal of Geophysics and Geochemistry 3(2):6-13.
The authors extend their sincere gratitude to Prof. Chinwuko AI, Anakwuba EK., Okeke HC, Usman AO, Ovwasa MO,
Izuchukwu Obiadi, Department Head of Nnamdi Azikiwe Okoye IF (2015). Geo-electric Investigation for Groundwater Potential
in Awka Anambra State, Nigeria. International Journal of Science for
University's Applied Geophysics Department, for granting
Global Sustainability 1(1):85-95.
us permission to utilize their equipment for conducting the Davis SN, Deweist RJM (1966). Hydrogeology. John Wiley and Sons,
geophysical survey. Additionally, they appreciate Kogi Inc. 463 p.
State University's Department of Earth Sciences Egboka BCE (1986). Hydrogeochemistry of shallow wells and
st
surfacewaters of Owerri and its environs. production. 1 Symposium
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