REPRODUCTION AND GROWTH IN PLANTS

Reproduction is the process by which living things give rise to new individual of their own
kind.
NB. Reproduction is important because it ensures continual existence of the species.
Type of reproduction
✓ Sexual reproduction
✓ Asexual reproduction (vegetative reproduction)
Sexual reproduction is the process in which the nuclei of male and female gametes or sex cells
fuse to form a zygote. The zygote grows and develops into a new individual of the same kind.
Asexual involves the development of a new plant from a vegetative part of a plant, e.g. a piece
of stem used as a cutting develops into a new plant.
The Structure of a flower
A flower is a sexual reproductive organ of a plant. A flower carries out a number of sexual
reproductive processes leading to the production of seed/seeds.
A flower develops from a flower bud. Depending on the position of the flower bud, a flower
may be described as terminal when it is located at the tip or apex of the stem, Axillary when
it is found in the axil of a leaf or cauline when it is directly on the stem. A flower may be
solitary(single) or in cluster(groups). A cluster is called an inflorescence.
An inflorescence is a group of flowers having a common stalk.
A sessile flower is a flower that lacks a stalk.
A flower bears floral leaves arranged in concentric circles called whorls. The floral leaves are
attached to a receptacle, which is the swollen tip of the pedicel.
Generally, a flower has four (4) whorls:
✓ Calyx
✓ Corolla
✓ Androecium
✓ Gynoecium
CALYX
The calyx is the outermost whorl and consist of sepals. Sepals are small and green in colour in
most flowers.
The calyx protects the flower at the bud stage and supports the inner whorls.
COROLLA
This lies inside the calyx and consists of petals. In some flowers the co rolla and calyx are
similar in size and colour and cannot be distinguished from one another. Each is then called a
perianth segment and together they form the perianth.
 ANDROECIUM
This is the whorl immediately inside the corolla. It consists of stamens (the male sex organs).
Each stamen consists of anther and a filament. The anther produces the pollen grain. The
filament is a stalk that supports the anther.
GYNOECIUM
It consists of one or more carpels (pistil). The carpel is the female sex organ of the flower and
produces the female gametes.
Each carpel/pistil consist of three parts: ovary, style and stigma.
Monocarpous is flower that consist of only one carpel. E.g. pride of Barbados, flamboyant etc.
Apocarpous is gynoecium that consist of many free carpels.
Syncarpous is gynoecium that consist of many fused carpels.

Generalized flower structure

Parts of a flower and their functions

SEPAL
The sepal serves as protective cover for the floral parts of the flower at the bud stage.
PETAL
Petal attracts living agents such as a birds and insects to cause pollination in the flower. Petal
protects the sexual and essential parts of the flower at the bud stage
STAMEN

• The stamen the male part of the flower and it consist of the anther and filament.
• The anther produces and stores pollen grains
• The pollen grains appear as yellowish powdery material
• The pollen grains contain the male gametes or male sex cells
• The filament is the stand that holds or supports the anther at the suitable position for a
successful pollination
• The functions of stamen is that it produces the male sex cell (male gametes) or pollen
grains.

The stamen

PISTIL

• The pistil is the female part of the flower

• It consists of stigma, style and ovary
• The ovary contains a number of tiny structures called ovules
• The function of the pistil is that it produces the female sex cell (female gametes) or
ovules

STIGMA: the stigma receives the pollen grains during pollination.

STYLE: the style is the long stock that holds or support the stigma at a suitable position for
successful pollination. It serves as a tube through which the pollen tube move during
fertilization
OVARY: the ovary develops to form the fruits
OVULES: The ovules in the ovary develops to form the fruit
 THE CARPEL
Thalamus or Receptacle: The thalamus supports or holds all the floral parts in position for
sexual reproductive process.
Pedicel: the pedicel is the stalk that attaches the entire flower to the parent plant. The pedicel
transports water and mineral salt from the parent plant to the flower.
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN FLOWERING PLANTS
Sexual reproduction in flowering plants is the use of fertilized seeds to produce new plants.
Importance of sexual reproduction
✓ It ensures continual existence of species
✓ It improves the quality of offsprings, and makes them resistant to diseases.
✓ It brings about variation in species or offspring.

FLOWERING GROUPS
Flowers can be grouped into the flowing
✓ Complete flowers
✓ Bisexual flowers
✓ Unisexual flowers
✓ Incomplete flowers
COMPLETE FLOWER
A complete flower is defined as a flower that has all the four floral parts. The floral parts are
calyx, corolla, androecium and gynoecium.
BISEXUAL FLOWER (hermaphrodite)
A bisexual flower is a flower that has both male and female parts on the flower. E.g. pride of
Barbados, flamboyant flower, beans, okro
INCOMPLETE FLOWER
An incomplete flower is a flower with one or more of the floral parts absent. E.g. pawpaw,
water melon etc.
UNISEXUAL FLOWER
A unisexual flower has either the stamen or the pistil but not both on the same flower.

POLLINATION AND FERTILIZATION OF FLOWERS.

POLLINATION
Pollination is the transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of a flower.
Types of pollination
1. Self-pollination 2. Cross pollination

Self- Pollination
Self – Pollinat ion is the transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of the same
flower or to the stigma of another flower on the same plant.
Cross pollination
Cross pollination is the transfer of pollen grains from the anther of a flower to the stigma of
another flower on a different plant of the same species.

Adaptations for self – pollination

✓ The flower is bisexual or hermaphrodite, i.e. the male and female parts are present in
the same flower. E.g. pride of Barbados, flamboyant.
✓ The anthers and stigmas mature at the same time (homogamy). E.g. tomato.
✓ The flower opens only after self – pollination has taken place. (cleistogamy)
✓ The flowers are concealed in the ground, e.g. some species of Commelina.

Adaptations for cross pollination

✓ The flowers are unisexual, i.e. only the male or female part is present in each flower.
✓ Each flower is bisexual, but the male and female parts mature at different times
(dichogamy). If the anthers the stigmas it is referred to as protandry. If the stigmas
mature before the anthers it is referred to as protogyny. E.g. sunflower, Tridax
✓ Each flower is self – sterile, i.e. pollen grains cannot fertilise their own flowers. E.g.
passion flower.
✓ The style of the gynoecium and the filament of the androecium differ in length.

Agents of pollination
The factors responsible for the transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma are
referred to as agent of pollination. The main agents of pollination are:
✓ Insects ✓ Wind ✓ animals
✓ Birds ✓ Water
characteristics of insect pollinated flowers
flowers pollinated by insects are identified by the following features;
✓ The flowers are usually large in size and are conspicuous (noticeable).
✓ The flowers are usually brightly coloured especially the petals.
✓ Limited number of pollen grains are produced per plant.
✓ The flowers are scented
✓ Present of nectar at the base of the flower.
✓ Pollen grains have rough or spiny surfaces. This enables them to attach to the body of
living agents.
✓ Filament and styles are usually stout and strongly built.
✓ The stigma has a sticky compact surface to hold the pollen grains well.
Examples of insect pollinated flowers
✓ Flamboyant ✓ Okro ✓ Pride of Barbados

Characteristics of wind pollinated flower

✓ Flowers are relatively smaller and in size and inconspicuous.
✓ Flowers are dull in colour.
✓ Large number of pollen grains are produced per flower.
✓ Pollen grains are lighter and have smooth surface.
✓ Stigma has large surface area which is usually hairy or feathery.
✓ Elongated filament, which is fragile.
✓ Absence of nectar at the base of the flowers which are scented.
Examples of wind pollinated flowers
✓ Grass ✓ Maize ✓ Oil palm

Differences between wind pollinated flowers and insect pollinated flowers.

Wind pollinated flowers Insect pollinated flowers

Flowers are small and inconspicuous Flowers are large and conspicuous
Petals are dull coloured Petals are brightly coloured
Flowers are usually not scented Flowers are usually scented
Feathery stigma present Compact sticky stigma present
Stamen have long thin filament Stamen have short, stout filament
Have no nectar Have nectar

Mechanism of pollination
During pollination, the pollen grains containing the male cells are deposited on the stigma
which is the female part of the flower. These male cells are carried down to the ovules where
fertilization takes place.
How do insects pollinate flowers?
When an insect visits a matured flower to collect nectar, pollen grains released by the matured
anthers are likely to attach to its long-tube like mouthparts (e.g. butterfly) or hairy body (e.g.
bee). These pollen grains are transferred to the stigma of another flower when the insect visits
it for nectar. As the insect pushes its way into the flower to reach the nectar at the base of the
filaments, its body brushes onto the sticky surface of the stigma which picks up the pollen
grains on its body. Pollination is complete when the pollen grain has landed o a stigma.

Advantages of cross pollination over self- pollination

✓ The seeds produced after cross pollination are healthier and grow better than those
formed from one parent.
✓ Pollen grains are brought from different flowers so that the seeds are varied.
✓ If the stamen and carpel ripe at different times, pollination is still possible.
✓ The seeds produced are resistant to diseases.

Advantages of self – pollination over cross pollination

✓ The pollen grains are transported over a very short distance and therefore the tendency
for the grains to fall without reaching the stigma to effect pollination is very slow.
✓ It does not require any agent of pollination.

Importance of pollination to farmers

✓ Pollination leads to fruit formation.
✓ Pollination aids in good yield of fruits.
✓ It brings about variation in plants.
FERTILIZATION
Fertilization in flower is the fusion of the nuclei of both male and female gametes to form a
zygote which is single diploid cell.
NB: Importance of fertilization is that it brings about the formation of seeds and fruits.
The process of fertilization
1. Pollen grains on the stigma absorb water and food nutrients from the stigma and expand
or get enlarged.
2. Each enlarged pollen grain germinates and produces a pollen tube.
3. The pollen tube penetrates the stigma, absorbs water and food nutrients from the style
and grow down through the style.
4. The pollen grain develops two nuclei namely tube nucleus and generative nucleus.
5. Both tube and generative nuclei are carried along in the pollen tube and always located
at the tip of the pollen tube.
6. The generative male nucleus divides into two nuclei but the tube nucleus later
disappears.
7. The pollen tube finally enters the ovule through the micropyle.
8. The tip of the pollen tube dissolves and the two male nuclei slip into the ovule.
 9. One male nucleus fuses with the egg to form a diploid zygote while the second male
gamete fuses with the two polar nuclei to form a triploid nucleus endosperm.

Double fertilization
Two female sex nuclei each fusing with a male nucleus is described as double fertilization.
THE SEED AND ITS PARTS
The Seed
A seed is a fertilized ovule. It is a reproductive structure that develop from ovule consisting of
an embryo, usually with stored food and protective enclosing tissue, called testa. The embryo
consists of a young embryonic root and shoot namely radicle and plumule respectively, and
one or two cotyledons. Depending on the species, the stored food may be found either in
cotyledons (as in broad bean) or in the endosperm (as in maize). It also has a micropyle which
is the place or cavity where water passes or absorbed during germination. The point of
attachment of the seed to the fruit is called hilum. A seed has a single natural external scar
which is the point of attachment to the placenta of the fruit.
In general, a seed has the following parts:
1. A seed coat or testa which covers the seed;
2. An inner seed coat or tegmen which may or may not be present;
3. A scar or hilum which marks the point where the seed was attached to the placenta of
the plant;
4. An opening in the testa called the micropyle;
5. An embryo which consists of the plumule, the radicle and cotyledon(s);
6. An endosperm, a food store aside the cotyledons, may be present.
A generalized seed

Types of Seeds
There are two major types of seeds namely;
1. Dicotyledonous Seed
2. Monocotyledonous Seed.
Dicotyledonous Seeds
The dicotyledonous seeds do not contain endosperm and are therefore called non-endospermic
seeds. Examples of such seeds are soya bean seeds, groundnut seeds, orange seeds and cowpea
seeds. In dicotyledonous seeds, the testa and pericarp are not fused together but instead
separated.

Monocotyledonous Seeds
These are seeds with two cotyledons. The monocotyledonous seeds contain endosperm and are
therefore called endospermic seeds.
Examples of endospermic seeds are maize, rice, wheat, millet and sorghum.
 Monocotyledonous seed (Maize)
Parts of seeds and their functions
Testa
It is extremely thin that covers the seed. It is fused together with the pericarp in monocots but
in dicot it is separated.
Functions of Testa
i. It protects the embryo or seed against external and mechanical damage.
ii. It helps to conserve water in the seed.
iii. It imbibes (or absorbs) water into the seed during germination.
Cotyledon
Function of Cotyledon
i. It stores food for the seed. The food stored could be protein, carbohydrate and oil.
ii. It is the site for digestion to enhance germination.
Plumule
The structure, like a leaf, built on an elongated structure, the top part of which is leaf-like is
known as the plumule.
Function of Plumule
The plumule grows out of the seed and develops to form the shoot system of the plant.
➢ Note that the shoot is the part of the plant that comes above the ground or soil.
Radicle
The lower portion of the plumule is called a radicle.
Function of Radicle
The radicle grows out of the sed and develops to form the root system of the plant.
Endosperm
The endosperm is the part of the seed that stores food substances in a form of starch.
Micropyle
This is a tiny opening below the radicle.
Function of Micropyle

• The micropyle imbibes or absorbs water into the seed mostly during germination.
• The micropyle is a hole through which the radicle emerges out during germination.
Hilum
The hilum is the external scar on the seed. It is the point of attachment of the seed to the placenta
of the fruit.
Function of Hilum
It connects the seed to the fruit or it is the point of attachment of the seed to the fruit.
Embryo of the seed
The embryo is made up of the plumule, radicle and cotyledon of the seed.
Differences between monocot seed and dicot seed

Monocotyledon Dicotyledon
Has one cotyledon Have two cotyledons
Pericarp and testa fused together Pericarp and testa are separated
Endosperm present always They may or may not have endosperm
present

Fruits
A fruit is defined as a matured ovary containing one or more seeds and has two natural scars.
A fruit is the seed-bearing structure in flowering plants formed from the ovary after flowering.
The main functions of fruits.

• Protection of seeds
• Dispersal of seeds
• Serving as source of food for animal and human consumption.
Parts of fruits
1. Two natural external scars being points of attachment to the fruit stalk and the position
of the old style.
2. Pericarp or fruit coat. This is further divided into three parts namely;
a. Epicarp – outer coat
b. Mesocarp – middle coat
c. Endocarp – innermost part
3. The seed or seeds inside the fruit.
How fruits are formed
Fruits are normally formed after pollination and fertilization. A fruit is a developed ovary which
usually contains one or more seeds. Although the fruit is normally formed from an ovary,
sometimes a fruit is formed both from an ovary and some other part of the flower. In some
plant species, the fruit is formed from parts of the flower other than the ovary. When a fruit is
formed from an ovary as in crotalaria, the fruit is referred to as a true fruit, but when it is formed
from parts of the flower other than the ovary; the fruit is referred to as a false fruit. An example
of a false fruit is cashew.
Types of fruits
There are several kinds of fruits. Some fruits are formed from only one fused ovary, while
some are formed from several separate carpels. Some other fruits are formed from the ovary
and other parts of the flower such as the receptacle. There are fruits with fleshy pericarps, while
there are others with dry pericarps. These differences form the basis for classification of fruits.
Thus, the figure below shows one way of classifying fruits.

FRUIT

Single fused ovary. Several separate carpel Ovary and other part fused.
E.g.; Mango fused. E.g.; Orange E.g.; Pineapple
Types of fruits
Classification of fruits
Fruits can be classified into many types as follow;
True and False fruits
True Fruits
A true fruit is one which develops from only the ovary of a flower and not any other part of the
flower. Examples of true fruits are pawpaw, mango, okro and tomato.
False Fruits
A false fruit is the one that develops from the ovary and other parts of the flower, such as the
receptacle and calyx. Examples of false fruits are cashew, pineapple, and apple.
Further classification of fruits
Apart from the above groupings, fruits can also be classified into three groups namely;

• Simple fruits
• Aggregate fruits
• Multiple (or composite) fruits.
Simple fruits
A simple fruit is one which develops from a single flower with a single carpel (ovary) or with
many fused carpels. Examples of simple fruits are tomato, orange, mango, coconut, beans, okro
and pawpaw.
Aggregate fruits
Aggregate fruit is one which develops from a single flower with many free or separate carpels.
Examples of aggregate fruits are cola, periwinkle and strawberry.
Multiple or composite fruits
A multiple fruit is a fruit which develops from many flowers on the same stalk. The flower of
such fruits are said to be in inflorescence. Examples of multiple or composite fruit is pineapple.
Dry and Fleshy fruits
Simple fruits can be further divided into dry fruits and fleshy fruits.
Dry Fruits
A fruit whose fruit coat or pericarp dries up at maturity or ripening stage. Examples of dry
fruits are cowpea, crotalaria, pride of Barbados, cassia and okro.
Fleshy or succulent fruit
A fleshy or succulent fruit has the entire or part of the fruit coat being juicy and fleshy. Such
fruits are usually edible and delicious. Examples of fleshy or succulent fruits are mango,
pepper, banana, guava, avocado pear and cashew.
Dehiscent and Indehiscent fruits
Dehiscent fruits
Dehiscent fruits are those fruits which split or open to release their seeds at maturity or ripening
stage. Examples of dehiscent fruits are flamboyant, pride of Barbados, beans, cotton, castor oil,
cassia, desmodium and crotalaria.
It should be noted that dehiscent fruits are usually dry fruits but sometimes some fruits dehisce
without necessarily drying up. Examples are balsam and apple.
Indehiscent fruits
Indehiscent fruits are those fruits which do not split or open during maturity. Most fleshy fruits
are indehiscent and some dry fruits are also indehiscent. Examples of indehiscent fruits are
mango, tomato, coconut, sunflower and tridax
Drupes and berries
Fleshy fruits can be classified into drupes and berries.
Characteristics of berries
1. A berry usually has many seeds, but some have a single seed.
2. A berry has a thin membranous epicarp (outer coat).
3. A berry has soft, succulent mesocarp and endocarp.
4. Endocarp and mesocarp are usually fused together without showing a distinct
difference.
Examples of berries

• Tomato • Pawpaw • Orange

Characteristics of drupes
1. The drupe has one seed
2. The drupe has hard woody endocarp
3. The drupe has fibrous and succulent mesocarp
4. The drupe has a thin epicarp
5. The endocarp is separated from the mesocarp
Examples of drupes

• Coconut • Mango • Oil palm fruit

Summary of fruits classification

Parthenocarpic fruits
Parthenocarpic fruits are seedless fruits or fruits whose seeds are not viable. This is because
their ovaries are not fertilized. They have seeds which are not viable. Examples are pineapple,
banana and plantain.

DISPERSAL OF SEEDS AND FRUITS

Dispersal of seeds (or fruits) is defined as the transfer or scattering or spreading of seeds from
the parent plant.
A plant often produces many fruits and seeds. Some of these are eaten by animals but many
survive eventually where they give rise to new plants. In some plants, example mango the ripe
fruits simply fall under the tree and many or the seeds germinate. This results in overcrowding.
The overcrowding results in competition among the seedlings on one hand, and among the
seedlings and adult plants on the other hand. The competition is for space, water, minerals and
light. In order to reduce this competition and overcrowding, fruits and seeds are usually
dispersed.
Advantages of dispersal of fruits and seeds
1. Overcrowding of plants close to parent plant is avoided.
2. Continuous survival of plant variety is assured.
3. Seeds are introduced to suitable grounds for successful germination.
4. New plants are introduced into a new ecological area.
5. Plants are spread to reduce rapid spread of epidemic diseases among crowded plant
seedlings.
6. Prevents destruction of plants by natural disasters.
7. Reduces competition among seedlings.
Disadvantages of dispersal of fruits and seeds
1. Some of the seeds and fruits dispersed may land on environment unsuitable for
germination and die.
2. Dispersal of most seeds and fruits depends on external agents, whose presence at the
right time cannot be guaranteed.
Agents of dispersal of fruits and seeds
The following are the agents of dispersal of seeds and fruits;

• Wind
• Running water
• Animal
• Explosive mechanism
Features of seeds or fruits dispersed by wind
The following features or characteristics make the seeds or fruits easy to be dispersed by wind;
1. They have small size
2. The seeds are usually dry and have relatively low densities.
3. Some of the seeds have wing-like structures that keep them floating. Examples are
combretum, tecoma cincoma, tridax.
4. Presence of parachute structure called pappus. Examples are Tridax, Chromolina
5. Possession of mass of hairs or silky threads or fluffy coverings called floss. Examples
are silk cotton, dandelion fruits, willow seeds.
Features of seeds or fruits dispersed by animals
1. Fruits are sweet, large in size, heavy and conspicuous.
2. Fruits are brightly coloured especially when ripe. Examples are mango, pepper,
pawpaw and tomato.
3. Fruits are quite succulent, containing sweet juice and are edible. Examples are pawpaw,
mango, guava and tomato.
4. Some fruits have hooks on the surface of the pericarp. Examples are love grass and
black jack.
5. Some fruits have sticky surface made up of adhesive hairs or glands. Examples are
pigweed, desmodium, flumbago, mimosa and needle grass.
6. Some seeds may possess seed coats that may persist in the digestive tract without being
digested. Examples are the seeds of pepper, garden eggs, tomato, guava, cocoa and
pawpaw. Examples of animals that disperse seeds or fruits are man, monkey, bat, bird,
rodent and insect.
Features of seeds and fruits dispersed by water
1. Fibrous or spongy mesocarp with air pockets to give buoyancy. Example is coconut.
2. Presence of large central cavity containing liquid and air. Example is coconut.
Features of seeds or fruits dispersed by explosive mechanism
Some seeds are dispersed by an explosive action that occurs when the fruit dries up throwing
out the seeds some metres away from the mother plant.
The fruits drying up, splitting open and scattering the dry seeds within. Pride of Barbados,
crotalaria, okro, balsan and rose periwinkle.